NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 1.16 Figure 1.23 Figure 1.24 South Atlantic For consolidation, study Figures 1.23 and 1.24. Note the relationship between the Great Circles ‘and the Rhumb Lines with respect to each other and to the Equator and the Poles. Note also the constantly changing direction of both Great Circle tracks GREAT CIRCLE DIRECTION ‘The direction of the Great Cirele over the Earth’ ssurface changes because of Farth Convergency (para 1.14). This is illustrated in the diagrams above and the sense of the change of direction can be written in simple rules which can be applied Tater in the syllabus to solve direction problems. In Diagram, the Great Circle tack from Seattle to Hong Kong has 2 westerly direction at Seattle of approximately 310°T, but at Hong Kong the direction of the Great Circle has decreased to approximately 210°T. Conversely, from Hong Kong to Seattle, the Great Circle starts in an easterly direction of approximately 030°T, and increases a Seatle to approximately 130°T. In Diagram, in the southern hemisphere, the westerly ditection of the Great Circle from Cape ‘Town to Santiago is approximately 240°T at Capetown but has increased to approximately 310°T at Santiago, Conversely the easterly direction from Santiago to Capetown has decreased from approximately 130°T at Santiago to approximately 060°t at Capetown. In all the above cases, note that the Great Cirele direction always changes towards the Equator. The following rules regarding Great Circle direction may be useful and the complete set of rules can be developed from a single rule by simply applying opposites. In the rules, the term ‘westerly’ meansany direction from 180°T(South) to 360°T(North) through 270°T (West); the term ‘easterly’ means any direction from 000°T(North) to 180°T(South) through 090°T(Eas0), (© Oxtrd Avision Services UnstesNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION In the Northern Hemisphere The direction of a Westerly Great Circle decreases. The direction of an Easterly Great Circle inereases. In the Southern Hemisphere ‘The direction of a Westerly Great Circle increases. ‘The direction of an Easterly Great Circle decreases. DISTANCE ON THE EARTH. Although pilots are normally interested in larger units of distance, ie, Kilometres (km), Statute Miles (sm) and Nautical Miles (nm), the JAA/CAA syllabii require the student to be able to use smaller units and to be able to interconvert metric and Imperial measures. Because many students will not have used the smaller Imperial measures of distance, the conversions below should be remembered. 1 metre(m) = 100 centimetres(cm) = 1000 millimetres (mm) I centimetre(em) = ‘10 millimetres mm) 1 metre(m) 3.28 feet (f) 1 foot (fi) 12 inches { ‘in’ or“) Linch 2.54 centimetres (em) 1 yard (vd) = 3 feet (A) Most of the above conversions can be made with sufficient accuracy using the Navigation Computer.{ CRPS or equivalent). ‘The Kilometre (km). The SI definition ofthe Kilometre (kim) is 1000 metzes when the metre (0m) is defined in terms of the speed of light asthe length of path travelled by light ina vacuum luring a time interval of I/ 299,792,458 th of a second -this is of litle use in navigation. The simpler navigation definition ofthe Kilometre is 1/10,000 th of the average distance on the Earth between the Equator and either Pole. Thus there are 10,000 km between the Equator and either Pole and the cixeumference of the Earth is 40,000 km. For conversions between Kilometres and Imperial units: 1 Kilometre (km) | metre (my 3280 feet (A) 3288 The Statute Mile (sm), The Statute Mile (sm) is defined in a Royal Statute of Queen Elizabeth the First (of England) and is $280 feet, Although the Statute Mile is widely used on the ground (, eg, in the UK and the USA, it has limited application to aviation, Indeed, its most ‘common use is to inform passengers in UK or US aizcrafi: how fast the aircraft is travelling in terms of the same units they use in their cars ie, statute mites per hour (mph). ‘The average distance from the Equator to either pole is 6200 sin; the circumference of the Earth is 24,800 sm. 1-19 (© Oxtord Astin Sansces LitesNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION ‘The Nautical Mile (nm) The nautical mile is the most important large measure of distance used ‘in aviation because it can be related directly to the angular measurements of the Latitudes Longitude graticule ofthe Earth. Unfortunately, the compression of the Earth sesuts in slightly varying measurements for the nautical mile. The variations are discussed below but, for the purposes of this course, fixed measures would be useful and the following are used ‘The ICAO definition of the nautical mile is that itis a measure of distance of 1852 metres. ‘The Standard Nautical Mile Is defined as a length of 6080 feet. (You may have noticed that 1852 metres converted to feet al a fuetor of 3.28 gives a value if 6074.56 feet, not 6080 feet. The explanation below should show how differences in the definitions arise but you should use the values above in JAA/CAA calculations). ‘Variations in the definition of the nai ‘The fall definition of the nautical mile is that length of are of a Great Circle which subtends an angle of one minute at the centre of curvature of the Earth's surface. Because the Earth is flatened at the Poles, the radius of curvature is increased and a greater are is required to subtend an angle of one minute at the centre of Curvature, hence a nautical mile is Tongest at the poles at about 6108 ft. The curvature of the Earth is greatest atthe Equator and the radius of curvature is less than elsewhere on the Earth. Consequently, the length of are required to generate an angle of one minute atthe centre of curvature is less at the Equator than elsewhere: a nautical mile is shortest at the Equator and measures about 6046ft, The average value , 6076.11, is known as the International Nautical Mile whieh equates 10 approximately 1852 metres. However, as stated before, for navigation calculations in this syllabus, the Standard Nautical Mile of 6080f¢ will be used. Because they all use Great Circle ares, the definition of the Nautical mile is similar to the definitions of Latitude and Longitude, Remember the following: (One minute of latitude ~ 1 nautical mile(nam) One degree of latitude = 60 minutes = 60 nm Bue (One minute of Longitud rom at the equator only. |AS there are 90° of Latitude change between the Equator and the Poles, the average distance between the Equator andl the Poles is 90 x 60 = $400mm ‘The circumference of the Earth at the Equator is 360 x 60 ~ 21,600nm 1-20 (© Oxf Aviation Serine LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Las 119 CONVERSION FACTORS ‘The method of converting between nautical mils, statute miles and kilometres using a CRPS Navigation computer or equivalent is explained in Chapter 3. The datums used on the CRPS are directly related to average distances onthe Earth between the Equator and the poles. Thus, the ‘tical mile (am) marker is placed at 54 (5400 the Statute mile (sm) marker isa 62 (6200 sm); the kilometre (km) is placed at 100 ( 10000 ken) Using an electronic calculator, it soften sufficient to remember the following: Tam = 1.85 km Tam 115 sm (Ex military personnel, particularly UK military, may remember the following conversions 66 nm 76 sm. 41nm 76 kn 4tsm 6 an ‘These conversions are also based on recognisable datuans, inthis ease the local speed of soun at sea level under ISA conditions, ‘Thus, on military navigation computers, the nautical mile marker is placed at 66 ( 661 ki); the statute mile datum is at 76 ( 761mph) and the kilometre datum is at 122 ( 1224 kph) ) GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCES ‘The Great Citele distance between any 2 points on the Earth can be caleulated using a general ‘equation involving spherical geometry this is notpart ofthe JAA/CAA syllabus Consequently, JAAICAA problems involving the calculation of great eirele distances are limited to those where the 2 points lie on the special great circles,ie, on the same meridian, on mevidian and ant ‘meridian, or on the Equator ‘There are S general cases illustrated in the following examples. nal the examples, consider the direction that is low - there may be some surprises! The latitudestongitudes for the named points are chosen to illustrate the example and are only in the approximate geographic “ball-park’ 1-21 {© Ord Aviation Services Lin tactNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example 1. Same meridian, same hemisphere, ‘What is the shortest (Je, great citele) distance between (A) London ( 5137N 00012W) and (B) Accra (0648N 00012)? ‘Note that both positions are on the same meridian (00012W). Draw a simple sectional diagram of the Earth as below using the Great Circle formed by the 00012WW meridian and its anti- ‘meridian (179488) although the latter is not needed for this example. WERIOAN. North Pole A, B: ‘Sout Pole Figure 1.25 ‘The positions of B ( 06°48" north of the Equator measured at the centre of the Earth,C.) and A. (51°37 north of the Equator) are shown both on the 00012'W meridian, The angular distance between them ( Change in Latitude or ch.Lat as explained in Paragraphl.12) is 51°37 - 06°48) = 44°49" South from A to B. To caleulate the Great Circle distance from A to B, convert the angular distance into linear distance using the rules given in Paragraphl.17 , ie, multiply the degrees by 60 and add the extra minutes, (44 x 60) +49 = 2689 minutes of latitude = 2689 nmis. Be prepated to convert this answer to km or smn as required by the question. Always Read The Flipping Question ( RTEQ) because although the basic calculation is done in nm, the Examiner ‘may want the answer in different units. 1-22 (2 oor Astabon Services LimitedNAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Example 2, Same meridian, different hemispheres. What is the shortest distance between (D) Durban ( 2930S 030308) and (FE) Leningrad (5947N 030308)? Again, note that both positions are on the same meridian but in this ease they are in opposite hemispheres, Draw a sectional diagram 2s below, North mean Pole [sme a Sout Pole Figure 1.26 ‘The chat is now 29°30' plus 59°47’ so the angular distance between D and B is 89°17 north from D. The linear distance is (89X60)+ 17 = $357 nm 1-23 (© Oxford Aston Series United