Introduction To Linear Algebra (5th)
Introduction To Linear Algebra (5th)
1 Introduction to Vectors 1
1.1 Vectors and Linear Combinations. 2
1.2 Lengths and Dot Products. 11
1.3 Matrices ......... 22
4 Orthogonality 194
4.1 Orthogonality of the Four Subspaces 194
4.2 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.3 Least Squares Approximations ... 219
4.4 Orthonormal Bases and Gram-Schmidt. 233
5 Determinants 247
5.1 The Properties of Determinants . 247
5.2 Permutations and Cofactors ... 258
5.3 Cramer's Rule, Inverses, and Volumes 273
iii
iv Table of Contents
!
u. i = cos 0
, v+w
u- [-i l v- Ul w - [ n-
X1 [ - ~
0
l
+ X2 [ ~
-1
l ~l
+ X3 [
1
= [ :~ -
X3 -
X1
X2
l· (1)
X1 = b1
- x1+x2 =b2
-x2 +x3 = b3
b ~ m
gives x ~ m
Cx = 1
[ -1
01
0 -1
- 10
1
i[ l
X1
x2
X3
=
rn
V
1
right weights :r1, .'.C2, x3, can produce
weights A- 1 b.
1
0
~1 0
0 ~1
1 0 0l [ Y2
Y1 l = [ C1C2 l
[ 1 1 0 •
1 1 1 Y3 C3
- ·
1 1 ol o 0cl
[11 1 [c2
[ 321
74c 011 3
-- --
The column picture combines the column vectors on the left side to
produce the vector b on the right side.
''
3[ t ]+ [ -~ ] = [ 1~ ] ·
=
o [ ~ ] +o [ j]
+2 [ ; ] = [ i].
1
I = [ 0
0
ol o0
0 1
l
After ~ =l
~ =8
Before elimination 8y =8
2 3
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
1
l X X
rn rn=
=
~]
~l m~ m.
P23
1 o ol
= [0 0 1 .
0 1 0
0
0 0
-4 1
3
1
E = [a
ol ol0 1 o ol
F= [ 0 1 0 .
b O l 0 C 1
0 0
1 0
2 1
3 3
1
[3
X
X
X]
X
4 X X
31
2
1
21 21
3 1
1 2
l
2 0
0 2
0 0
0 0
AB = [~ : :] [~ : :] = [ 0
00x 00x 00
l·
Multiply Ax = b by A - 1 . Then x = A - 1 Ax = A - 1 b.
FE= [-t
20
0
1
-4
(6)
2
2
~ ~] ➔ [~
1 -~ -~J ➔ [~
3
A= [ 1 3
1
1 1
1
1 3
l 2
B= [ 1 2
1
1 1
1
1 3
l C = [ 11 11 11
1 1 3
l
6
[ 6 G] [ 6.· 6 ]
() 6 6
,-1 1 [ ()
C = :36 6
2 0
3 0
0 6
0 7
2 1
A= [ 1 2 1
ll
1 1 2
1
A= [ 2 1 3
o ol and
ll
A= [ 11 21 2 .
0 0 1 1 2 3
1 -11
0
-~i
1 -1
0 0 1
1
T = [ -l
-1
2
ol
-1 r- 1 = 3
[2
2
2
ll
1
0 -1 2 1 1 1
1
<Al'J' ~ r (uJ' j ( IJ,) 97
1 0
2 1
1 2
0 1
1 U12/d1 U13/d1
1 U23/d2
dn
2 1
A= [ O 4 2 .
ol
6 3 5
1 1
[ 112=
ol [e11 l [d gl
ef ~ -
121 mnl i
1 c
A= [ 2 4 1 .
ol
3 5 1
A= [~
a
~ ~
b c
~] .
c
a b c d
3by 3 case 2 -1 - O
[
The determinant (K)(4K- 1 ) = - 1 2 1
l [3 2 ll [4 4 l .
2 4 2
of this K is 4 0 -1 2 1 2 3 4
S [1 2]
= 2 5 = S T and D [l 0]
= O IO = D T .
[~ ;] = [~ ~]
u;] = [~ ~]
Ps2P21 = [
1 1 1]
P21Ps2 = [1 1 l
P = [0o1 010 10ol
-.'• ·:.
PS= [451 46 6]5
2
3
and S = [ -1
2 -1
2 -1
ol .
0 -1 2
and
1 b
S= [b d
cl
e .
C e j
o 1 1]
A= [ 1 0 1 and
1 2
A= [ 2 4 1 .
ol
2 3 4 1 1 1
o 1 2]
A= [ O 3 8 .
2 1 1
00
0 ~j
- 1
1 0
'•ft
Plane = =
1
[0
ll [X1]
11 1 x2 = [b1]
b2 and [1O 11 ll [X1]
1 X2 = [b1]
b2
0 0 1 X3 b3 0 0 0 X3 b3
and 1 1
[O O 1
ll [X1]
x2 = [b1]
b2 .
0 0 1 X3 b3
!]
1 becomes U = [~ ~
t t
1 3
R= [ 0 O
0 0
C ;t: 4
=
1
A= [ l
o1 ol0
1 1 1
Vj = mv, mv, m m
= = V4 =
Vj = h] H] [j]
v, = V3 = V4 = [-I] V5 = u] [j]
V6 =
A= [101 33l 212] and U = [100 30l 02]1 .
B - [c cl] .
cl C
5 0
0 1
5 1
:;;t
J .• ·-
J
and B-[J
A,
w
I
C(A) _l_ N(AT)
dimension
all vectors
orthogonal to
the columns
dimm-r
3rows
row S\lace
33 Suppose I give you eight vectors r1, r2, n1, n2, c1, c2, l 1, l2 in R 4.
o o ol
Pi= [0 0 0
0 0 1
I
b
I
I
p =xa
and e = b- p = ( ig ' - !g ' - !9 ) .
=
2
column 8Pace
h1 :::::: 6
Pi :::::: 5 e b - 5 - Jr
best lin -
=
=
=
l
~ ""'[>-
/
/
'
,,"/
/
''
/
a ~ H] and b ~ U] and c ~ H] .
1
- 1
-1 -1
1
1
1 - 1 - 1-~]
1
= =
A=
l
[1
1 2 3
1
2
ll
2 A= [l 2 3]
2
3
2
3
3
3
.
<let [l
n+l
n
----=
2
1 21 1
[1 1 2 1
j
1 1 1 2
B = [14 42 3]4
5 6 7
B= [41 25 63] .
7 0 0
M= [-B0 A]I = [ABO A]
I
[-BI OJ .
I
0 1
0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
Find x = A - 1b Check [ ~ !][_~ ]= [ ~ ]
detB2
x2 = -d-et_A_
----
L
Ya
X1 Y1
1 -
- X2 Y2
2
X3 Y3
(0,0)
I
I
1 4
A= [ 2 3 97
2 2 8
l 1 1
A= [ 1 1 21
1 1 1
l
Ci
1
(a) A= [ O 3
2 ol
O (b) A = [-
2 -1
l
ol
2 - 1 .
0 7 1 0 -1 2
1 1 4]
A= [l 2 2 C= [ .
6 -3
1 2 5
.' •
•
~.
·• I
. '\ -
. .
for >-1 = 0
- ::::- - .:;;.;:;;;; -
A = [01 21 ] and A- 1 = [-1112/2 10 ].
4 8 4
l
A= [ 31 62 3 and B = P APT = [682 431 43]1 .
P= [L0 0
.... Ax1 = x1
\ I
,\1
x - 1 Ax = A = [
[~~] [~i] -
A X =
] =XA.
>-n
[1 5] = [1 l][1 ][1-lJ= [1
0 6
k
0 1 6k O 1 0
6k -
6k
l]= Ak
.
1
-Yn-1
------- - - Yn
- Yn + l
Forward
(llF)
Yn+l = Yn + flt Zn
Zn+I = Zn - flt Yn
[ 1
becomes U n+l = - flt
flt][z:
1
Y, ]
= AUn · (12)
Backward
Yn+ l = Yn + .6.t Zn+ l
Zn+l = Zn - .6.t Yn+ l
--
--
db
[al [o1 0o0o0ol [alb
dt ~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
d [ y]
dt y'
[ 0 1] [y'y] .
= -9 6
u = [t]
B
o
= [o -4]
0
. [ 1 -b;.t/2 ] [ Yn+l ] _ [ 1 6;.t/2 ] [ Yn ]
Trapezoidal 6;.t/ 2 1 Zn+l - - b;.t/2 1 Zn ·
A3 =
2
[ -1
0
-1
2
- 1
o
-1
2
l 1
...
9
B = [ 12
1
~1
-1
0
S
2
= [- 1
- 1 ol
2 - 1 T
2 -1
= [-1 2 - 1 .
bl
0 -1 2 b - 1 2
x+y =X
J2
10] .
S4 = [ 101 101
2
S= [ 2 5 3 .
2 o]
0 3 8
5 = [
C
1
1 1]
C 1 T= [1 d2 3]
2 4 .
1 1 C 3 4 5
' '
t 3 ol
T= [ 3 t 4 .
0 4 t
S = 9 o1 ol S= [ 1 21 2ll .
1
[0 2
0 2 8 1 2 7
101 - •
r
The input is v = (v1 , v2 , V3).
v,~~v) ➔
T(v3)
\ -~
,;. -), ~ w ) v,
lnp~t
basis
[vi v = [ 33 6]
2]
8
[ w 1 w 2 ] [ B ] -_ [v
l • [ 3
v 2 ] 1S 1 0
2 ] [ 11 23 ] -_ [ 3
3 6
8] .
0 1 0
Ac= [ 0 0 2
0 0 0
2
?
= o o
[0 0
0 0
1
0
0
l
0l
~
ll l
.\
1
~: = ,\
2
ll
.\
1
~:
2
= ,\ x
4
when A = 1.
J = [ 02 21 0]
1
0 0 2
J=
l O 01 00 00
0 1
0
J K= l
O 01 01 00
0 0
0
J
.' -. ,,
I,
=
iz l2 = 12 + 12 = 2
[
1
e-Li/3
e -21ri/ 3
l
.
S = [. 0
i +1
1-
1
i]
2n
\8
~3] [~
w6
w9
1
l
1
i
i2
i3
1
w
w2
w3
[1
= 1
1
-1 -i] [1 1 i ] [1
1 i2 ] 1
F4 ~ i\ 1 1.
F 1024 = [ h12
I
D512] [Fs12 ]
512 - D 512 F,512
[o00 001 o01 ol01 [11 1i
1 i2
i12
i4
i13
i6
l
=
[11 1i
1 i2
i12
i4
i13
i6
l [>11 A2
A3
1 0 0 0 1 i3 i6 i9 1 i3 i6 i9
ol
0
0
-+ [-1
0
0
=
s
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
The dot product of x ::: 0 and s =c - A '1' y ::: 0 gave x'I' s 2 0. This is xT AT y ~ xT c.
Algebra
(b)
Graphics
by
2 0 - 1 1 - 0 _ 1 -0 _ 2 0
[ 2 1 ] -1 =2 [ -2 2 ] = 2 [ -2 2 ] = [ 2 1 ] (mod 3) ·
A= [ 1l o
1 1
o
1 O
1
l B = [ 01 1l o
1 0
1
1
l 1
1
1
C= [ O O 1
0
1
0
l
=
-11 -1 1
1 - ~ .
- --
3 2
3 2
2 2
1 1
ForA- 1
2
ll
0 ------+ [1 1 ll
0 3 2
2 0 2 4
3
a32 =0 a32 = 2
.6
Q,,A = r -.8
0
Q,1Q21A =[
1 0 ll
A= [ 2 2 0 .
0 2 0
PKPT = [ DT
2I
'•
XT A Ax _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
T - ------
- x'T"x
--·
...
F = l
. a
✓
- - 2N.,,,..;.,
_ ....__ _ _ _ _ _ ___,__ --I-----+---+----+---+--
1 1) 4 1 4 6 4 1
(
2+ 2 = 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 + 16 = 1.
p = [ Pu
P21
P 12 ] =
P22
[ ¾ ¾
.!
4
.!
4
l
n
i i
i
- I
(x - m1) 2 (y - m2) 2
2o-f 2o-~
-I
X = b"
X = b2
X = b3
1][ 9 4 J[::]
I
(72
v-1 = [ 1
a12
C