MMR QUESTION BANK

1. What is research. Explain the types of Research

Research is a systematic and organized process of collecting and analyzing information in order
to discover or contribute new knowledge, solve problems, or validate existing theories or
assumptions. Research can be conducted in various fields, including science, social sciences,
humanities, business, and technology.

There are two main types of research:

1. Quantitative Research: This type of research involves collecting numerical data and
analyzing it using statistical methods. It is used to test hypotheses, identify patterns
and relationships, and make predictions. Examples of quantitative research include
surveys, experiments, and content analysis.

2. Qualitative Research: This type of research involves collecting non-numerical data

such as texts, images, and observations. It is used to explore subjective
experiences, meanings, and contexts. Examples of qualitative research include
interviews, focus groups, and ethnography.

There are several subtypes of research within each of these main types, including:

Quantitative Research:

1. Descriptive research: This type of research aims to describe or characterize a

population, phenomenon, or process. It does not involve manipulation of variables or
testing of hypotheses. Examples include opinion polls, demographic studies, and
case studies.

2. Experimental research: This type of research involves the manipulation of one or

more variables in order to measure the effect on another variable. It is used to test
cause-and-effect relationships. Examples include clinical trials, lab experiments, and
A/B testing.

3. Correlational research: This type of research involves measuring the degree of

association between two or more variables. It is used to identify patterns or
 relationships between variables, but does not establish causality. Examples include
surveys, cohort studies, and case-control studies.

Qualitative Research:

1. Phenomenological research: This type of research aims to describe the subjective

experiences of individuals or groups. It involves collecting data through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, or observations, and analyzing it for common themes and
meanings.

2. Grounded theory research: This type of research aims to generate a theory or

explanation based on data collected from the field. It involves a systematic process
of data collection and analysis, with the aim of developing a theoretical framework
that explains the observed phenomena.

3. Ethnographic research: This type of research involves studying a particular culture or

community by immersing oneself in it. It involves participant observation, interviews,
and analysis of cultural artifacts, with the aim of understanding the social, cultural,
and economic dynamics of the community.

Overall, the type of research used depends on the research question being asked, the
availability of resources and data, and the research goals.

2) Define Research. State the objectives of research. RESEARCH IN SIMPLE TERMS, IN

CONTEXT OF MEDIA, MMR STARTED IN PSYCHOLOGY, WHAT YOU SEARCH IN MMR –
SIDES OF RESEARCH

Research refers to the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to discover
new knowledge or validate existing knowledge. It involves using various methods, techniques,
and tools to investigate a problem or phenomenon and drawing conclusions based on the
evidence gathered.

The objectives of research can vary depending on the nature of the research and the goals of
the researcher. Here are twelve possible objectives of research, along with examples:

1. To explore and understand a phenomenon: For example, a researcher may conduct

a qualitative study to explore the experiences of patients with chronic illnesses.
2. To describe a phenomenon: For example, a researcher may conduct a survey to
describe the prevalence of smoking among teenagers.
3. To identify the causes of a phenomenon: For example, a researcher may conduct a
case-control study to identify the risk factors for breast cancer.
4. To test a theory or hypothesis: For example, a researcher may conduct an
experiment to test the hypothesis that sleep deprivation impairs cognitive function.
 5. To evaluate an intervention or treatment: For example, a researcher may conduct a
randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a new medication for
treating depression.
6. To compare two or more groups or conditions: For example, a researcher may
conduct a study to compare the effectiveness of two different exercise programs for
improving cardiovascular health.
7. To predict future events or outcomes: For example, a researcher may use statistical
models to predict the future incidence of a disease based on current trends.
8. To develop new methods or tools: For example, a researcher may develop a new
measurement tool for assessing the quality of life of cancer patients.
9. To monitor trends or changes over time: For example, a researcher may conduct a
longitudinal study to monitor changes in mental health symptoms among college
students over four years.
10. To generate new ideas or theories: For example, a researcher may conduct a
grounded theory study to develop a new theoretical framework for understanding the
experiences of individuals with disabilities.
11. To validate existing knowledge or theories: For example, a researcher may conduct a
replication study to confirm the findings of a previous study.
12. To inform policy or practice: For example, a researcher may conduct a study to
provide evidence for the development of public health policies aimed at reducing the
prevalence of obesity in children.
13. To fill gaps in existing knowledge

3. What do you understand by research design. Explain exploratory/descriptive/causal.

Research design refers to the overall strategy or plan that a researcher uses to conduct a study.
It involves making decisions about the research question, sampling, data collection methods,
and data analysis techniques. A well-designed research study can increase the likelihood of
obtaining valid and reliable results.

There are three types of research design: exploratory, descriptive, and causal.

1. Exploratory Research Design: Exploratory research is often used when the

researcher is uncertain about the nature of the problem or phenomenon being
studied. The objective of exploratory research is to gain a deeper understanding of
the problem or phenomenon and generate initial ideas or hypotheses. Exploratory
research can involve a range of methods, including literature reviews, interviews,
focus groups, and case studies. It is typically conducted in the early stages of a
research project to inform the development of a more precise research question and
study design.
2. Descriptive Research Design: Descriptive research aims to describe the
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. The objective of descriptive research
is to provide a detailed and accurate picture of the phenomenon being studied.
Descriptive research can involve a range of methods, including surveys,
 observational studies, and secondary data analysis. Descriptive research is often
used in social science research to examine the prevalence of particular attitudes,
beliefs, or behaviors in a population.
3. Causal Research Design: Causal research aims to establish a cause-and-effect
relationship between two or more variables. The objective of causal research is to
identify the factors that contribute to a particular phenomenon or behavior. Causal
research typically involves experimental or quasi-experimental designs, where the
researcher manipulates one or more independent variables and observes the effects
on the dependent variable. Causal research is often used in medical and
psychological research to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or treatments.

In conclusion, research design is a crucial aspect of the research process that involves making
decisions about the research question, sampling, data collection methods, and data analysis
techniques. Exploratory research is used to gain a deeper understanding of a problem or
phenomenon. Descriptive research is used to describe the characteristics of a population or
phenomenon. Causal research is used to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two
or more variables. Each type of research design has its own strengths and limitations and
should be chosen based on the research question and objectives.

4. State the need and advantages of Research Design

Research design is a critical aspect of the research process that involves making decisions
about the research question, sampling, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
The design of a research study can significantly impact the validity and reliability of the results
obtained. Here are some of the reasons why research design is essential:

1. Ensures a clear research question: A well-designed research study begins with a

clear and precise research question. This helps to ensure that the study is focused
and can be conducted efficiently.
2. Increases the validity of the results: The use of appropriate research design can
increase the validity of the results obtained. Validity refers to the extent to which a
study measures what it is supposed to measure. For example, using a randomized
controlled trial design can help to establish the causal relationship between an
intervention and an outcome.
3. Increases the reliability of the results: Reliability refers to the extent to which a study
produces consistent results over time. By using appropriate research design,
researchers can increase the reliability of the results obtained.
4. Helps to avoid bias: Bias can occur when the design of a study is flawed, leading to
inaccurate or misleading results. By using appropriate research design, researchers
can minimize the risk of bias.
5. Determines the appropriate sampling technique: The design of a research study
determines the appropriate sampling technique to be used. This helps to ensure that
the sample is representative of the population being studied.
6. Determines methodology – qualitative or quantitative
 7. Determines the appropriate data collection methods: The design of a research study
determines the appropriate data collection methods to be used. This helps to ensure
that the data collected is relevant and reliable.
8. Determines the appropriate data analysis techniques: The design of a research study
determines the appropriate data analysis techniques to be used. This helps to
ensure that the results obtained are analyzed appropriately and accurately.
9. Helps to identify potential ethical issues: The design of a research study can help to
identify potential ethical issues that may arise during the study. This helps to ensure
that the study is conducted ethically and that the rights of the participants are
protected.
10. Helps to optimize resources: The design of a research study can help to optimize
resources, such as time and money, by ensuring that the study is focused and
efficient.
11. Provides a framework for reporting the results: The design of a research study
provides a framework for reporting the results obtained. This helps to ensure that the
results are presented clearly and accurately.

In conclusion, research design is essential in ensuring that a research study is focused, efficient,
and produces valid and reliable results. By using appropriate research design, researchers can
minimize the risk of bias, identify potential ethical issues, optimize resources, and provide a
framework for reporting the results obtained.

5. Explain review of literature as a stage of research process.explain steps in review of

literature

Review of literature is an essential stage in the research process that involves identifying and
analyzing existing research on a particular topic or research question. The review of literature
helps to identify gaps in knowledge, establish the significance of the research question, and
inform the development of the research methodology. Here are the steps involved in conducting
a review of literature:

1. Identify the research question: The first step in conducting a review of literature is to
identify the research question or topic that will be the focus of the review. This helps
to ensure that the review is focused and relevant to the research question.

2. Define the search terms: Once the research question has been identified, the next
step is to define the search terms. This involves identifying the keywords and
phrases that are relevant to the research question and will be used to search for
relevant literature.
 3. Conduct a comprehensive search: The next step is to conduct a comprehensive
search of relevant databases, such as academic journals, books, and other
publications. This involves using the defined search terms to identify relevant
literature.

4. Evaluate the literature: After identifying the relevant literature, the next step is to
evaluate the quality and relevance of the literature. This involves reading the
abstracts and full-text articles, and assessing their relevance to the research
question and their quality.

5. Organize the literature: Once the relevant literature has been identified and
evaluated, the next step is to organize the literature. This involves categorizing the
literature based on their relevance and quality, and identifying common themes and
trends. ORGANIZE EITHER in TOPICAL/FUNNEL MANNER or
CHRONOLOGICALLY

6. Analyze the literature (actually reading and reviewing the finalised stuff): The final
step in conducting a review of literature is to analyze the literature. This involves
synthesizing the findings of the literature and identifying gaps in knowledge. The
analysis of the literature helps to establish the significance of the research question
and inform the development of the research methodology.

In conclusion, review of literature is an essential stage in the research process that involves
identifying and analyzing existing research on a particular topic or research question. The steps
involved in conducting a review of literature include identifying the research question, defining
the search terms, conducting a comprehensive search, evaluating the literature, organizing the
literature, and analyzing the literature. A well-conducted review of literature can provide valuable
insights into the research question and inform the development of the research methodology.

6. What are the different objectives of Literature Review. MEANING – ANALYSING

EXISTING LITERATURE ON THE CONCERNED TOPIC, WHAT

Literature review is an essential stage in the research process that involves identifying and
analyzing existing research on a particular topic or research question. The primary objective of
literature review is to identify gaps in knowledge and inform the development of the research
methodology. However, literature review can serve several other objectives as well. Here are
some of the different objectives of literature review:

1. To provide a historical perspective: Literature review can provide a historical

perspective on a particular topic by identifying the evolution of research on the topic
over time. This can help to establish the significance of the research question and
inform the development of the research methodology.

2. To identify key concepts and theories: Literature review can identify key concepts
and theories related to a particular topic. This can help to establish the theoretical
framework of the research and inform the development of the research methodology.
 3. To identify gaps in knowledge: Literature review can identify gaps in knowledge
related to a particular topic. This can help to establish the significance of the
research question and inform the development of the research methodology.

4. To identify potential sources of bias: Literature review can identify potential sources
of bias in existing research related to a particular topic. This can help to inform the
development of the research methodology and minimize the risk of bias in the
research.

5. To identify best practices (what are the best methods that others may have used or
missed) : Literature review can identify best practices related to a particular topic.
This can help to inform the development of the research methodology and ensure
that the research is conducted using established best practices.

6. To identify potential collaborations: Literature review can identify potential

collaborators who have conducted research related to a particular topic. This can
help to establish collaborations and partnerships that can strengthen the research.

7. To establish the significance of the research question: Literature review can help to
establish the significance of the research question by identifying the existing
research on the topic and highlighting the gaps in knowledge.

8. To identify potential research questions: Literature review can identify potential

research questions related to a particular topic. This can help to inform the
development of the research methodology and ensure that the research is relevant
and impactful.

9. To identify potential research designs: Literature review can identify potential

research designs that have been used to study a particular topic. This can help to
inform the development of the research methodology and ensure that the research is
conducted using established research designs.

10. To establish the scope of the research: Literature review can help to establish the
scope of the research by identifying the existing research on the topic and
highlighting the gaps in knowledge.

In conclusion, literature review serves several objectives, including providing a historical

perspective, identifying key concepts and theories, identifying gaps in knowledge, identifying
potential sources of bias, identifying best practices, identifying potential collaborations,
establishing the significance of the research question, identifying potential research questions,
identifying potential research designs, and establishing the scope of the research. A
well-conducted literature review can provide valuable insights into the research question and
inform the development of the research methodology.
 7. What are hypothesis. Explain types of hypothesis. STATE TYPES OF HYPO AND IN
WHAT TYPE OF RESARCH IT IS USED AND CHARACTERISTICS, RESEARCH
BEGINS WITH HYPOTHESIS OR A RESEARCH QUESTION DEPENDING ON
THE TOPIC

Hypotheses are statements that propose an explanation or prediction for a phenomenon or

event, based on observations, prior research, or theoretical frameworks. In scientific research,
hypotheses are tested through empirical methods to determine their validity. There are two main
types of hypotheses: null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses.

1. Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement that assumes there is no
significant relationship between two variables. In other words, it assumes that any
observed differences or correlations are due to chance or random variation. For
example, a null hypothesis could be that there is no significant difference in test
scores between students who attend a school with a longer school day and those
who attend a school with a standard school day. Includes non-directional hypothesis
2. Alternative Hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that proposes
a significant relationship between two variables. It assumes that any observed
differences or correlations are not due to chance or random variation. For example,
an alternative hypothesis could be that there is a significant difference in test scores
between students who attend a school with a longer school day and those who
attend a school with a standard school day.

Alternative hypotheses can be further classified into three types based on the nature of the
relationship between the variables:

i. Directional Hypothesis: A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship

between the variables. For example, a directional hypothesis could be that students who attend
a school with a longer school day will have higher test scores than students who attend a school
with a standard school day.

ii. Non-directional Hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis does not predict the direction of the
relationship between the variables. For example, a non-directional hypothesis could be that
there is a significant difference in test scores between students who attend a school with a
longer school day and those who attend a school with a standard school day.

iii. Research Hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a specific prediction about the relationship
between two variables, based on prior research or theory. For example, a research hypothesis
could be that students who attend a school with a longer school day will have higher test scores
than students who attend a school with a standard school day, based on prior research that
shows a positive relationship between school hours and academic performance.

In conclusion, hypotheses are statements that propose an explanation or prediction for a

phenomenon or event, based on observations, prior research, or theoretical frameworks. There
are two main types of hypotheses: null hypotheses and alternative hypotheses, and alternative
hypotheses can be further classified into three types based on the nature of the relationship
between the variables. Hypotheses play a critical role in scientific research as they guide the
research design, data collection, and analysis, and help to determine the validity of the research
findings.

8. State the significance of hypothesis. STATE TYPES OF HYPO AND IN WHAT TYPE
OF RESARCH IT IS USED AND CHARACTERISTICS

Hypothesis plays a significant role in scientific research as it guides the research design, data
collection, and analysis, and helps to determine the validity of the research findings. The
following are the significant of hypothesis:

1. Guides the research process: Hypotheses provide a framework for the research
process by outlining the research question, predicting the expected outcome, and
guiding the data collection and analysis.
2. Provides a clear research direction: Hypotheses provide a clear direction for the
research, as they help to narrow down the research question and focus on the key
variables of interest.
3. Tests the validity of the research findings: Hypotheses are tested through empirical
methods to determine their validity. By testing the hypothesis, researchers can
determine whether their findings are statistically significant and whether they can be
generalized to the larger population.
4. Offers an explanation for the phenomenon: Hypotheses provide an explanation for
the observed phenomenon or event, based on prior research or theoretical
frameworks. This helps to build a theoretical understanding of the phenomenon and
contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
5. Facilitates communication and collaboration: Hypotheses provide a common
language for researchers and facilitate communication and collaboration between
researchers working on similar topics.
6. Helps to identify potential research gaps: Hypotheses can help to identify potential
research gaps in the existing literature, as they provide a framework for identifying
and addressing unanswered questions.
7. Provides a basis for future research: Hypotheses that are supported by empirical
evidence can provide a basis for future research and help to guide future research
questions.
8. Guides decision-making: Hypotheses can guide decision-making in various fields,
such as business and policy-making, by providing a framework for evaluating the
effectiveness of different strategies and interventions.

In conclusion, hypotheses play a crucial role in scientific research as they provide a framework
for the research process, guide decision-making, test the validity of research findings, and
contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
9. What is probability sampling

Probability sampling is a sampling technique used in statistical research that involves selecting
a sample from a larger population in a way that every member of the population has a known
and non-zero probability of being included in the sample. In probability sampling, the sample is
selected randomly from the population, which ensures that the sample is representative of the
population and reduces the risk of bias in the results.

There are different types of probability sampling techniques, including:

1. Simple Random Sampling: In simple random sampling, every member of the

population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This is done by
assigning a unique number to each member of the population and then using a
random number generator to select the sample.

2. Stratified Random Sampling: In stratified random sampling, the population is divided

into strata or subgroups based on specific characteristics, such as age or gender.
Then, a simple random sample is selected from each stratum, and the results are
combined to create a representative sample.

3. Cluster Sampling: In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters, and a
simple random sample of clusters is selected. Then, all members within the selected
clusters are included in the sample.

4. Systematic Sampling: In systematic sampling, a random starting point is selected,

and then every nth member of the population is selected for the sample, where n is a
predetermined interval.

Probability sampling has several advantages, including:

1. It ensures that the sample is representative of the population, which enhances the
external validity of the research.

2. It allows for statistical inference, which means that the results of the sample can be
generalized to the larger population.

3. It reduces the risk of bias in the results, as every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected for the sample.

4. It enables the calculation of sampling error, which is the difference between the
sample mean and the population mean.

5. It facilitates the use of statistical tests, such as hypothesis testing and confidence
intervals, which are based on probability theory.
In conclusion, probability sampling is a sampling technique used in statistical research that
involves selecting a sample from a larger population in a way that every member of the
population has a known and non-zero probability of being included in the sample. Probability
sampling ensures that the sample is representative of the population, reduces the risk of bias in
the results, and allows for statistical inference and the use of statistical tests.

10. What is non probability sampling ADD ABOUT SAMPLING AND TYPES

Non-probability sampling is a method of sampling in which the probability of each member of the
population being selected for the sample is not known. In other words, the selection of
participants is not based on chance, and the sample is not representative of the population.
Instead, the sample is chosen according to some criteria that are determined by the researcher.
Non-probability sampling methods are commonly used in qualitative research, and they have a
number of advantages and disadvantages.

There are several types of non-probability sampling methods, including:

1. Convenience Sampling: This method involves selecting participants who are easily
accessible or available to the researcher. For example, a researcher might choose to
survey students in a particular classroom or visitors to a shopping mall.

2. Quota Sampling: This method involves selecting participants based on

pre-determined quotas. For example, a researcher might choose to survey 100 men
and 100 women in order to ensure that the sample is balanced.

3. Purposive Sampling: This method involves selecting participants based on specific

criteria that are relevant to the research question. For example, a researcher might
choose to interview people who have experienced a particular event or who have a
specific perspective on a topic.

4. Snowball Sampling: This method involves selecting participants who are known to
the researcher and then asking those participants to refer others who might be
interested in participating. For example, a researcher might ask a few people to
participate in a study and then ask those participants to refer others who share
similar characteristics or experiences.

Non-probability sampling methods have a number of advantages. They are often more
convenient and less expensive than probability sampling methods, and they can be useful when
the population is difficult to define or access. Non-probability sampling methods can also be
useful for exploratory research, where the goal is to generate ideas or hypotheses that can be
tested in future studies.

However, non-probability sampling methods also have several disadvantages. One major
disadvantage is that they are subject to selection bias, which occurs when certain types of
participants are more likely to be included in the sample than others. This can limit the
generalizability of the findings to the larger population. Additionally, non-probability sampling
methods can be less reliable than probability sampling methods, as there is no way to measure
the sampling error or the degree to which the sample is representative of the population.

In conclusion, non-probability sampling is a method of sampling that involves selecting

participants based on criteria other than chance. While non-probability sampling methods have
several advantages, they also have several disadvantages, and researchers should carefully
consider their choice of sampling method based on the research question and the available
resources.

11. What are the errors in sampling ADD LINES FROM THE TEXTBOOK

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group of individuals or items from a larger
population. The goal of sampling is to obtain information about the population using a smaller,
more manageable sample. However, sampling is not a perfect process, and errors can occur at
different stages of the process. In this answer, we will discuss the errors in sampling, and how
they can impact the accuracy and reliability of research results.

1. Sampling Bias: Sampling bias occurs when the selection of participants is not
random or representative of the population. This can happen if certain groups are
systematically excluded or underrepresented in the sample. For example, if a
researcher only samples from a particular geographic area, they may miss important
variations or trends in other areas.
2. Sampling Error: Sampling error is the difference between the results obtained from
the sample and the true results of the population. This can occur due to chance
variation, particularly in small samples. As the size of the sample increases, the
margin of error decreases.
3. Non-Response Bias: Non-response bias occurs when a significant number of
selected participants refuse to participate in the study or cannot be reached. This can
impact the representativeness of the sample, as those who do not respond may have
different characteristics or opinions than those who do.
4. Selection Bias: Selection bias occurs when participants are chosen based on certain
characteristics that may not be relevant to the research question. For example, if a
study only selects participants who have previously sought treatment for a particular
condition, the results may not be representative of the wider population.
5. Sampling Frame Error: Sampling frame error occurs when the sampling frame used
to select the sample is incomplete or inaccurate. For example, if a researcher is
studying a particular demographic group, but does not have access to a complete list
of individuals in that group, the sample may not be representative.
6. Measurement Error: Measurement error occurs when the measurement instrument
used to collect data is flawed or inaccurate. This can impact the accuracy and
reliability of the data obtained from the sample.
7. Voluntary Response Bias: Voluntary response bias occurs when participants
self-select to participate in a study. This can lead to biased results, as those who
choose to participate may have different characteristics or opinions than those who
do not.
In conclusion, sampling errors can have significant impacts on the accuracy and reliability of
research results. To minimize errors in sampling, researchers should strive to use a
representative sample, ensure that their sampling frame is accurate and complete, and use
reliable measurement instruments. Additionally, researchers should be aware of the potential
biases that can impact their sample and take steps to minimize their impact.

12. Explain observation/interview/questionnaire as a method of data collection.

Observation, interview, and questionnaire are three common methods of collecting data in
research. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of method will
depend on the research question, the type of data needed, and the resources available. In this
answer, we will explain each method of data collection and its advantages and disadvantages.

Observation: Observation is the process of gathering data by observing and recording the
behavior or events of individuals or groups. This method is commonly used in qualitative
research, as it allows researchers to collect rich, detailed data about natural behavior in
real-world settings. Observation can be either direct or indirect, depending on whether the
researcher is physically present or not.

Advantages:

· Allows researchers to gather data in natural settings, avoiding the potential for
artificial behavior in laboratory settings.

· Provides detailed information about behavior and context that cannot be obtained
through other methods.

· Can be used to collect data on sensitive or private topics, where self-report methods
may be unreliable.

Disadvantages:

· May be time-consuming and expensive, particularly if multiple observations are

needed.

· Can be subject to observer bias, where the researcher's expectations or

preconceptions influence their interpretation of the data.

· May not be feasible in some settings, such as high-security or confidential

environments.

Interview: Interviews involve one-on-one or group conversations between a researcher and a

participant or group of participants. This method is commonly used in both qualitative and
quantitative research, as it allows researchers to collect detailed, personalized data on a range
of topics.

Advantages:

· Provides rich, detailed data on individual experiences and perspectives.

· Allows for follow-up questions and probes to clarify and expand upon responses.

· Can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, from personal experiences to
opinions and attitudes.

Disadvantages:

· Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, particularly for large samples.

· May be subject to social desirability bias, where participants provide responses that
they think the researcher wants to hear.

· May not be feasible in some settings, particularly if the topic is sensitive or private.

Questionnaire: Questionnaires involve written or online surveys that are distributed to a sample
of individuals or groups. This method is commonly used in quantitative research, as it allows
researchers to collect standardized data from a large number of participants.

Advantages:

· Allows for standardized data collection across large samples.

· Can be administered to large groups of participants quickly and easily.

· Can be used to collect data on a wide range of topics, from demographic information
to attitudes and behaviors.

Disadvantages:

· May be subject to response bias, where participants provide inaccurate or

incomplete responses.

· Can be limited by the quality of the questionnaire design, with poorly designed
questions leading to inaccurate or irrelevant data.

· May not be feasible for some populations, particularly those with limited literacy or
language skills.

In conclusion, observation, interview, and questionnaire are three common methods of

collecting data in research, each with its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers should
carefully consider the research question, the type of data needed, and the resources available
before choosing a method of data collection.

13. What is secondary data ADD EXAMPLES

Secondary data refers to data that has been collected by someone else for a different purpose
than the research being conducted. Secondary data can come from a variety of sources,
including government agencies, research organizations, academic institutions, and commercial
entities. Examples of secondary data sources include published reports, books, academic
journals, government publications, and online databases.

There are two types of secondary data: internal and external. Internal secondary data is data
that is collected within an organization or company, and is typically used for administrative or
operational purposes. Internal data is the information that has been stored or organized by the
organization itself. External data is the data organized or collected by someone else

Advantages of Secondary Data:

1. Cost-effective: Secondary data is often more cost-effective than collecting primary

data, as it can be obtained from existing sources without the need for additional
resources.

2. Time-efficient: Secondary data can be collected quickly, as it is readily available from

existing sources.

3. Large sample size: Secondary data sources often contain large sample sizes, which
can increase the statistical power and generalizability of research findings.

4. Historical data: Secondary data sources may provide historical data that is not
available through primary data collection methods.

5. Reliability: Secondary data can be more reliable than primary data, as it has already
been collected and verified by others.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data:

1. Lack of control: Researchers have limited control over the quality and accuracy of
secondary data, as it has been collected by someone else.

2. Biases: Secondary data may be biased or incomplete, as it was collected for a

different purpose than the research being conducted.

3. Data compatibility: Secondary data sources may not be compatible with the research
question or research design.
 4. Limited information: Secondary data may not provide the specific information needed
for the research question, as it was not collected for that purpose.

5. Outdated data: Secondary data sources may contain outdated data, which may not
be relevant to current research questions.

In conclusion, secondary data is an important source of information for research, as it can be

cost-effective, time-efficient, and provide historical data. However, researchers should be aware
of the potential biases and limitations of secondary data, and carefully consider the compatibility
of the data with their research question and design.

14. What are types of questions in a questionnaire.

There are several types of questions that can be included in a questionnaire, and the specific
types chosen will depend on the purpose of the survey and the information being sought. Here
are some common types of questions:

1. Open-ended questions: These allow respondents to provide their own answers in

their own words, without any predefined response options. This can be useful for
getting in-depth qualitative feedback and exploring a range of opinions or
experiences.
2. Closed-ended questions: These questions provide respondents with a set of
predefined response options to choose from, such as multiple-choice questions,
rating scales, or yes/no questions. Closed-ended questions are useful for obtaining
quantitative data that can be easily summarized and analyzed.
3. Likert scale questions: These are a type of rating scale question that asks
respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a statement on
a scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. This can be useful for measuring
attitudes, opinions, or perceptions.
4. Demographic questions: These questions ask respondents for basic information
about themselves, such as age, gender, education level, or income. These questions
can be useful for segmenting data and identifying patterns in responses based on
different demographic groups.
5. Matrix questions: These questions present a grid or table with a series of related
questions that use the same set of response options. This can be useful for
measuring different aspects of a single concept or topic.
6. Ranking questions: These questions ask respondents to rank a set of items in order
of preference or importance. This can be useful for understanding priorities or
preferences among different options.
7. Dichotomous questions: These questions only have two possible response options,
such as yes/no or true/false. These questions are useful for obtaining a quick and
easy response to a simple question.
Each type of question has its own strengths and weaknesses, and selecting the appropriate
type of question for each research objective is important for ensuring the validity and reliability
of the survey results.

15. State the guidelines for devising a good questionnaire

Designing a good questionnaire is a crucial step in collecting accurate and reliable data. Here
are some guidelines for devising a good questionnaire:

1. Define the research objective: The first step in devising a good questionnaire is to
clearly define the research objective and identify the specific information needed to
achieve it.
2. Determine the target population: Identify the specific group of people who will be
answering the questionnaire and ensure that the questions are tailored to their
characteristics and experiences.
3. Choose the appropriate question format depending on your research approach:
Choose the appropriate question format based on the information required and the
target population. Closed-ended questions are good for quantitative data, whereas
open-ended questions are useful for qualitative data.
4. Use clear and simple language: Use clear and simple language to ensure that
respondents understand the questions and can provide accurate answers.
5. Avoid leading questions: Avoid leading questions that may bias the responses and
lead to inaccurate data. Ensure that the questions are neutral and unbiased.
6. Avoid ambiguous or vague questions: Ambiguous or vague questions can lead to
confusion and inconsistent responses. Make sure that the questions are clear and
specific.
7. Avoid double-barreled questions: Double-barreled questions ask two or more
questions in one, which can make it difficult for respondents to answer accurately.
Break down double-barreled questions into separate questions.
8. Test the questionnaire: Before administering the questionnaire, test it on a small
sample of the target population to ensure that the questions are clear and easy to
understand.
9. Keep the questionnaire short: Keep the questionnaire short and focused to avoid
respondent fatigue and increase response rates.
10. Use skip patterns: Use skip patterns to ensure that respondents only answer
questions that are relevant to them, which can reduce respondent burden and
increase response rates.
11. Provide clear instructions: Provide clear instructions on how to complete the
questionnaire, including any technical terms or definitions that respondents may not
be familiar with.
12. Ensure anonymity and confidentiality: Ensure that the questionnaire is anonymous
and confidential to encourage honest and accurate responses
16. Explain preliminary pages on research report.

Preliminary pages are the first few pages of a research report that come before the main body
of the report. These pages provide important information about the research and set the context
for the report. Here are the common preliminary pages included in a research report:

1. Title page: The title page includes the title of the report, the name of the author or
authors, and the date of submission. It also may include the name of the institution or
organization where the research was conducted.
2. Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the research report, typically no more
than 250 words. It provides an overview of the research problem, methodology,
results, and conclusions.
3. Table of contents: The table of contents lists the main sections and subsections of
the report, along with their page numbers. It allows readers to easily navigate the
report and find the information they are looking for.
4. List of tables and figures: If the report includes tables or figures, a list of tables and
figures should be included. This lists the titles of each table and figure, along with
their page numbers.
5. Acknowledgments: If the author received any support or assistance during the
research process, they may include an acknowledgments section. This can include
thanking colleagues, research assistants, or funding sources.
6. List of abbreviations: If the report includes any abbreviations, a list of abbreviations
should be included to ensure that readers understand their meaning.
7. Introduction: The introduction provides an overview of the research problem, the
research question or hypothesis, and the rationale for the study. It sets the context
for the research and explains why it is important.

Preliminary pages are important for setting the tone and providing readers with a clear
understanding of the research report. They help to establish the author's credibility and provide
a framework for the main body of the report.

17. What are the essentials of good report writing.

Good report writing is essential for effectively communicating research findings and
recommendations. Here are some essentials of good report writing:

1. Clear organization: A well-organized report is essential for ensuring that readers can
easily navigate the content and understand the structure of the report. Use clear
headings and subheadings to break up the report into logical sections.
2. Clear and concise language: Use clear and concise language to ensure that readers
can easily understand the information presented in the report. Avoid jargon or
technical terms that may not be familiar to all readers.
 3. Objective tone: Use an objective tone to ensure that the report is unbiased and
impartial. Avoid personal opinions or biases that may impact the credibility of the
report.
4. Accurate information: Ensure that all information presented in the report is accurate
and reliable. Use credible sources and verify information before including it in the
report.
5. Relevant information: Include only relevant information in the report to ensure that
readers are not overwhelmed with unnecessary details. Focus on information that is
directly related to the research question or objective.
6. Use of evidence: Use evidence to support conclusions and recommendations. This
can include data, statistics, or other research findings.
7. Proper formatting: Use proper formatting to ensure that the report is visually
appealing and easy to read. This includes the use of headings, subheadings, bullet
points, and tables and figures as appropriate.
8. Clear and concise conclusions and recommendations: The report should include
clear and concise conclusions and recommendations that are based on the research
findings. These should be presented in a logical and easy-to-understand manner.
9. Proper citation and referencing: Ensure that all sources used in the report are
properly cited and referenced. Use a consistent citation style throughout the report.
10. Proofreading and editing: Before submitting the report, proofread and edit it carefully
to ensure that there are no errors or typos. This will improve the readability and
credibility of the report.

By following these essentials of good report writing, researchers can effectively communicate
their findings and recommendations to their intended audience.

18. What are the different scaling techniques. Explain Nominal/Ordinal/Ratio/Interval scale

Scaling techniques are used in research to measure various characteristics or variables of

interest. Here are the four main types of scaling techniques:

1. Nominal scale: A nominal scale is a type of categorical scale that places items into
categories or groups. Nominal scales are used to classify data into mutually
exclusive categories based on some characteristic or attribute. Examples include
gender, race, or type of car.

2. Ordinal scale: An ordinal scale is a type of scale that ranks items in a specific order
based on some characteristic or attribute. Ordinal scales indicate the relative position
of an item within a set, but do not provide information about the magnitude of the
difference between items. Examples include rank orderings of preferences or
opinions.
 3. Interval scale: An interval scale is a type of scale where the intervals between the
values are equal. This type of scale is used to measure quantitative data, such as
temperature or time. The intervals are equal, but the zero point is arbitrary, so ratios
cannot be calculated.

4. Ratio scale: A ratio scale is a type of scale where the intervals between values are
equal and the scale has a true zero point. Ratio scales are used to measure
quantities that can be compared using ratios, such as weight or height.

Nominal Scale:

The nominal scale is used to measure categorical data, such as gender or race. It is a
qualitative scale where data are grouped into mutually exclusive categories. The categories
have no inherent order or ranking, and the scale is only used to categorize data. For example, a
survey may ask respondents to indicate their political affiliation as Democrat, Republican, or
Independent. Nominal scales are commonly used in statistical analysis to compare frequencies
or percentages between different categories.

Ordinal Scale:

The ordinal scale is used to rank data based on some characteristic or attribute. It is a
qualitative scale where data are assigned a rank order or position, but the differences between
the ranks are not necessarily equal. For example, a survey may ask respondents to rank their
level of agreement with a statement on a scale from 1 to 5, with 1 being strongly disagree and 5
being strongly agree. The difference between strongly disagree and disagree may not be the
same as the difference between agree and strongly agree. Ordinal scales are commonly used in
statistical analysis to compare rankings or orderings between different categories.

Interval Scale:

The interval scale is used to measure quantitative data, where the intervals between values are
equal. It is a quantitative scale where the differences between the values are meaningful, but
the zero point is arbitrary. For example, a temperature scale measures the differences in
temperature between two points, but the zero point is arbitrary. An interval scale may be used to
measure attitudes on a Likert scale, where respondents indicate their level of agreement on a
scale from 1 to 7. Interval scales are commonly used in statistical analysis to measure the
distance between two points or to compare differences in values.

Ratio Scale:

The ratio scale is used to measure quantitative data, where the intervals between values are
equal and the scale has a true zero point. It is a quantitative scale where the differences
between the values are meaningful and ratios can be calculated. For example, weight and
height are measured on a ratio scale, where a value of 0 indicates the absence of the
characteristic being measured. A ratio scale may be used to measure the number of times a
behavior occurs or the number of correct answers on a test. Ratio scales are commonly used in
statistical analysis to compare ratios between two values or to calculate percentages.

19. Numerical sums on Arithmetic mean, Median, Mode and Standard Deviation.

Sure, here are some numerical examples and their solutions for arithmetic mean, median,
mode, and standard deviation:

Example 1:

Given the following set of data, calculate the arithmetic mean, median, mode, and standard
deviation:

7, 8, 10, 11, 12

Solution:

Arithmetic mean = (7 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 12) / 5 = 48 / 5 = 9.6

To calculate the median, we need to arrange the data in order:

7, 8, 10, 11, 12

The median is the middle value, so in this case, the median is 10.

There is no mode in this set of data because no value appears more than once.

To calculate the standard deviation, we first need to calculate the variance:

Variance = [(7 - 9.6)^2 + (8 - 9.6)^2 + (10 - 9.6)^2 + (11 - 9.6)^2 + (12 - 9.6)^2] / 5

Variance = 5.44

Standard deviation = √(5.44) = 2.33

Therefore, the arithmetic mean is 9.6, the median is 10, there is no mode, and the standard
deviation is 2.33.

Example 2:

Given the following set of data, calculate the arithmetic mean, median, mode, and standard
deviation:

5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 12

Solution:
Arithmetic mean = (5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 9 + 9 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 11 + 12) / 12 = 96 / 12 = 8

To calculate the median, we need to arrange the data in order:

5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 12

The median is the middle value, so in this case, the median is the average of the two middle
values: (9 + 10) / 2 = 9.5

The mode is the value that appears most frequently, so in this case, the mode is 9, which
appears three times.

To calculate the standard deviation, we first need to calculate the variance:

Variance = [(5 - 8)^2 + (6 - 8)^2 + (7 - 8)^2 + (8 - 8)^2 + (9 - 8)^2 + (9 - 8)^2 + (9 - 8)^2 + (10 -
8)^2 + (10 - 8)^2 + (10 - 8)^2 + (11 - 8)^2 + (12 - 8)^2] / 12

Variance = 3.5

Standard deviation = √(3.5) = 1.87

Therefore, the arithmetic mean is 8, the median is 9.5, the mode is 9, and the standard
deviation is 1.87.

20. What do you content analysis. ADD STEPS IN CA AND EXPLAIN

Content analysis is a research technique used in quantitative research to analyze and interpret
the characteristics of a particular communication or message. It is a systematic and objective
approach to studying the content of communication, such as written texts, audio recordings,
videos, or social media posts, to identify patterns, themes, and underlying meanings.

Content analysis involves a series of steps, including selecting a sample of the communication
to be analyzed, developing coding categories, and then applying the coding categories to the
communication to identify patterns and themes. The coding categories can be either deductive,
based on a pre-existing theory or framework, or inductive, developed based on the data being
analyzed.

Some common applications of content analysis include:

1. Studying media representations: Content analysis can be used to study how certain
groups or events are portrayed in the media, and whether these portrayals are
accurate or biased.
 2. Examining public opinion: Content analysis can be used to analyze public discourse
on a particular issue or topic, such as climate change or immigration, to identify the
underlying attitudes, beliefs, and values.
3. Analyzing organizational communication: Content analysis can be used to analyze
the communication patterns within an organization, such as email exchanges,
meeting minutes, or internal memos, to identify areas of improvement or conflicts.
4. Evaluating educational materials: Content analysis can be used to evaluate the
content and effectiveness of educational materials, such as textbooks or online
courses, to ensure that they are accurate, up-to-date, and effective.

Overall, content analysis provides a way to study communication in a systematic and objective
way, allowing researchers to identify patterns, themes, and underlying meanings that may not
be immediately apparent.

21. What are the uses, steps and limitations of content analysis. ADD ABOUT
CONTENT ANALYSIS

Uses of Content Analysis:

1. It is used to study the characteristics of communication in a particular setting or

media.

2. It can help researchers to identify patterns, themes, and underlying meanings in

large amounts of data.

3. It can provide insights into the attitudes, beliefs, and values of individuals or groups.

4. It can be used to study media representations of social groups or events and to

identify potential biases.

5. It can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of educational materials or public health

campaigns.

Steps in Content Analysis:

1. Define the research question or objective.

2. Select the sample of communication to be analyzed.

3. Develop a coding scheme or set of categories that will be used to analyze the
communication.
 4. Train coders or researchers to use the coding scheme consistently.

5. Code the communication according to the coding scheme.

6. Analyze the coded data to identify patterns, themes, and underlying meanings.

7. Interpret the findings and draw conclusions.

Limitations of Content Analysis:

1. The results of content analysis are dependent on the quality of the coding scheme
and the reliability of the coders.

2. The coding process can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, especially when

analyzing large amounts of data.

3. Content analysis is limited to studying the content of communication and does not
provide insights into the context in which the communication occurs.

4. The findings of content analysis are often descriptive and may not provide a deeper
understanding of the underlying causes or mechanisms.

5. Content analysis is vulnerable to researcher bias, especially when developing the

coding scheme or interpreting the findings.

In summary, content analysis is a valuable research technique for studying communication and
identifying patterns and themes in large amounts of data. However, it requires careful planning,
attention to detail, and a clear understanding of its limitations.

22. Explain research in print media ADD EXAMPLES AND POINTS FROM TEXTBOOK

Research in print media refers to the systematic investigation of topics related to print
publications, such as newspapers, magazines, and books. Print media research can take many
forms, including content analysis, surveys, interviews, and focus groups. The main goal of print
media research is to understand the attitudes, behaviors, and preferences of readers and to
improve the quality and effectiveness of print publications.

One common method of print media research is content analysis, which involves analyzing the
content of print publications to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to
study the characteristics of articles, such as the topics covered, the tone of the writing, and the
sources cited. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of headlines, graphics, and
layout in attracting readers and conveying information.

Another method of print media research is surveys, which involve asking readers about their
attitudes, behaviors, and preferences related to print publications. Surveys can be conducted
through a variety of channels, including mail, telephone, online, and in-person interviews.
Surveys can provide valuable insights into the demographics and interests of readers, as well
as their satisfaction with specific aspects of print publications.

Interviews and focus groups are other methods of print media research that involve collecting
qualitative data from readers. Interviews typically involve one-on-one conversations with readers
to gain in-depth insights into their attitudes and behaviors related to print publications. Focus
groups involve small groups of readers who are asked to discuss their opinions and experiences
related to print publications. Both methods can provide valuable insights into the motivations
and preferences of readers.

Overall, research in print media is an important tool for publishers, editors, and writers to
improve the quality and effectiveness of their publications. By understanding the attitudes,
behaviors, and preferences of readers, print media can adapt to changing trends and remain
relevant in a rapidly evolving media landscape.

23. Explain research in advertising. ADD EXAMPLES AND POINTS FROM TEXTBOOK

Research in advertising is the process of studying the attitudes, behaviors, and preferences of
consumers in order to create effective advertising campaigns. Advertising research can take
many forms, including surveys, focus groups, experiments, and content analysis. The main goal
of advertising research is to understand the needs and wants of consumers and to create
advertising messages that resonate with them.

One common method of advertising research is surveys, which involve asking consumers about
their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences related to products and advertising. Surveys can be
conducted through a variety of channels, including mail, telephone, online, and in-person
interviews. Surveys can provide valuable insights into the demographics and interests of
consumers, as well as their attitudes toward specific products and advertising messages.

Focus groups are another method of advertising research that involve collecting qualitative data
from consumers. Focus groups typically involve small groups of consumers who are asked to
discuss their opinions and experiences related to specific products or advertising messages.
Focus groups can provide valuable insights into the motivations and preferences of consumers,
as well as their reactions to specific advertising messages.

Experiments are another method of advertising research that involve manipulating advertising
messages to study their effects on consumer behavior. Experiments can be conducted in
laboratory settings or in real-world environments, such as retail stores or online marketplaces.
Experiments can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of different advertising
messages and can help advertisers to optimize their campaigns for maximum impact.

Content analysis is another method of advertising research that involves analyzing the content
of advertising messages to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to study
the characteristics of advertisements, such as the use of visual elements, the tone of the
messaging, and the appeals to emotion or logic. It can also be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of different types of advertising messages.
Overall, research in advertising is an important tool for marketers and advertisers to create
effective campaigns that resonate with consumers. By understanding the needs and wants of
consumers, advertisers can create advertising messages that are more likely to be noticed,
remembered, and acted upon.