Epistemology is a science devoted to the discovery THE NATURE OF TRUTH
of the proper method of acquiring and validating This is the second part of epistemology: validating
knowledge” (Rand 1990). one’s knowledge.
The purpose of epistemology therefore is two-fold: The first step in validating one’s knowledge is to
What’s New ask oneself the following question: “How did I arrive
1. To show how we can acquire knowledge. at this belief, by what steps?. This is what Dr.
2. To give us a method of demonstrating whether Peikoff calls reduction.
the knowledge we acquired is really knowledge
You can only validate the statements if you
THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE observed yourself using your senses. Not all
According to Ayn Rand knowledge is a “mental statements however can be validated directly by the
grasp of reality reached either by perceptual senses. Some beliefs or ideas need a “multi-step
observation or by a process of reason based on process of validation called proof’
perceptual observation”
A third way to determine if the statement is true is
you acquire knowledge by Miss Rand’s definition through a consensus. . If the majority agrees that a
gives us two ways: statement is true then it is true.
First, we can acquire knowledge using our senses: A fourth way to determine whether a statement is
seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling, smelling. true is to test it by means of action.
This method of acquiring knowledge is called
empiricism. TRUTH VS OPINION
Opinion:
Second, we can acquire knowledge by thinking with 1. Based on emotions
the use of our minds (what philosophers 2. Open to interpretation
call the rational faculty) 3. Cannot be confirmed
4. Inherently biased
ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE Truth:
the first part of epistemology: the process of 1. Based on the facts of reality
acquiring knowledge. 2. Can be confirmed with other sources
3. Independent of one’s interpretation, preferences
1. Reality - To know is to know something. This and biases
“something” is what philosophers call reality,
existence, being. Existence is everything there is THEORIES OF TRUTH
(another name for it is the Universe)
2. Perception - Our first and only contact with reality 1. The Correspondence theory of Truth: Reality
is through our senses. Knowledge begins with The basic idea of the correspondence theory is that
perceptual knowledge. At first, the senses give us what we believe or say is true if it corresponds to
knowledge of things or entities Later we became the way things actually are based on the facts.
aware not only of things but certain aspects of 2. The Coherence Theory of Truth: Imagination
things. Truths that may not be supported by evidence but
3. Concept - After we perceive things we began to by rational or logical reasoning. Parts of the
notice that some of the things we perceive are statement or claim go together to form a logical
similar to other things. picture even with incomplete or total absence of
4. Proposition - When we use concepts in order to evidence or facts to prove it otherwise.
classify or describe an “existent” we use what 3. The Pragmatist Theory of Truth: True/Flase
philosophers call a Proposition. A proposition is a The Pragramatic Theory of Truth states that a
statement that expresses either an assertion or a belief/statement is true if it has a useful
denial that an existent belongs to a class or (pragmatic) application in the world. If it does not,
possess certain attribute. then it is not true.
5. Inference - According to Hurley an argument “is a
group of statements, one or more of which (the
premises) are claimed to provide support for, or
reason to believe one of the others.
Methods of Philosophizing FALLACY OF COMPOSITION
If something is true of a part, is true of a whole
1. SOCRATIC DIALECTIC METHOD FALLACY OF DIVISION
- Based on proper care of the soul. Infers that something is true of the whole, must also
- The soul can be properly taken care of if we make be true on its parts
it as good as possible. FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION
- Achieve this by an act of “disciplined Using the same term in a different situation with
conversation” Socrates called this method dialectic. different meaning.
1. GEORG WILHELM HEGEL
Philosophical argument that involves two opposing FACTS VERSUS OPINION: FOCUS ON
sides or contradictions. (Thesis and Anti-thesis) INFORMATION LITERACY
2. PRAGMATIC METHOD (Practical)
An approach to understanding and solving A. IDENTIFYING THE FACTORS OF A QUALITY
problems that focuses on the practical WEBSITE
consequences and usefulness of ideas, Authority: Who is the author and what are his or her
beliefs, theories, and actions. qualifications?
3. PHENOMENOLOGY (Experience) Verifiability: Are sources provided?
Phenomenology is a philosophical and Timeliness: Is the information current?
methodological approach that focuses on the study Relevance: Does the material contain
and analysis of conscious experiences and the unsubstantiated generalizations?
structures of subjective consciousness. Bias: Does the information represent a single
4. REFLECTIONS opinion or a range of opinions?
Reflection arise when there is a disruption from your Orderliness: Is the page arranged in an order that
normal routine and when something valuable is at makes sense?
stake. Primary and secondary reflections. Clarity: Is the information clearly stated?
5. ANALYTIC METHOD (Language) Validity: Do the facts presented support the
The analytic method in philosophy is an approach conclusions?
that emphasizes precision in language, logical
analysis, conceptual clarity, and rigorous B. THE EVALUATION PROCESS
examination of philosophical problems and Credibility: What about this source makes it
arguments. believable?
Accuracy: Is the information provided up-to-date,
LOGICAL FALLACIES factual, detailed, exact, and comprehensive?
Reasonableness: Is the information fair, objective,
ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM moderate, and consistent?
“against the man” or “against the person.” Support: Can the information be corroborated?
ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM
An appeal to force Just take that course and obey, C. HOW DO I KNOW?
ARGUMENTUM AD MISERCORDIAM Type - determine whether the URL includes
An appeal to pity Publisher -- determine whether the individual
ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM maintaining the site is likely to have a particular
Appeal to people agenda or bias.
ARGUMENTUM AD TRADITION Author -- determine the author's background to find
Appeal to tradition out whether he or she is a trained expert.
Appeal to common practice Structure -- determine whether the format is clear,
ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM logical, and easily navigable.
A statement is true if it was not proven to be false Language -- determine whether the text contains
and vice versa emotional, inflammatory, profane, or confusing
PETITIO PINCIPII language.
Begging the question/Circular argument Dates -- determine when the information was
HASTY GENERALIZATION published and/or updated.
Concluding based on insufficient evidence Graphics -- Decide whether the graphics convey
CAUSE AND EFFECT information or simply distract.
The first event is deemed to be the cause of a Links -- determine whether the site's bibliography
second event occurring in sequence. and/or links contain both supportive and
contradictory information.
