+Unit # 02

Kinematics

Pride of Pakistan, Muhammad Asif is a Pakistani Professional snooker player. He is two

times winner of the amateur IBSF World Snooker Championship.

In this unit student should be able to:

➢ Describe a vector and its representation.
➢ Describe the Cartesian coordinate system.
➢ Resolve a vector into two perpendicular components.
➢ Describe vector nature of displacement.
➢ Analyze and interpret patterns of motion of objects using displacement-
time graph, velocity-time graph acceleration-time graph
➢ Determine the instantaneous velocity of an object moving along the same
straight line by measuring the slope of displacement-time graph.
➢ Derive equation of uniformly accelerated motion
➢ Solve the problems.
➢ Understand projectile motion
➢ Calculate height, range and time of flight using equations of projectile
motion

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Physics is a mathematical science. The underlying concepts and principles have a
mathematical basis. Throughout the course of our study of physics, we will concrete a variety
of concepts that have a mathematical basis associated with them. While our emphasis will
often be upon the conceptual nature of physics, we will give considerable and persistent
attention to its mathematical aspect.
Even a person without a background in physics has a collection of words that can be used to
describe moving objects. Words and phrases such as going fast, stopped, slowing
down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for describing the motion of
objects. In physics, we use these words and many more. We will be expanding upon this
vocabulary list with words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
and acceleration. As we will soon see, these words are associated with mathematical
quantities that have different definitions. The mathematical quantities that are used to describe
the motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a vector or a
scalar.

Scalar Quantities
All those physical quantities which can be completely understand/ specified by a
magnitude and a proper unit are known as "Scalar Quantities".
Scalar quantities do not need direction for their description. Examples are: the distance
between two points, mass of any object, the temperature of a body and the time at which a
certain event happened. Scalar quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the
simple rules of algebra.

Examples
Work, energy, electric flux, volume, time, speed, viscosity, density, power, mass, distance,
temperature, electric charge etc.

Vectors Quantities
All those physical quantities having both magnitude and direction with proper unit and
also obeys the Vectoral Algebra are known as "Vector Quantities".
We can't specify a vector quantity without mention its direction. Vector quantities are
expressed by using letter with arrow placed over a letter or bold face such as:

𝐴⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶, 𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐

Vector quantities can’t be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the simple rules of
algebra. Vector quantities added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by the rules of normal
algebraic method.

Examples
Velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, displacement, electric current, weight,
angular momentum etc.

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Representation of Vectors
On paper vector quantities are represented by a straight line with arrow head pointing the
direction of vector or terminal point of vector. A vector quantity is first transformed into a
suitable scale and then a line is drawn with the help of the scale chosen in the given direction.
Vectors can be represented analytically and
graphically.
In analytical method vectors are denoted by a
letter with arrow or bold letters and their direction
are denoted by angle 𝜃 which it makes with x-axis
in anticlock wise as shown in figure.
In graphical method vectors are denoted by a line
segment with arrow and their directions are
denoted by an angle which makes geographically
direction as shown figure. Figure 2.1

Addition of vectors by Head to Tail method (Graphical Method)

Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of the easiest methods used to find the
resultant vector of two of more than two vectors.

Details of Method
Consider two vectors and acting in the directions as shown below:
Head to tail rule is a method of vector addition in which tail of second vector is connected by
head of first vector. All vectors are connected in this way. Finally, from tail of first vector to
the head of last vector we will draw a vector called resultant vector.

Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3

Mathematically for resultant vector ‘R’

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Addition of Vectors

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

According to the parallelogram law of vector addition:
"If two vector quantities are represented by two adjacent sides or a parallelogram then the
diagonal of parallelogram will be equal to the resultant of these two vectors."

Explanation
Consider two vectors and Let the vectors have the following orientation

parallelogram of these vectors is:

According to parallelogram law:

Magnitude of resultant vector

Magnitude or resultant vector can be determined by using either Cosine law or Sine law.

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Multiplication and division of vector by a number (scalar)
When a vector is multiplied by a positive number (for example 2, 3, 5, 60 unit etc.) or a scalar
only its magnitude is changed but its direction remains the same as that of the original vector.
If however a vector is multiplied by a negative number (for example -2, -3,-5, -60 unit etc) or
a scalar not only its magnitude is changed but its direction also reversed.

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

The product of a vector by a scalar quantity (m) follows the following rules:
(m) = (m) which is called commutative law of multiplication.
m(n ) = (mn) which is called associative law of multiplication .
(m + n) =m +n which is called distributive law of multiplication.

Division of a vector by a scalar

The division of a vector by a scalar number (n) involves the multiplication of the vector
by the reciprocal of the number (n) which generates a new vector.
Let n represents a number or scalar and m is its reciprocal then the new vector is given by
:
where m = 1/n

and its magnitude is given by:

The direction of is same as that of if (n) is a positive number.

The direction of is opposite as that of if (n) is a negative number.

Unit vector
"A unit vector is defined as a vector in any specified direction whose magnitude is unity
i.e. 1. A unit vector only specifies the direction of a given vector. "
A unit vector can be determined by dividing the vector by its magnitude.

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 For example, unit vector of a vector A is given by:

The symbol is usually a lowercase letter with a "hat / cap / circumflex", such as:

(Pronounced "a-hat")
In three dimensional coordinate system unit vectors having the direction
of the positive X-axis, Y-axi and Z-axis are used as unit vectors. These unit vectors are
mutually perpendicular to each other.
Magnitude of a vector can be calculate by,

Free vector
A vector that can be displaced parallel to itself and applied at
any point is known as a FREEE VECTOR.
A free vector can be specified by giving its magnitude to any
angle between the vector and coordinate axes.

Figure 2.6
Position vector
A Vector that indicates the position of a point in a
coordinate system is referred to as position vector.
Suppose we have a fixed reference point O, then we can
specify the position the position of a given point P with
respect to point O by means of a vector having magnitude
and direction represented by a directed line
segment OP .This vector is called position vector.
In a three dimensional coordinate system if O is at origin
then,O(0,0,0) and P is any point say P (x, y, z) in this
situation position vector of point P will be: Figure 2.7

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Null vector
A null vector is a vector having magnitude equal to zero.It is represented by . A null vector
has no direction or it may have any direction. Generally a null vector is either equal to
resultant of two equal vectors acting in opposite directions or multiple vectors in different
directions.

Figure 2.8
Cartesian coordinate system
Whether you are presenting data on a line graph,
plotting a route by boat along the coast, or simply
finding the location of a car park on a map of a
National Park, you will need to have an
understanding of coordinates.
A point is a single location anywhere. It could be
on a straight line (one dimension), on a two-
dimensional surface or plane (for example a dot
on a sheet of paper) or in three-dimensional space
(such as the position of an aircraft in flight at a
given instant in time). Cartesian coordinate
system is a system consist on three mutually
perpendicular lines (X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis) Figure 2.9
with common initial point called origin used to find out location of any point.

Resolution of vector
The process of splitting a vector into rectangular components or components is called
"RESOLUTION OF VECTOR" These parts of a vector may act in different directions and are
called "components of vector".
We can resolve a vector into a number of components. Generally there are three components
of vector.
Component along X-axis called x-component.
Component along Y-axis called y-component.
Here we will discuss only two components x-component and y-component which are
perpendicular to each other. These components are called rectangular components of vector.

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Method of resolving a vector into rectangular components
Component along z-axis called z-component.
Consider a vector acting at a point making an angle θ with positive X axis. Vector is
represented by a line OA. From point A draw a perpendicular AB on X-axis. Suppose OB and
BA represents two vectors. Vector OA is parallel to X-axis and vector BA is parallel to Y-axis.
Magnitude of these vectors areVx and Vy respectively. By the method of head to tail we
notice that the sum of these vectors is equal to vector .
Thus Vx and Vy are the rectangular components of vector
Vx = Horizontal component of
Vy = Vertical component of

Magnitude of horizontal component

Consider right angled triangle

Magnitude of vertical component

Consider right angled triangle

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Addition of vectors by rectangular components method

Consider two vectors making angles θ1and θ2 with +ve x-axis respectively.

Step #01

Resolve vector into two rectangular components and .

Magnitude of these components are:

and

Step #02
Resolve vector into two rectangular components and .
Magnitude of these components are:

and

Step #03

Now move vector parallel to itself so that

its initial point (tail) lies on the terminal point

(head) of vector as shown in the diagram.

Representative lines of and are OA and
OB respectively. Join O and B which is equal to
resultant vector of and

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Step #04
Resultant vector along X-axis can be determined as:

Step # 05
Resultant vector along Y-axis can be determined as:

Step # 06
Now we will determine the magnitude of resultant vector.
In the right angled triangle BOD:
HYP2 = BASE2 + PERP2

Step # 07
Finally the direction of resultant vector will be determined.
Again in the right angled triangle <BOD:

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Where θ is the angle that the resultant vector makes with the positive X-axis. In this way we
can add a number of vectors in a very easy manner. This method is known as ADDITION OF
VECTORS BY RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS METHOD.

Properties of vector addition

Commutative law of vector addition

Consider two vectors and . Let these two vectors
represent two adjacent sides of a parallelogram. We
construct a parallelogram
OACB as shown in the diagram. The diagonal OC represents
the resultant vector
This fact is referred to as the commutative law of vector
addition.

Associative law of vector addition

The law states that the sum of vectors remains same irrespective of their order or grouping in
which they are arranged.
Consider three vectors , and
Applying "head to tail rule" to obtain the resultant of ( + ) and ( + )
Then finally again find the resultant of these three vectors:

This fact is known as the Associative Law of Vector Addition.

Product of two vectors

There are two types of vector multiplications. Known as scalar product (dot product) and
vector product (cross product).

Scalar or dot product or inner product

The scalar product of two vectors A and B is written as A.B and is defined as,

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“When two parallel vectors are multiply, their resultant quantity will be a scalar, this is
called scalar or dot product.”
A.B = AB cosθ
Where A and B are the magnitudes of vectors A and B and θ is the angle between them.
For physical interpretation of dot product of two vectors A and B, these are first brought to a
common origin.

Then, A.B = (A) (projection of B on A)

A.B = A (magnitude of component of B in the direction of A)
= A (B cos θ) = AB cos θ
Similarly B.A = B (A cos θ) = BA cos θ
We come across this type of product when we consider the work done by a force F whose
point of application moves a distance d in a direction making an angle θ with the line of action
of F, as shown in Fig.

Work done = Force x Displacement

Work done = Fd cos θ
F.d = Fd cos θ = work done

Characteristics of scalar product

A.B = AB cos θ
B.A = BA cos θ
It can be used to find the angle between two vectors.
A.B = B.A
➢ The order of multiplication is irrelevant. In other words scalar product is commutative.
➢ The scalar product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero, hence these vectors
are also called as Orthogonal vectors.
A.B = AB cos90⁰ = 0 since cos90⁰ = 0

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 ➢ In case of unit vectors î , ĵ and k̂, since they are mutually perpendicular, therefore,
î . ĵ = ĵ . k̂ = k̂ . î = 0
➢ The scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes.
Thus, for parallel vectors (θ = 0⁰)
A.B = AB cos0⁰ = AB since cos0⁰ = 1
➢ In case of unit vectors
î. î = ĵ. ĵ = k̂. k̂ = 1
➢ And for antiparallel vectors (θ = 180⁰)
A.B = AB cos180⁰ = -AB since cos0⁰ = -1
➢ The self-product of a vector A is equal to square of its magnitude.
A.A = AA cos0⁰ = A2
➢ Scalar product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components

A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Vector or cross product

The vector product of two vectors A and B, is a vector which is defined as
“When two perpendicular vectors are multiplied, their resultant quantity will be a
vector, this is called vector or cross product.”
A x B = AB sinθ n̂
Where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B as shown in fig (a) its
direction can be determined by right hand rule. For that purpose, place together, the tails of
vectors A and B to define the plane of vectors A and B. the direction of the product vector is
perpendicular to this plane. Rotate the first vector A
into B through the smaller of the two possible angles
and curl the fingers of the right hand in the direction
of rotation, keeping the thumb erect. The direction of
the product vector will be along the erect thumb, as
shown in the fig (b). because of this direction rule, B
x A is a vector opposite in sign to A x B. Hence,

Figure 2.10

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Characteristics of cross product
➢ Since A x B is not the same as B x A, the cross product is non-commutative.
A x B = —B x A
➢ The vector product is associative i.e. if m is a scalar, then
(m A) x B = A x (m B)
= m (A x B)
➢ Vector product is distributive over the addition i.e.
A x (B + C) = A x B + B x C
(A x B) + C = A x C + B x C
➢ The cross product of two perpendicular vectors has maximum magnitude
A x B = AB sin90⁰ n̂ since sin90⁰=1
= AB n ̂
➢ The cross product of two parallel vectors is null vector, because for such vectors
θ = 0⁰ or 180⁰. Hence
A x B = AB sin0⁰ n̂ sin0⁰=0, sin180⁰=0
A x B = AB sin 180⁰ n̂
AxB=0
As a consequence
AxA=0
Also
îxî=ĵxĵ=kxk=0
➢ In case of unit vectors, since they form a right handed system and are mutually
perpendicular.
î x ĵ = k̂,
ĵ x k̂ = î,
k̂ x î = ĵ
Cross product of two vectors A and B in terms of their rectangular components is:
A x B = (Axî + Ayĵ+Azk̂) x (Bxî +Byĵ+Bzk̂)
A x B = (AyBz — AzBy) i + (AzBx – AxBz) j + (AxBy — AyBx) k̂
Cross product or vector product can be written as,
i j k
AxB= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

The magnitude of A x B is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed with A and B as two
adjacent sides.

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Examples of vector product
When a force F is applied on a rigid body at a point whose position vector is r from any point
of the axis about which the body rotates, then the turning effect of the force, called the torque
τ=rxF
The force on a particle of charge q and velocity v in a magnetic field of strength B is given by
vector product.
F = q (v x B)

Position Vectors
Position vector : is a vector that
goes from the origin of the
coordinates to point P.
The position vector can be written in terms of its
components: So there are two ways to reach
position P: either directly along vector ; or by 3
displacements along each of the axes.

𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
In one dimension
x = x2 (t2 ) − x1 (t1 )
x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m, x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m

In two dimensions
Position: the position of an object is described by

its position vector r (t ) always points to particle
from origin.
Displacement:
  
r = r2 − r1

r = ( x2iˆ + y2 ˆj ) − ( x1iˆ + y1 ˆj )
= ( x2 − x1 )iˆ + ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj
= xiˆ + yˆj

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Speed and velocity
Speed is a measurement of how fast an object moves relative to a reference point. It does not
have a direction and is considered a magnitude or scalar quantity. So we can also consider the
speed as the magnitude of velocity. Speed can be figured by the formula:
Speed = Distance/Time
or
s = d/t
➢ The direction of is the same as the displacement .
➢ The standard unit for speed is m/s.
➢ Dimensional formula of speed is [LT-1].
There are different types of speed Such as:

Average speed:
The average speed of an object is greater than or equal to the magnitude of the average
velocity over a given interval of time. The two are equal only if the path length is equal to the
magnitude of the displacement.

Uniform Speed:
If an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time than the speed of the moving
object is called uniform speed. In this type of motion, position – time graph is always a
straight line.

Instantaneous speed:
Instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at any particular moment in time. It is different
from average speed because average speed is the total distance divided by total time.
In this measurement, the time ∆t→0.
s
v = lim
Instantaneous speed t → 0 t

Velocity:
When an object is in motion, its position changes with time. But how fast is the position
changing with time and in what direction? To describe this, we define the quantity average
velocity. Average velocity is defined as the change in position or displacement (Δx) divided
by the time intervals (Δt), in which the displacement occurs:

The rate of change of displacement of an object in a particular direction with respect to time is
called velocity.
Velocity =Displacement /Time
Velocity is a vector quantity its SI unit is meter per second (m/s). Its dimensional formula is
[L T -1]. It may be negative, positive or zero. Velocity can be average, instantaneous, variable
as well as uniform.

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Displacement-time graphs:
In physics graph is very powerful tool to find out the visually relation between two quantities.
Displacement-time graphs show how the displacement of a moving object changes with time.

(a) There is no velocity (b) Uniform velocity (c) Variable velocity

Figure 2.11

Average velocity:
It is the total displacement covered by a body divided by total time taken.
➢ If the instantaneous velocity of a body becomes equal to the average velocity, then
body is said to be moving with uniform velocity.
➢ Mathematically average velocity of a body can be written as:

 r
Average velocity vavg 
t
 x ˆ y ˆ
vavg = i+ j = vavg , x iˆ + vavg , y ˆj
t t
Instantaneous velocity is the speed of an object at any
particular moment in time. In this measurement, the time
∆t→0.
 
  r dr
v  lim vavg = lim =
t →0 t →0 t dt

 dr dx ˆ dy ˆ
v= = i+ j = v x iˆ + v y ˆj
dt dt dt
v is tangent to the path in x-y graph;

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Example: A turtle starts at the origin and moves with the speed of v0=10 cm/s in the direction
of 25° to the horizontal.

(a) Find the coordinates of a turtle 10 seconds later.

(b) How far did the turtle walk in 10 seconds?

Note, you can solve the equations

independently for the horizontal (x) and
vertical (y) components of motion and then
combine them!
  
v0 = v x + v y
❑ X components:
v0 x = v0 cos 25 = 9.06 cm/s x = v0 x t = 90.6 cm
❑ Y components:
v0 y = v0 sin 25 = 4.23 cm/s y = v0 y t = 42.3 cm
❑ Distance from the origin:
d = x 2 + y 2 = 100.0 cm

Acceleration:
The velocity of an object, in general, changes during its course of motion. How to describe this
change? Should it be described as the rate of change in velocity with distance or with time?
This was a problem even in Galileo’s time. It was first thought that this change could be
described by the rate of change of velocity with distance. But, through his studies of motion of
freely falling objects and motion of objects on an inclined plane, Galileo concluded that the
rate of change of velocity with time is a constant of motion for all objects in free fall. On the
other hand, the change in velocity with distance is not constant– it decreases with the
increasing distance of fall this led to the concept of acceleration as the rate of change of
velocity with time. So, acceleration can be defined as the change in velocity with respect to
time.
Acceleration = Change in velocity /time taken
➢ It is a vector quantity, Its SI unit is meter/ sec2 (m/s2).
➢ Its dimension is [L T -2].
➢ It may be positive, negative or zero.
Positive Acceleration:
If the velocity of an object increases with time, its acceleration is positive.
Negative Acceleration:
If the velocity of an object decreases with time, its acceleration is negative. The negative
acceleration is also called retardation or deceleration.
(i) Uniform acceleration: A body is said to have uniform acceleration if magnitude and
direction of the acceleration remains constant during particle motion.

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 Note: If a particle is moving with uniform acceleration, this does not necessarily imply
that particle is moving in straight line. e.g. Projectile motion.
(ii) Non-uniform acceleration: A body is said to have non-uniform acceleration, if
magnitude or direction or both, change during motion.
Average & Instantaneous Acceleration:
Average acceleration
The direction of average acceleration vector is the direction of the change in velocity vector as

 v
aavg 
t
 v v y
aavg = x iˆ + ˆj = aavg , xiˆ + aavg , y ˆj
t t
Instantaneous acceleration
  
  v dv  dv dvx ˆ dvy ˆ
a  lim aavg = lim = a= = i+ j = axiˆ + a y ˆj
t →0 t →0 t dt dt dt dt
Instantaneous acceleration is defined as. The ratio of change in velocity during a given time
interval such that the time interval goes to zero.
➢ The magnitude of the velocity (the speed) can change
➢ The direction of the velocity can change, even though the magnitude is constant
➢ Both the magnitude and the direction can change

A velocity time graph

A velocity time ( v-t graph ) shows the particle’s velocity vx as a function of time t.
The average acceleration of a body is related to the slope of an v-t graph as below:

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A vx-t graph and a motion diagram
On vx-t graph the slope of the tangent is the instantaneous acceleration for a particle.

Various velocity – time graphs and their interpretation

 = 0, a = 0, v = constant
Velocity

i.e., line parallel to time axis represents that the particle is

moving with constant velocity.
O
Time

 = 90o, a = , v = increasing
i.e., line perpendicular to time axis represents that the particle
Velocity

is increasing its velocity, but time does not change. It means

the particle possesses infinite acceleration. Practically it is not
O
Time possible.
Velocity

 =constant, so a = constant and v is increasing uniformly

with time
O Time
i.e., line with constant slope represents uniform acceleration of
the particle.
Velocity

 increasing so acceleration increasing

i.e., line bending towards velocity axis represent the increasing
O acceleration in the body.
Time

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 Velocity  decreasing so acceleration decreasing
i.e. line bending towards time axis represents the decreasing
acceleration in the body
O Time
Velocity

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o

O
but initial velocity of the particle is negative.
Time
Velocity

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o

but initial velocity of particle is positive.
O
Time
Velocity

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and >

O 90o but initial velocity of the particle is positive.
Time
Velocity

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and >

O 90o but initial velocity of the particle is zero.
Time
Velocity

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o

O
Time but initial velocity of the particle is negative.

Equations of Motion For Uniform Acceleration

Either you are fan of Cricket, Hockey, Soccer or any other sport, What is the first thing that is
taught when you first start training for these or any other sports? It understands the correct
motion, speed acceleration or the Equations of Motion. Once you became the master the
Equations of Motion you will be capable to predict and understand every motion in the world.
As we have already discussed earlier, motion is the state of change in position of an object
over time. It is described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time and
speed. Jogging, driving a car, and even simply taking a walk are all everyday examples of
motion. The relations between these quantities are known as the equations of motion. In case
of uniform acceleration, there are three equations of motion which are also known as the laws
of constant acceleration. Hence, these equations are used to derive the components like

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displacement(s), velocity (initial and final), time(t) and acceleration(a). Therefore they can
only be applied when acceleration is constant and motion is a straight line. The three equations
are,

Vf = Vi + at
Vf = Vi2 + 2as
s = Vit + ½at²
where, s = displacement; vi = initial velocity; vf = final velocity; a = acceleration; t = time of
motion. Where displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a) and
time (T).
➢ Equations of kinematics are valid for uniform acceleration.

Derivation of Equation of Motion

The equations of motion can be derived using the following methods:
➢ Derivation of equations of motion by Simple Algebraic Method
➢ Derivation of equations of Motion by Graphical Method
In the next few sections, the equations of motion are derived by all the three methods in a
simple and easy to understand way.

Derivation of First Equation of Motion

For the derivation, let us consider a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration.
Then, let the initial velocity be u, acceleration is denoted as a, time period is denoted as t,
velocity is denoted as v, and the distance travelled is denoted as s.
Derivation of First Equation of Motion by Algebraic Method
We know that the acceleration of the body is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Mathematically, acceleration is represented as follows:
a=(v−u)/t
Where v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity.
Rearranging the above equation, we arrive at the first equation of motion as follows:
v = u + at
Derivation of First Equation of Motion by Graphical Method
The first equation of motion can be derived using a velocity-time graph for a moving object
with an initial velocity of u, final velocity v, and
acceleration a.
In the above graph,
The velocity of the body changes from A to B in
time t at a uniform rate.
BC is the final velocity and OC is the total time t.
A perpendicular is drawn from B to OC, a parallel
line is drawn from A to D, and another
perpendicular is drawn from B to OE (represented
by dotted lines).
Following details are obtained from the graph above:

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The initial velocity of the body, u = OA
The final velocity of the body, v = BC
From the graph, we know that
BC = BD + DC
Therefore, v = BD + DC
v = BD + OA (since DC = OA)
Finally,
v = BD + u (since OA = u) ………….Equation 1
Now, since the slope of a velocity-time graph is equal to acceleration a,
So,
a = slope of line AB
a = BD/AD
Since AD = AC = t, the above equation becomes:
BD = at ……….. Equation 2
Now, combining Equation 1 & 2, the following is obtained:
v = u + at

Derivation of Second Equation of Motion

For the derivation of the second equation of motion, consider the same variables that were
used for derivation of the first equation of motion.

Derivation of Second Equation of Motion by Algebraic Method

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. This is mathematically represented
as:
Velocity = Displacement × Time
Rearranging, we get
Displacement = Average Velocity × Time
If the velocity is not constant then in the above equation we can use average velocity in the
place of velocity and rewrite the equation as follows:
Displacement = (Initial Velocity +Final Velocity)/2 ×Time
Substituting the above equations with the notations used in the derivation of the first equation
of motion, we get
s=(u+v)/2×t
From the first equation of motion, we know that v = u + at. Putting this value of v in the above
equation, we get
s=u+(u+at)/2×t
s=(2u+at)/2×t
s=(2u2+at)/2×t
s=(u+1/2at)×t
On further simplification, the equation becomes:
s=ut+1/2at2

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Derivation of Second Equation of Motion by Graphical Method

From the graph above, we can say that

Distance travelled (s) = Area of figure OABC = Area of triangle ABD + Area of rectangle
OADC
s=(1/2AB×BD)+(OA×OC)
Since BD = EA, the above equation becomes
s=(1/2AB×EA)+(u×t)
As EA = at, the equation becomes because V= at; EA represent the velocity (V)
s=1/2×at×t+ut
by rearranging, the equation becomes
s=ut+1/2at2
Derivation of Third Equation of Motion
Derivation of Third Equation of Motion by Algebraic Method
We know that, displacement is the rate of change of position of an object. Mathematically, this
can be represented as:
Displacement=[(InitialVelocity+FinalVelocity/2)]×t
Substituting the standard notations, the above equation becomes
s=((u+v)/2)×t
From the first equation of motion, we know that
v=u+at
Rearranging the above formula, we get value of t
t=(v−u)a
Substituting the value of t in the displacement formula, we get
s=((v+u)/2)((v−u)a)
s=(v2−u2)/ 2a
2as=v2−u2
Rearranging, we get
v2=u2+2as

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Derivation of Third Equation of Motion by Graphical Method

From the graph, we can say that

The total distance travelled, s is given by the Area of trapezium OABC.
Hence,
S = ½ (Sum of Parallel Sides) × Height
S=1/2 (OA+CB)×OC
Since, OA = u, CB = v, and OC = t
The above equation becomes
S= ½ (u+v) × t
Now, since t = (v – u)/ a
The above equation can be written as:
S= ½ ((u+v) × (v-u))/a
Rearranging the equation, we get
S= ½ (v+u) × (v-u)/a
S = (v2-u2)/2a
Third equation of motion is obtained by solving the above equation:
v2 = u2+2aS
Motions in each dimension are independent components
   
vx = v0 x + a xt r − r = v0t + 12 at 2
Constant acceleration equations

vx = v0 x + a xt vy = v0 y + ayt
vx = v0 x + 2ax ( x − x0 ) y − y0 = v0 y t + 12 a y t 2
2 2

x − x0 = v0 x t + 12 a x t 2 v y = v0 y + 2a y ( y − y0 )
2 2

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➢ Constant acceleration equations hold in each dimension
➢ t = 0 beginning of the process;

➢ a = a x iˆ + a y ˆj where ax and ay are constant;
 
Initial velocity v0 = v0 x iˆ + v0 y ˆj initial displacement r0 = x0iˆ + y0 ˆj
Projectile Motion
Description: In this universe we see different objects motion in different dimensions, some are
moving along a linear path, like a car travelling along a rectilinear path and some are moving
along a circular path/track. If a cricketer hits a ball which is placed on the ground, this ball will
follow a curved path and will hit the ground, also if a missile is fired then we see it will always
follow a curved path which are the examples of two dimensional motion. In this section we
will be able to know the answers of these question that what affects the motion of bodies
which is responsible for the curved Path motion of bodies.

Projectile motion
➢ Definition: The motion of an object in a plane under the influence of force of gravity
of earth.
➢ Gravitational force of earth is responsible for the Projectile motion and the curved
path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.

Assumptions for projectile motion

It is easy to analyze the projectile motion if following assumptions are in consider:

1. The value of acceleration due to gravity is considered as constant throughout the
projectile motion and it is always directed downwards.
2. The effect of air resistance is negligible.
3. Projectile motion is not affected due to rotation of an earth.

Average velocity vector

The red ball is dropped at the same time that the yellow ball
is fired horizontally. Photos are separated by equal time
intervals, ∆𝑡. At any time the two balls have the same: 𝑦,𝑦.
The yellow ball has equal ∆𝑥, and 𝑣𝑥 during each time ∆𝑡.
Projectile motion is analyzed to two motions: horizontal
motion with constant velocity and vertical motion with
constant acceleration

Figure 2.12

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The x and y motion in projectile motion

𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔
Horizontal Vertical

vx = v0 x + a xt vy = v0 y + ayt
x − x0 = v0 x t + 12 a x t 2 y − y0 = v0 y t + 12 a y t 2
vx = v0 x + 2ax ( x − x0 ) v y 2 = v0 y 2 + 2a y ( y − y0 )
2 2

2-D problem and define a coordinate system.

Horizontal: ax = 0 and vertical: ay = -g.
Try to pick x0 = 0, y0 = 0 at t = 0.
Velocity initial conditions:
v0 can have x, y components.

v0x is constant. v0 x = v0 cos 0

v0y changes continuously. v0 x = v0 sin 0
After considering all the conditions the
Equations will be

v x = v0 x v y = v0 y − gt
x = x0 + v0 xt y = y0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2

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Trajectory of Projectile Motion
The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
Initial conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 = 0
v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0y = v0 sinθ0

Horizontal motion:
x
x = 0 + v0 x t  t=
v0 x
Vertical motion:
y = 0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2 2
 x  g x 
y = v0 y   −  
 0x 
v 2  0x 
v
g
y = x tan  0 − x2
2v0 cos  0
2 2

Parabola;
θ0 = 0 and θ0 = 90 ?

What is R and h ?
Initial conditions (t = 0): x0 = 0, y0 = 0
v0x = v0 cosθ0 and v0y = v0 sinθ0, then
x = 0 + v0 xt 0 = 0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2
2v0 y 2v0 sin 0
t= =
g g
2v0 cos 0 v0 sin  0 v0 sin 2 0
2
R = x − x0 = v0 x t = =
g g
2
t gt 
h = y − y0 = v0 y th − 12 gth = v0 y −  
2

2 2 2
v0 sin 2  0
2
h=
2g

v x = v0 x v y = v0 y − gt
2v0 y
v y = v0 y − gt = v0 y − g = −v0 y
g
x = x0 + v0 xt y = y0 + v0 y t − 12 gt 2

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Projectile Motion at Various Initial Angles
Complementary values of the initial angle
result in the same range
➢ The heights will be different
The maximum range occurs at a
projection angle of 45o
v sin 2
2
R= 0
g

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Section (A): Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. To get a resultant displacement of 10m, two displacement vectors of magnitude 6m and
8m should be combined _____________________:
(a) Parallel (b) Antiparallel
(c) At an angle of 45⁰ (d) Perpendicular to each other
2. The velocity of a particle at an instant is 10 m/s and after 5sec the velocity of particle is
20m/s. The velocity 3 sec before in m/s is _______________________:
(a) 8 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 7
3. A ball is thrown upwards with a velocity of 100 m/s. It will reach the ground after ____:
(a) 10 sec (b) 20 sec (c) 5 sec (d) 40 sec
4. Two projectiles are fired from the same point with the same speed at angles of
projection 60⁰ and 30⁰ respectively. Which one of the following is true?
(a) The range will be same (b) Their maximum height will be same
(c) Their landing velocity will be same (d) Their time of flight will be same
5. The ratio of numerical values of average velocity and average speed of a body is always
________:
(a) Unity (b) Unity or less (c) Unity or more (d) Less than unity
6. If the average velocities of a body become equal to the instantaneous velocity, body is
said to be moving with ____________________:
(a) Uniform acceleration (b) Uniform velocity
(c) Variable velocity (d) Variable acceleration
7. At the top of a trajectory of a projectile, the acceleration is____________:
(a) maximum (b) minimum (c) zero (d) g
8. A motorist travels A to B at a speed at 40 km/h and returns at a speed of 60 km/h. His
average speed will be ____________________:
(a) 40 km/h (b) 48 km/h (c) 50 km/h (d) 60 km/h
9. By which velocity a ball be projected vertically so that the distance covered by it in 5 th
second is twice the distance it covers in 6th second (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) 58.8 m/ (b) 49 m/s (c) 65 m/s (d) 19.6 m/s
10. At what angle the range of projectile becomes equal to the height of projectile?
(a) 65⁰ (b) 45 (c) 76⁰ (d) 30⁰
11. Distance travelled by a body falling from rest in the first, second and third second is in
the ratio of:
(a) 1: 2: 3 (b) 1: 3: 5 (c) 1 : 4 : 9 (d) None of these
12. If the water falls from a dam into a turbine wheel 19.6 m below, then the velocity of
water at the turbine is: (g = 10 m/s2)
(a) 9.8 m/s (b) 19.6 m/s (c) 39.2 m/s (d) 98 m/s
13. If an iron ball and a wooden ball of the same radius was released from a height h in
⁰ vacuum, then time taken by both of them to reach the ground will be ___________:
(a) Unequal (b) exactly equal (c) roughly equal (d) zero

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 14. If a body starts from rest and travels 120 cm in the 6th second then what is acceleration?
(a) 0.20 m/s2 (b) 0.027 m/s2 (c) 0.218 m/s2 (d) 0.03 m/s2
15. The range of projectile is maximum at an angle of _________________________:
(a) 65⁰ (b) 45⁰ (c) 76⁰ (d) 30⁰
16. A 2 kg body and a 3 kg body have equal momentum. If the kinetic energy of 3 kg body
is 10 J, the K.E of 2 kg body will be ____________________:
(a) 6.66 J (b) 15 J (c) 22.5 J (d) 45 J
17. A body whose momentum is constant, must have constant ___________________ :
(a) acceleration (b) velocity (c) force (d) None of these
18. The angle at which dot product becomes equal to the cross product is __________:
(a) 65⁰ (b) 45⁰ (c) 76⁰ (d) 30⁰
19. The resultant of n forces of different magnitudes acting at a point is zero, then minimum
value of n is:
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
20. If the dot product of two non-zero vectors vanishes; the vectors will be __________:
(a) in the same direction (b) opposite direction to each other
(c) perpendicular to each other (d) zero

ERQs
1. A helicopter is ascending at the rate of 12 m/s . At a height of 80 m above the ground,
a package is dropped. How long does the package take to reach the ground? (Ans: 5.4 sec)
2. Two tug boats are towing a ship each exerts a force of 6000 N, and the angle
between two ropes is 60⁰. Calculate the resultant force on the ship? (Ans: 10392 N)
3. The magnitude of dot and cross product of two vectors are 10√3 and 10 respectively.
Find the angle between the vectors? (Ans: 30⁰)
4. Find the projection of the vector 𝐴 = 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = 4𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 7𝑘 ?
(Ans: 19/9)
5. A car starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration. During the 5 th second of its
motion, it covers a distance of 36 meters. Calculate:
(a) acceleration of the car
(b) the total distance covered by the car during this time. (Ans: 8m/s2, 100 m)
6. Show that the range of projectile at complementary angles are same with examples?
7. A football is thrown upward with an angle of 30⁰ with respect to the horizontal.
To throw a 40 m pass what must be the initial speed of the ball? (Ans: 21 m/s)
8. A marter shell is fired at a ground level target 500 m distance with an initial velocity
of 90 m/s. What is the launch angle? (Ans: 71.4⁰)
9. Determine the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖 − 6𝑗 − 3𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝟑 𝟐 𝟔
⃗⃗ = 4𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘 ?
𝐵 (Ans: 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 )
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕

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