LECTURE NOTES

ON

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKS

IV B. Tech II semester (JNTUH-R18)

Mrs. D.JYOTHI, Asst. Professor

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Sri Indu College of Engineering & Technology

(AUTONOMOUS)
Hyderbad
SYLLABUS

UNIT-I
The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals: Introduction, Frequency Reuse, Channel
Assignment Strategies, Handoff Strategies- Prioritizing Handoffs, Practical Handoff Considerations,
Interference and system capacity — Co channel Interference and system capacity, Channel planning for
Wireless Systems, Adjacent Channel interference , Power Control for Reducing interference, Trunking and
Grade of Service, Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular Systems- Cell Splitting, Sectoring.

UNIT—II
Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss: Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation, Free Space
Propagation Model, Relating Power to Electric Field, The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms, Reflection-
Reflection from Dielectrics, Brewster Angle, Reflection from prefect conductors, Ground Reflection (Two-
Ray) Model, Diffraction-Fresnel Zone Geometry, Knife-edge Diffraction Model, Multiple knife-edge
Diffraction, Scattering, Outdoor Propagation Models- Longley-Ryce Model, Okumura Model, Hata Model,
PCS Extension to Hata Model, Walfisch and Bertoni Model, Wideband PCS Microcell Model, lndoor
Propagation Models-Partition losses (Same Floor), Partition losses between Floors, Log-distance path loss
model, Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model, Attenuation Factor Model, Signal penetration into buildings,
Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling.
.
UNIT —III
Mobile Radio Propagation: Small —Scale Fading and Multipath: Small Scale Multipath propagation-
Factors influencing small scale fading, Doppler shift, Impulse Response Model of a multipath channel-
Relationship between Bandwidth and Received power, Small-Scale Multipath Measurements-Direct RF
Pulse System, Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding, Frequency Domain Channels
Sounding, Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels-Time Dispersion Parameters, Coherence Bandwidth,
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time, Types of Small-Scale Fading-Fading effects Due to Multipath Time
Delay Spread, Flat fading, Frequency selective fading, Fading effects Due to Doppler Spread-Fast fading,
slow fading, Statistical Models for multipath Fading Channels-Clarke’s model for flat fading, spectral shape
due to Doppler spread in Clarke’s model, Simulation of Clarke and Gans Fading Model, Level crossing and
fading statistics, Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model.

UNIT -IV
Equalization and Diversity: Introduction, Fundamentals of Equalization, Training A Generic Adaptive
Equalizer, Equalizers in a communication Receiver, Linear Equalizers, Non-linear Equalization-Decision
Feedback Equalization (DFE), Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) Equalizer, Algorithms
for adaptive equalization-Zero Forcing Algorithm, Least Mean Square Algorithm, Recursive least squares
algorithm. Diversity Techniques-Derivation of selection Diversity improvement, Derivation of Maximal
Ratio Combining improvement, Practical Space Diversity Consideration-Selection Diversity, Feedback or
Scanning Diversity, Maximal Ratio Combining, Equal Gain Combining, Polarization Diversity, Frequency
Diversity, Time Diversity, RAKE Receiver.
UNIT -V
Wireless Networks: Introduction to wireless Networks, Advantages and disadvantages of Wireless Local
Area Networks, WLAN Topologies, WLAN Standard IEEE 802.11 ,IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control,
Comparision
of IEEE 802.11 a,b,g and n standards, IEEE 802.16 and its enhancements, Wireless PANs, Hiper Lan, WLL.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Wireless Communications, Principles, Practice — Theodore, S.Rappaport, 2nd Ed., 2002, PHI.
2. Wireless Communications-Andrea Goldsmith, 2005 Cambridge University Press.
3. Mobile Cellular Communication — Gottapu Sasibhushana Rao, Pearson Education, 2012.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Principles of Wireless Networks — Kaveh Pah Laven and P. Krishna Murthy, 2002, PE
2. Wireless Digital Communications — Kamilo Feher, 1999, PHI.
3. Wireless Communication and Networking — William Stallings, 2003,PHI.
4. Wireless Communication — Upen Dalal, Oxford Univ. Press
5. Wireless Communications and Networking — Vijay K. Gary, Elsevier.
 UNIT 1
Cellular System

Introduction

In the older mobile radio systems, single high power transmitter was used to provide
coverage in the entire area. Although this technique provided a good coverage, but it was
virtually impossible in this technique to re-use the same radio channels in the system, and
any effort to re-use the radio channels would result in interference. Therefore, in order to
improve the performance of a wireless system with the rise in the demand for the services,
a cellular concept was later proposed. This chapter will examine several parameters related
with the cellular concept.

The Cellular Concept

The design aim of early mobile wireless communication systems was to get a huge
coverage area with a single, high-power transmitter and an antenna installed on a giant
tower, transmitting a data on a single frequency. Although this method accomplished a
good coverage, but it also means that it was practically not possible to reuse the same
frequency all over the system, because any effort to reuse the same frequency would result
in interference.

The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in order to solve the problems of limited
user capacity and spectral congestion. Cellular system provides high capacity with a limited
frequency spectrum without making any major technological changes [1]. It is a system-
level idea in which a single high-power transmitter is replaced with multiple low- power
transmitters, and small segment of the service area is being covered by each transmitter,
which is referred to as a cell. Each base station (transmitter) is allocated a part of the total
number of channels present in the whole system, and different groups of radio channels
are allocated to the neighboring base stations so that all the channels
present in the system are allocated to a moderately small number of neighboring base
stations.

The mobile transceivers (also called mobile phones, handsets, mobile terminals or mobile
stations) exchange radio signals with any number of base stations. Mobile phones are not
linked to a specific base station, but can utilize any one of the base stations put up by the
company. Multiple base stations covers the entire region in such a way that the user can
move around and phone call can be carried on without interruption, possibly using more
than one base station. The procedure of changing a base station at cell boundaries is called
handover. Communication from the Mobile Station (MS) or mobile phones to the Base
Station (BS) happens on an uplink channel also called reverse link, and downlink channel
or forward link is used for communication from BS to MS. To maintain a bidirectional
communication between a MS and BS, transmission resources must be offered in both the
uplink and downlink directions. This can take place either using Frequency-Division
Duplex (FDD), in which separate frequencies are used for both uplink and downlink
channels, or through Time-Division Duplex (TDD), where uplink and downlink
communications take place on the same frequency, but vary in time.

FDD is the most efficient technique if traffic is symmetric, and FDD has also made the task
of radio planning more efficient and easier, because no interference takes place between
base stations as they transmit and receive data on different frequencies. In case of an
asymmetry in the uplink and downlink data speed, the TDD performs better than FDD. As
the uplink data rate increases, extra bandwidth is dynamically allocated to that, and as the
data rate decreases, the allotted bandwidth is taken away.
Some of the important cellular concepts are:
• Frequency reuse
• Channel Allocation
• Handoff
• Interference and system capacity
• Trunking and grade of service
• Improving coverage and capacity
 Cells using the same set of Radio channels

Fig. 1.1: Cellular Network

Frequency Reuse

Conventional communication systems faced the problems of limited service area capability
and ineffective radio spectrum utilization. This is because these systems are generally
designed to provide service in an autonomous geographic region and by selecting radio
channels from a particular frequency band. On the other hand, the present mobile
communication systems are designed to offer a wide coverage area and highgrade of
service. These systems are also expected to provide a continuous communication through
an efficient utilization of available radio spectrum. Therefore, the design of mobile radio
network must satisfy the following objectives i.e., providing continuous service, and wide
service area, while efficiently using the radio spectrum.

In order to achieve these objectives, the present mobile systems use cellular networks
which depend more on an intelligent channel allocation and reuse of channels throughout
the region . Each base station is allocated a set of radio channels, which are to be used in
a geographic area called a cell. Base stations in the neighboring cells are allocated radio
channel sets, which are entirely different. The antennas of base station antennas are
designed to get the required coverage within the specific cell. By restricting the coverage
area of a base station to within the cell boundaries, the same set of radio channels can be
used in the different cells that are separated from each other by distances which are large
enough in order to maintain interference levels within limits. The procedure of radio sets
selection and allocation to all the base stations present within a network is called frequency
reuse .

Fig. 1.1 shows the frequency reuse concept in a cell in a cellular network, in which cells
utilize the same set of radio channels. The frequency reuse plan indicates where different
radio channels are used. The hexagonal shape of cell is purely theoretical and is a simple
model of radio coverage for each base station, although it has been globally adopted as the
hexagon permits the easy analysis of a cellular system. The radio coverage of a cell can be
calculated from field measurements. Although the actual radio coverage is very
amorphous, a natural shape of a cell is required for an organized system design. While a
circle is generally chosen to represent the coverage area of BS, but the circles present in
the neighborhood cannot cover the entire region without leaving gaps or overlapping
regions. Therefore, when selecting the cell shapes which can cover the entire geographical
region without overlapping, there are three choices possible: a hexagon, square, and
triangle. A particular design of the cell chosen in order to serve the weakest mobiles within
the coverage area, and these are generally present at the cell boundaries of the cell. As
hexagon covers the largest area from the center of a polygon to its farthest point, therefore,
hexagon geometry can cover the entire geographic region to the fullest with minimum
number of cells. When hexagon geometry is used to cover the entire geographic area, the
base stations are either put up at the center of the cell, these cells are also called center
excited cells or at the three of the six vertices (edge excited cells). Generally, center excited
cells use omni-directional antennas and corner excited cells use directional antennas, but
practically considerations for placing base stations are not exactly the same as they are
shown in the hexagonal layouts.

Channel Reuse Schemes

The radio channel reuse model can be used in the time and space domain. Channel reuse
in the time domain turns out to be occupation of same frequency in different time slots
and is also called Time Division Multiplexing. Channel reuse in the space domain is
categorized into:
a) Same channel is allocated in two different areas, e.g. AM and FM radio
stations using same channels in two different cities.
b) Same channel is frequently used in same area and in one system the
scheme used is cellular systems. The entire spectrum is then divided into K
reuse sets.

1
1

2
2

1
2

2
4

5
3 1
2 4
6

1
1 3 1
2
1

4 2
1
2

K=4
B q=D/R=4
B K=7
A
A

A
 Fig. 1.2: K-Cell Reuse Pattern
Locating Co-channel Cells in a Cellular Network

Cells, which use the same set of channels, are called co-channels cells. For determining
the location of co-channel cell present in the neighborhood, two shift parameters i and j

are used where i and j are separated by 600 , as shown in Fig. 1.3 below. The shift
parameters can have any value 0, 1, 2 ...,n.

j=
2
i=
j= i= 3
1 2
i-1
600
(0,0)

Fig. 1.3: Shift Parameters i and j in Hexagonal Network

To find the location of nearest co-channel cell, mark the center of the cell as (0, 0) for
which co-channel cells are to be located. Define the unit distance as the distance of centre
of two adjacent cells, and follow the two steps given below:

Step 1: Move i number of cells along i axis

Step 2: Turn 600 anti-clockwise and move j number of cells

The technique of locating co-channel cells using the preceding procedure is shown in Fig.
2.4 for i=3 and j=2. The shift parameters i and j measures the number of neighboring
cells between co-channel cells.
 Fig. 1.4: Locating Co-channel Cells when i=3 & j=2

The relationship between cluster size K and shift parameters i & j, is given below:
Let 'R' be the distance between the center of a regular hexagon to any of its vertex. A
regular hexagon is one whose all sides are also of equal length i.e. 'R'. Let 'd' be the distance
between the centre of two neighboring hexagons, and following steps are followed while
calculating the size of a cluster ‘K’.

Step 1: To show that d = 3R

Fig. 1.5: Distance Between two adjacent cells

From the geometry of the Fig. 2.5, OA = R and AB = R/2 (2.1)
Then, OB = OA + AB = R + R/2 = 3R/2 (2.2)
Then, in right-angled  OAP

OP = OA sin 600 = ( )
3/2R (1.3)
Let the distance between the centers of two neighboring hexagonal cells, OQ, be
denoted by ‘d’, then,
OQ = OP + PQ (where OP = PQ)

Therefore, ( )  (
d = 3/2R + 3/2R )
Hence, d = 3R (1.4)

Step 2: Area of a small hexagon, Asmall hexagon W

The area of a hexagonal cell with radius R is given as

( )
Asmall hexagon = 3 3 / 2  R 2 (1.5)

Step 3: To find the relation between D, d and shift parameters

Let ‘D’ be the distance between the center of a particular cell under consideration to
the centre of the nearest co-channel cell.

i
Z

1200

Fig. 1.6: Relationship Between K and Shift Parameters (i & j)

Using cosine formula  XYZ in Fig. 2.6, we have
XZ2 = XY2 + YZ2 - 2  XY  YZ cos 1200
or, D2 = (i  d)2 + (j  d)2 - 2  (i  d)  (j  d) cos1200 D2
= (i  d)2 + (j  d)2 - 2  (i  d)  (j  d)  (-1/2)D2 =
(i  d)2 + (j  d)2 + (i  d)  (j  d)
D2 = d2 (i2 + j2 + i  j) (1.6)
D2 = 3  R2  (i2 + j2 + i  j) (1.7)

Step 4: To find the area of a large hexagon, Alarge hexagon

By joining the centers of the six nearest neighboring co-channel cells, a large hexagon
is formed with radius equal to D, which is also the co-channel cell separation. Refer
Fig. 1.7.

C1
C1

C1
R Large
C1 hexagon

C1
Small
hexagon
C1

Fig. 1.7: Larger Hexagon in the First Tier

The area of the large hexagon having a radius D can be given as

( )
Alarge hexagon = 3 3 / 2  D 2 (1.8)
Using equation 1.7
( ) (
Alarge hexagon = 3 3 / 2  3 R 2  i 2 + j 2 + i  j ) (1.9)

Step 7: To find the number of cells in the large hexagon (L)

Number of cells in large hexagon
L = Alarge hexagon / Asmall hexagon (1.10)
Using equations 2.9, 2.5 & 2.10, we get
L = 3  (i2 + j2 + i  j) (1.11)

Step 8: Find the correlation between L and cluster size K

It can be seen from Fig. 2.8, that the larger hexagon is created by joining the centers
of co-channel cells present in the first tier contains 7 cells of the central cluster plus
1/3rd of the number of 7 cells of all the neighboring six clusters. Therefore, it can be
calculated that the larger hexagon consisting of the central cluster of K cells plus 1/3rd
the number of the cells connected with six neighboring clusters present in the first tier.

Large
hexagon

Small
hexagon

Fig. 2.8: Number of Clusters in the First Tier for N=7

Hence, the total number of cells enclosed by the larger hexagon is

L = K + 6  [(1 / 3)  K)
L=3 K (1.12)
 Step 9: To establish relation between K and shift parameters
From equation 1.11 and 1.12, we get
3  K = 3  (i2 + j2 + i  j)
K = (i2 + j2 + i  j) (1.13)

The Table 1.1 shows the frequency reuse patterns along with the cluster sizes

Table 1.1: Frequency Reuse Pattern and Cluster Size

Frequency Reuse Pattern Cluster Size

(I, j) K = (i2 + j2 + i  j)
(1, 1) 3
(2, 0) 4
(2, 1) 7
(3, 0) 9
(2, 2) 12
(3, 1) 13
(4, 0) 16
(2, 3) 19
(4, 1) 21
(5, 0) 25

Frequency Reuse Distance

To reuse the same set of radio channels in another cell, it must be separated by a distance
called frequency reuse distance, which is generally represented by D.

Reusing the same frequency channel in different cells is restricted by co-channel

interference between cells. So, it is necessary to find the minimum frequency reuse distance
D in order to minimize the co-channel interference. Fig. 2.9 illustrates the separation of
cells by frequency reuse distance in a cluster of 7 cells. In order to derive a
formula to compute D, necessary properties of regular hexagon cell geometry are first
discussed.

7
7 6 2
6 2 1
1 5 3
5 3 4
4

Frequency reuse distance (D)

Fig. 1.9: Frequency Reuse Distance

The frequency reuse distance (D), which allows the same radio channel to be reused in
co-channel cells, depends on many factors:
• the number of co-channel cells in the neighborhood of the central cell
• the type of geographical terrain
• the antenna height
• the transmitted signal strength by each cell-site

Suppose the size of all the cells in a cellular is approximately same, and it is usually
calculated by the coverage area of the proper signal strength in every cell. The co-channel
interference does not depend on transmitted power of each, if the cell size is fixed, i.e., the
threshold level of received signal at the mobile unit is tuned to the size of the cell.
The co-channel interference depends upon the frequency reuse ratio, q, and is defined as

q=D/R

Where D is the distance between the two neighboring co-channel cells, and R is the radius
of the cells. The parameter q is also referred to as the frequency reuse ratio or co-
channel reuse ratio. The following steps are used to find the relationship between
frequency reuse ratio q and cluster size K
Fig. 2.10 shows an array of regular hexagonal cells, where R is the cell radius. Due to the
hexagonal geometry each hexagon has exactly six equidistant neighbors.

2
7

3
6

1
4
5
d

Fig. 1.10: Distance Between Two Adjacent Cells (d)

Let d be the distance between two cell centers of neighboring cells. Therefore,
d= 3R

The relationship between D, d, and shift parameters is

D2 = 3  R2  (i2 + j2 + i  j)
As K = i2 + j2 + i  j
D2 = 3  R2  K
D2
=3 K
R2
D
= 3K
R
As q = D/R
q= 3K

Thus, the frequency reuse ratio q can be computed from the cluster size K. Table 2.2
shows the frequency reuse ratios for different cluster sizes, K
 Table 1.2: Frequency Reuse Ratio and Cluster Size

Cluster Size Frequency Reuse Ratio

K q= 3K
3 3.00
4 3.46
7 4.58
9 5.20
12 6.00
13 6.24
19 7.55
21 7.94
27 9.00

As the D/R measurement is a ratio, if the cell radius is decreased, then the distance between
co-channel cells must also be decreased by the same amount, for keeping co-channel
interference reduction factor same. On the other hand, if a cell has a large radius, then the
distance between frequency reusing cells must be increased proportionally in order to have
the same D/R ratio.

As frequency reuse ratio (q) increases with the increase in cluster size (K), the smaller value
of K largely increase the capacity of the cellular system. But it will also increase the co-
channel interference. Therefore, the particular value of q (or K) is selected in order to keep
the signal-to-cochannel interference ratio at an acceptable level. If all the antennas transmit
the same power, then with the increase in K, the frequency reuse distance (D) increases, and
reduce the likelihood that co-channel interference may occur. Therefore, the challenge is to
get the optimal value of K so that the desired system performance can be achieved in terms
of increased system capacity, efficient radio spectrum utilization and signal quality.
 Channel Allocation Schemes

For effective utilization of the radio spectrum, a channel reuse scheme is required which
must be able to increase the capacity and reduce interference. Several channel allocation
schemes have been proposed to address these objectives. Channel allocation schemes are
classified into fixed, dynamic, and hybrid. The selection of a particular channel allocation
scheme influences the performance of the system, mainly how to manage the calls when
a call is handed-over from one cell to another [190], [117], [186], [163].

In a fixed channel allocation scheme, a set of nominal channels are permanently allocated
to each cell. Any call generated from within the cell can only be served by the idle radio
channels present in that cell. If all the radio channels present in that cell are occupied, then
the call is blocked. However, there exist a several variations of the fixed allocation. In one
of the variation, a cell can borrow channels from neighboring cells if its own channels are
already busy, and this scheme is called channel borrowing strategy. Such a borrowing
procedure is being managed by mobile switching center (MSC) and it try to make sure that
the borrowing of a radio channel form neighboring cells does not interfere with any of the
existing calls present in the donor cell.

In a dynamic channel allocation scheme, cells are not allocated radio channels
permanently. Instead, every time when a call is received, the serving base station (BS)
enquires a channel from the MSC. The MSC allocates a channel to the cell after taking into
consideration the possibility of future blocking rate of the candidate cell, the re-use distance
of the channel, and several other parameters.

Therefore, the MSC then allocates a particular channel if that radio channel is currently not
in use in the candidate cell as well in any other neighboring cell which falls inside the
minimum channel reuse distance in order to avoid co-channel interference. The Dynamic
channel allocation minimizes the possibility of blocking, thereby increasing the trunking
capacity of the system, as all the available channels are accessible to all the cells. In
Dynamic channel allocation schemes MSC gather information on traffic distribution,
channel occupancy of all channels on a regular basis. This results in increased channel
utilization with decreased probability of dropped and blocked calls, but at the same time
the computational load on the system also increases.

Handoff Strategies

When a mobile moves from one cell to another cell when a call is in progress, the MSC
automatically shifts the call to a new channel present in the new cell. This handoff operation
requires the identification of a new base station, and channels that are associated with the
new base station.

In any cellular network, managing handoff is very important job. Many handoff schemes
give high priority to handover requests over new call requests while allocating free
channels, and it must be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible. Therefore,
in order to satisfy these requirements, optimum signal at which to begin a handoff level
must be specified by system designers. When an optimal signal level for acceptable voice
quality is specified, a somewhat stronger signal level is used as a threshold at which a
handoff is made. This margin is given by A = Pr handoff-Pr minimam_usable , and it should not be
too large or too small. If A is very large, needless handoffs which can burden the MSC may
take place, and if A is very small, there may not be a sufficient time to complete a handoff
process, before a call is vanished due to weak signal. Therefore, A should be carefully
selected to meet these contradictory requirements. Fig. 1.11 shows a handoff situation. Fig.
1.11(a) presents a case in which a handoff does not take place and the signal strength falls
below the minimum acceptable level in order to keep the channel active. This call dropping
occurs when there is tremendous delay by the MSC in allocating a handoff, or when the
threshold A is too small. During high traffic loads unnecessary delays may take place and
this happens either due to computational overloading at the MSC or no free channels are
available in any of the neighboring cells and thereby MSC has to wait until a free channel
is found in a neighboring cell.
While deciding about handoff initiation time, it is important to make sure that the drop in
the signal level is not due to temporary fading but the mobile is in fact moving away from
its base station. Therefore, base station observes the signal strength for a definite period
of time before a handoff begins. This signal strength measurement must be optimized in
order to avoid unwanted handoffs, while ensuring that unwanted handoffs are completed
before a call gets dropped. The time required to come to a decision if a handoff is needed,
depends on the speed of the vehicle at which it is moving. Information about the speed of
vehicle can also be calculated from the fading signal received at the base station.
Received Signal Level

Level at point A

Handoff threshold

Minimum acceptable signal to maintain the call

Received Signal Level

Level at point B (call is terminated)

Time

Level at point B (call is terminated)

Level at which handoff is made

Time

Fig. 1.11: Handoff Situation

The time during which a caller remains within a cell, without any handoff to the
neighboring cells, is called the dwell time . The dwell time of a call depends upon a number
of factors i.e. propagation, interference, distance between the caller and the base station,
and several other time varying factors. It has been analyzed that variation of dwell time
depends on the speed of the caller and the radio coverage type. e.g., a cell in
which radio coverage is provided to highway callers (using vehicles), a large number of
callers have a moderately steady speed and they follow fixed paths with good radio
coverage. For such instances, the dwell time for random caller is a random variable having
distribution that is highly concentrated on the mean dwell time. Whereas, for callers present
in dense, micro-cellular environments, there is normally a huge deviation of dwell time
about the mean, and the dwell times in general are shorter than the cell geometry. It is clear
that the information of dwell time is very important while designing handoff algorithms.

In first generation cellular systems, signal strength computations are done by the base
stations and monitored by the MSC. All the base stations regularly observe the signal
strengths of its reverse channels to find out the relative location of each mobile user with
respect to the base station. In addition to calculating the radio signal strength indication
(RSSI) of ongoing calls in the cell, an extra receiver in each base station, is used to find
out signal strengths of mobile users present in the neighboring cells. The extra receiver is
controlled by the MSC and is used to examine the signal strength of callers in the
neighboring cells, and informs RSSI to the MSC. Based on the RSSI values received from
each extra receiver, the MSC determines whether handoff is required or not.

In second generation cellular systems using digital TDMA technology, handoff decisions
are mobile assisted. In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), each mobile station measures the
received power from the neighboring base stations and informs these results to the serving
base station. A handoff starts when the power received from the base station of a
neighboring cell go above the power received from the present base station. In MAHO
scheme, the call to be handed off between different base stations at a lot faster speed than
in first generation systems because the handoff computations are done by each mobile and
by keeping the MSC out of these computations. MAHO is suitable for micro-cellular
network architectures where handoffs are more frequent.
When a call is in progress, if a mobile shifts from one cellular system to an another cellular
system managed by a different MSC, an intersystem handoff is required. AnMSC
performs an intersystem handoff when a signal goes weak in a particular cell and

the MSC fails to find another cell inside its system to which it can move the ongoing call,
and several issues should be addressed while intersystem handoff is implemented. e.g. a
local call might automatically turn into a long-distance call when the caller shifts out of its
home network and enters into a neighboring system.

Various systems have different methods for dealing with hand-off requests. Several
systems manage handoff requests in the same way as they manage new call requests. In
such systems, the possibility that a handoff call will not be served by a new base station is
equivalent to the blocking probability of new calls. However, if a call is terminated
unexpectedly while in progress is more frustrating than being blocked occasionally on a
new call. Therefore, to improve the quality of service, various methods have been created
to give priority to handoff call requests over new call requests while allocating channels.

Prioritizing Handoffs

One scheme for prioritizing handoffs call requests is called the guard channel concept, in
which a part of the existing channels in a cell is reserved entirely for handoff call requests.
The major drawback of this scheme is that it reduces the total carried traffic, as smaller
number of channels is allocated to new calls. However, guard channels scheme present
efficient spectrum utilization when dynamic channel allocation strategies are used.

Queuing of handoff calls is another way to minimize the forced call terminations due to
unavailability of channels in the cell. There is actually a tradeoff between the minimization
in the possibility of forced call termination of handoff calls and total carriedtraffic. Handoff
call queuing is possible as there is a fixed time interval between the time the received signal
strength falls below the handoff threshold and the time the call is terminated due to
unavailability of signal strength. The queue size and delay time is calculated from the
traffic pattern of the service area. It should be noted that queuing of
handoff calls does not promise a zero forced call terminations, because large delays will
force the received signal strength to fall below the minimum level required to maintain
communication and therefore, lead to forced handoff call termination.

Interference and System Capacity

Interference is one of the major factors affecting the performance of cellular radio systems.
Sources of interference consist of another mobile inside the same cell, an ongoing call in a
neighboring cell, other base stations transmitting signal in the same fre- quency band, or
any non-cellular system which accidentally transmits energy into the cellular frequency
band. Interference on voice signals could give rise to cross talk, where the caller hears
interference in the background due to the presence of an unwanted transmission. The
presence of interference in control channels, gives rise to missed and blocked calls.
Interference is very dangerous in urban areas, due to the presence of larger base stations
and mobile with greater RF noise. Interference has been accepted as a major obstruction in
increasing the capacity of a system and is largely responsible for dropped calls in a network.
The two major types of interferences that are taken consideration while allocating channels
to the calls are co-channel and adjacent channel interference. While interfering signals are
generated inside the cellular system by cellular transmitters, but they are difficult to control.
The interference due to out-of-band users is very difficult to control, which happens
without any word of warning, because of front end overload of subscriber equipment or
intermittent inter-modulation products.

Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

The channel reuse approach is very useful for increasing the efficiency of radio spectrum
utilization but it results in co-channel interference because the same radio channel is
repeatedly used in different co-channel cells in a network. In this case, the quality of a
received signal is very much affected both by the amount of radio coverage area and the
co-channel interference.
Co-channel interference takes place when two or more transmitters located within a
wireless system, or even a neighboring wireless system, which are transmitting on the same
radio channel. Co-channel interference happens when the same carrier frequency (base
station) reaches the same receiver (mobile phone) from two different transmitters.
This type of interference is generally generated because channel sets have been allocated
to two different cells that are nor far enough geographically, and their signals are strong
enough to cause interference to each other. Thus, co-channel interference can either modify
the receiver or mask the particular signal. It may also merge with the particular signal to
cause severe distortions in the output signal.

The co-channel interference can be evaluated by picking any particular channel and
transmitting data on that channel at all co-channel sites. In a cellular system with hexagonal
shaped cells, there are six co-channel interfering cells in the first tier. Fig. 2.12 shows a Test
1 which is set-up to calculate the co-channel interference at the mobile unit, in this test
mobile unit is not stationary but is continuously moving in its serving cell.

First tier

Interfering
Mobile Cells

Serving
Cell

Fig. 1.12: Co-channel Interference Measurement at the Mobile Unit

In a small cell system, interference will be the major dominating factor and thermal noise
can be neglected. Thus the S/I can also be written as:

S 1
I =6  Dk  − (1.14)
 
k =1  R 
where
 S/I = Signal to interference ratio at the desired mobile receiver,
S = desired signal power,
I = Interference power,
2    5 is the propagation path-loss slope and  depends on the terrain
environment.

If we assume, for simplification, that Dk is the same for the six interfering cells, i.e., D =
Dk, then the formula above becomes:

S = 1 q (1.15)
−
=
I 6(q) 6

For analog systems using frequency modulation, normal cellular practice is to specify an
S/I ratio to be 18 dB or higher based on subjective tests. An S/I of 18 dB is the measured
value for the accepted voice quality from the present-day cellular mobile receivers.

= 63.1 ) and  =4 in the Eq. (1.15), then

18
Using an S/I ratio equal to 18dB (10 10

q = 6  63.1 0.25 = 4.41 (1.17)

Substituting q from Eq. (2.17) into Eq. (2.12) yields
(4.41)2

N= = 6.49  7 . (1.18)
3
Eq. (1.18) indicates that a 7-cell reuse pattern is needed for an S/I ratio of 18 dB.

Therefore, the performance of interference-limited cellular mobile system can be

calculated from the following results.
a) If the signal-to-interference ratio (S/I) is greater than 18 dB, then the system
is said to be correctly designed.
b) If S/I is less than 18 dB and signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is greater than 18
dB, then the system is said to be experiencing with a co-channel interference
problem.
 c) If both S/I and S/N are less than 18 dB and S/I is approximately same as
S/N in a cell, then the system has a radio coverage problem.
d) If both S/I and S/N are less than 18 dB and S/I is less than S/N, the system
has both co-channel interference and radio coverage problem.

Therefore, the reciprocity theorem can be used to study the radio coverage problem, but it
does not give accurate results when used for the study of co-channel interference problem.
Therefore, it is suggested to perform Test 2 in order to measure co-channel interference at
the cell-site. In Test 2 shown in Fig. 2.13, both the mobile unit present in the serving cell
and six other mobile units present in the neighboring cells are transmitting simultaneously
at the same channel.

First tier

Interfering Cells

Fig. 1.13: Co-channel Interference Measurement at the Cell-site

The received signal strength meas are done at the serving cell, under the following
conditions: urements

• When only the mobile unit present in the serving cell transmits (signal measured
as S)

• Up to six interference levels are measured at the serving cell-site due to presence
of six mobile units in the neighboring cells (the average signal measured as I)
• Noise from sources other than mobile unit (signal measured as N)
Then the received S/I and S/N is computed at the serving cell site. The test results are
compared with the Test 1, and from the it can be easily found whether the cellular system
has a radio coverage or a co-channel interference problem or both.

Co-channel Interference Reduction Methods

Interference is major factor affecting the performance of cellular communication systems.

Sources of interference may consist of a different mobile working in the same or in the
neighboring cells, which are operating in the same frequency band that may leak energy
into the cellular band.

Cells that use same set of radio channels are called co-channel cells, and the interference
caused by the received signals coming from these cells is called co-channel interference.
If the different cells in the cellular network use different radio channels then the inter-cell
interference should be kept at a minimum level. When the number of mobile users increase
and the radio channels available in the system are limited, then, in order to satisfy this high
demand, the radio channels have to be reused in various cells. That is why for increasing
the capacity, there exist many co-channel cells which can simultaneously serve the large
number of users.

In fact, Deployment of radio channel reuse is required to improve the capacity of a system.
But, the reuse mechanism brings in co-channel interference from neighboring cells using
the same set of radio channels. Therefore, the quality of received signal gets affected by
the amount of co-channel interference and the extent of radio coverage. Therefore,
frequency reuse should be planned very carefully in order to keep the co- channel
interference at an acceptable level.
The co-channel interference can be reduced by the following methods:
a. Increasing the distance(D) between two co-channel cells, D
As D increases, the strength of interfering signal from co-channel interfering cells
decreases significantly. But it is not wise to increase D because as D is increased,
K must also be increased. High value of K means fewer number of radio channels
are available per cell for a given spectrum. This results into decrease of the system
capacity in terms of channels that are available per cell.
b. Reducing the antenna heights
Reducing antenna height is a good method to minimize the co-channel interference
in some environment, e.g., on a high hill. In the cellular system design effective
antenna height is considered rather than the actual antenna height. Therefore, the
effective antenna height changes according to the present location of the mobile
unit in such a difficult terrain.
When the antenna is put up on top of the hill, the effective antenna height gets more
than the actual antenna height. So, in order to minimize the co-channel interference,
antenna with lower height should be used without decreasing the received signal
strength either at the cell-site or at the mobile device. Similarly, lower antenna
height in a valley is very useful in minimizing the radiated power in a far-off high-
elevation area where the mobile user is believed to be present.
However, reducing the antenna height does not always minimize the co-channel
interference, e.g., in forests, the larger antenna height clears the tops of the longest
trees in the surrounding area, particularly when they are located very close to the
antenna. But reducing the antenna height would not be appropriate for minimizing
co-channel interference because unnecessary attenuation of the signal would occur
in the vicinity of the antenna as well as in the cell boundary if the height of the
antenna is below the treetop level.
c. Using directional antennas.
The use of directional antennas in every cell can minimize the co-channel
interference if the co-channel interference cannot be avoided by a fixed division of
co-channel cells. This will also improve the system capacity even if the traffic
increases. The co-channel interference can be further minimized by smartly setting
up the directional antenna.
 d. Use of diversity schemes at the receiver.
The diversity scheme used at the receiving end of the antenna is an efficient
technique for minimizing the co-channel interference because any unwanted action
performed at the receiving end to increase the signal interference would not cause
further interference. For example, the division of two receiving antennas installed
at the cell-site meeting the condition of h/s=11, (where h is the antenna height and
s is the division between two antennas), would produce the correlation coefficient
of 0.7 for a two-branch diversity system. The two correlated signals can be
combined with the use of selective combiner. The mobile transmitter could suffer
up to 7 dB minimization in power and the same performance at the cell-site can be
achieved as a non-diversity receiver. Therefore, interference from the mobile
transmitters to the receivers can be significantly reduced.

Adjacent Channel Interference

Signals from neighboring radio channels, also called adjacent channel, leak into the
particular channel, thus causing adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel
interference takes place due to the inability of a mobile phone to separate out the signals of
adjacent channels allocated to neighboring cell sites (e.g., channel 101 in cell A, and
channel 102 in cell B), where both A and D cells are present in the same reuse cluster. The
problem of adjacent channel interference can become more serious if a user transmitting
on a channel, which is extremely close to a subscriber's receiver channel, while the receiver
tries to receive a signal from base station on the desired channel. Thisis called the near
and far effect, where a neighboring transmitter catches the receiver of the user. Otherwise,
the near-far effect occurs when a mobile near to a base station transmits on a channel which
is close to the one being used by a weak mobile. The base station may find some trouble in
separating out a particular user from the one using adjacent channel

Adjacent channel interference can be reduced through careful and thorough filtering and
efficient channel allocations. As each cell is allocated only a portion of the total channels,
a cell must not be allocated channels which are located adjacent in frequency. By
maintaining the channel separation as large as possible in a given cell, the adjacent channel
interference may well be minimized significantly. Hence, instead of allocating contiguous
band of channels to each cell, channels are allocated such a way that the fre- quency
separation between channels in a given cell should be maximized. With sequentially
allocating consecutive channels to various cells, several channel allocation schemes are
capable enough to keep apart adjacent channels present in a cell with bandwidth of N
channels, where N is the size of a cluster. However, some channel allocation schemes also
avoid a secondary source of adjacent channel interference by not using the adjacent
channels in neighboring cells.

Trunking and Grade of Service

In cellular mobile communication, the two major aspects that have to be considered with
extra care are: trunking, and grade of service. These aspects are to be planned very well in
order to get a better system performance. The grade of service is a standard which is used
to define the performance of a cellular mobile communication system by specifying a
desired probability of a mobile user acquiring channel access, when a definite number of
radio channels are present in the system. The cellular communication network depends on
a trunking system to fit large number of mobile users in a limited radio band. The statistical
behavior of mobile users is being exploited by trunking so that a fixed number of channels
can be allocated to large mobile users. In trunking, large number of mobile users is being
accommodated to share the limited radio channels available in a cell.

In trunked cellular communication systems, each mobile user present in network is

allocated a channel on the basis of a request. After the call is terminated, the occupied
channels immediately go back to the pool of available channels. When a mobile user made
a request for channels and if all of the radio channels are occupied, then the incoming call
is blocked. In few communication systems, a queue is generally used to keep the requesting
mobile users until a channel becomes free. The grade of service (GOS) is used to determine
the capability of a user to get access to trunked radio systems during busy hours. The busy
hour is generally based on customer’s request for channels during peak load.
It is, therefore, necessary to approximate the maximum required capacity in terms of
number of available channels and to allocate the appropriate number of channels in order
to meet the GOS. GOS is generally defined as the probability that a call is blocked. A call
which cannot get completed after the call request is made by a user is called a blocked or
lost call, and it may happen either due to channel congestion or due to the non- availability
of a free channel. Therefore, GOS can be computed from channel congestion which is
defined as the call blocking probability, or being delayed beyond a certain time.
The traffic intensity (Au Erlangs) generated by each user is

Au =λH

where λ is the average number of calls generated per unit time and H is the average duration
of each call. If A is having U users and number of channels are not mentioned, then the
total offered traffic intensity A is
A = UAu
Additionally, if a trunked system is having C channels, and the traffic is equally divided
between the channels, then the intensity of traffic (Ac) for each radio channel is

Ac = UAu/C (1.19)

Note that when the offered traffic goes past the maximum capacity of the system, the total
carried traffic gets very limited due to the limited number of channels. The maximum
possible carried traffic is the total number of channels, C, in Erlangs. The AMPS system
is generally developed for a GOS of 2% blocking and it shows that 2 outof 100 calls will
be blocked because channels are occupied during the busiest hour.
Different types of trunked radio systems commonly used in the networks are:

1. In the first type, no queuing is offered for call requests i.e., for each user who requests
service, there exists no setup time and if free radio channel is available, it is
immediately allocated to the user. If all the channels are busy, then the requesting user
is blocked. In this trunking system, it is assumed that call arrival follows a Poisson
distribution and the trunking is also called blocked calls cleared. Moreover, it
is also assumed that there are unlimited users in the network and having the following
additional features:
(a) The channel request can be made at any time by all the mobile users (both new and
blocked users); (b) the probability of a user being allocated a channel is
exponentially distributed, therefore, occurrence of longer call duration is very
unlikely as explained by an exponential distribution; and (c) there are a fixed
number of channels present in the trunking pool, and it is known as an M/M/m
queue, which leads us to the derivation of the Erlang B formula. The Erlang B
formula helps in finding the probability that a call is blocked and also measures the
GOS for a trunked radio system which does not provide queuing for blocked calls.
The Erlang B formula is
AC
C!
Pr [blocking] = = GOS (1.20)
C
Ak
k =0 k!
where C is the number of trunked channels present in the trunked radio system and
A is the offered traffic. It is possible to design a trunked systems with fixed number
of users, but the final expressions are found to be very complex than the Erlang B,
and the added complexity is not acceptable for typical trunked radio systems in which
number of users are more than the channels present in the system.. The capacity of a
trunked radio system in which blocked calls are lost is shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Capacity of an Erlang B System

Number of Capacity (Erlangs) for GOS

Channels C = 0.01 =0.005 =0,002 =0.001
2 0.153 0.105 0.065 0.046
4 0.869 0.701 0.535 0.439
5 1.36 1.13 0.9OO 0.762
10 4.46 3.96 3.43 3.09
20 12.0 11.1 10.1 9.41
24 15.3 14.2 13.0 12.2
40 29.0 27.3 25.7 24.5
 70 56.1 53.7 51.0 49.2
100 84.1 80.9 77.4 75.2

2. In a second form of trunked networks, a queue is used to keep the blocked calls. If
all the channels are presently busy, then the call can be postponed until a free channel
is found, and this whole process is Blocked Calls Delayed, and the GOS for this type
of trunking is the probability that a new call is not allocated to a channel even after
waiting a certain time in the queue. The probability that a new call is not allocated a
channel immediately is calculated by the Erlang C formula

AC
Pr [delay > 0] = C  A C −1 Ak (1.21)

A + C!1−  
 C k =0 k!

If no channel is currently found free then the call is delayed, and the GOS of a
trunked system in which the blocked calls are delayed is given by

Pr[delay>t] = Pr [delay >0]Pr [delay > t | delay > 0] (1.22)

= Pr [delay >0]exp(-(C-A)t/H)

For all the calls n a queued system the average delay D is given by
H
D = Pr [delay > 0] (1.23)
C−A

Improving Capacity In Cellular Systems

With the rise in the demand for wireless services, the number of radio channels
allocated to each cell could become inadequate in order to satisfy this increase in the
demand. Therefore, to increase the capacity (i.e. a cellular system can take up more calls)
of a cellular system, it is very important to allocate more number of radio channels to each
cell in order to meet the requirements of mobile traffic. Various techniques that are
proposed for increasing the capacity of a cellular system is as follows:

i. Cell splitting
ii. Cell sectoring
iii. Repeaters for extending range
 iv. Micro zone method

Cell Splitting

Cell splitting is a method in which congested (heavy traffic) cell is subdivided into smaller
cells, and each smaller cell is having its own base station with reduction in antenna height
and transmitter power. The original congested bigger cell is called macrocell and the
smaller cells are called microcells. Capacity of cellular network can be increased by
creating micro-cells within the original cells which are having smaller radius than macro-
cells, therefore, the capacity of a system increases because more channels per unit area are
now available in a network.

Fig. 1.14: Cell Splitting

Fig. 2.14 shows a cell splitting in which a congested cell, divided into smaller micro- cells,
and the base stations are put up at corners of the cells. The micro-cells are to be added in
such a way in order to the frequency reuse plan of the system should be preserved. For
micro-cells, the transmit power of transmitter should be reduced, and each micro-cell is
having half the radius to that of macro-cell. Therefore, transmit power of thenew cells can
be calculated by analyzing the received power at the cell boundaries. Thisis required in
order to make sure that frequency reuse plan for the micro-cells is also working the same
way as it was working for the macro-cells.

Pr-O  Ptp R-n

  PtN  R
−n
Pr-N
2 

Where Ptp is the transmit power of macro-cell

PtN is the transmit power of macro-cell
n is the path loss exponent
 R
R,   is the radius of macro and micro-cells
 2
In cell splitting, following factors should be carefully monitored;

1. In cell splitting, allocation of channels to the new cells (micro-cells) must

be done very cautiously. So, in order to avoid co-channel interference, cells must
follow the minimum reuse distance principle.

2. Power levels of the transmitters for new and old cells must be redesigned.
If the transmitter of the old cell has the same power as that of new cells, then the
channels in old cell interfere with the channels of new cell. But, if the power level
of transmitter is too low then it may result into in sufficient area coverage.

3. In order to overcome the problem of point (2); the channels of macro-cell

is divided into two parts. The channels in the first part are for the new cell and other
part consists of channel for the old cell. Splitting of cells is done accordingto the
number of subscribers present in the areas, and the power levels of the transmitters
must be redesigned according to the allocated channels to old and new cells.

4. Antennas of different heights and power levels are used for smooth and easy
handoff, and this technique is called Umbrella cell approach. Using this approach
large coverage area is provided for high speed users and small coverage area to low
speed users. Therefore, the number of call handoffs is maximized for high speed
users and provides more channels for slow speed users.
 5. The main idea behind cell splitting is the rescaling of entire system. In cell
splitting, reuse factor (D/R) is kept constant because by decreasing the radius of
cell (R) and, at the same time, the separation between co-channel (D) is also
decreased. So, high capacity can be achieved without changing the (D/R) ratio of
system.

Sectoring

Another way of improving the channel capacity of a cellular system is to decrease the D/R
ratio while keeping the same cell radius. Improvement in the capacity can be accomplished
by reducing the number of cells in a cluster, hence increasing the frequency reuse. To
achieve this, the relative interference must be minimized without decreasing the transmit
power.

For minimizing co-channel interference in a cellular network, a single omni-directional

antenna is replaced with multiple directional antennas, with each transmitting within a
smaller region. These smaller regions are called sectors and minimizing co-channel
interference while improving the capacity of a system by using multiple directional
antennas is called sectoring. The amount up to which co-channel interference is minimized
depends on the amount of sectoring used. A cell is generally divided either into three 120
degree or six 60 degree sectors. In the three-sector arrangement, three antennas are
generally located in each sector with one transmit and two receive antennas. The placement
of two receive antennas provide antenna diversity, which is also known as space diversity.
Space diversity greatly improves the reception of a signal by efficiently providing a big
target for signals transmitted from mobile units. The division between the two receive
antenna depends on the height of the antennas above ground.

When sectoring technique is used in cellular systems, the channels used in a particular
sector are actually broken down into sectored groups, which are only used inside a
particular sector. With 7-cell reuse pattern and 120 degree sectors, the number of
interfering cells in the neighboring tier is brought down from six to two. Cell sectoring also
improves the signal-to-interference ratio, thereby increasing the capacity of a cellular
system. This method of cell sectoring is very efficient, because it utilized the existing
system structures. Cell sectoring also minimized the co-channel interference, with the use
of directional antennas, a particular cell will get interference and transmit only a fraction
of the available co-channel cells.

It is seen that the reuse ratio q = (NI  S/I)1/n, where NI depends on the type of antenna used.
For an omni-directional antenna with only first-tier of co-channel interferer, the number of
co-channel interfering cells NI = 6, but for a 120 degree directional antenna, it is 2
So, the increase in S/I ratio is
( NI  S/I ) 0 qn 0
120 = 120
( I  S/I
N )
o mni q
n
omni
( S/I )120 = 3
0

( S/I )omni

n = path loss exponent NI = Number of co-channel interfering cells

q = frequency reuse ratio = D/R

Thus, S/I ratio increases with the increase in number of sectors, but at the cost of additional
handoff that might be required for the movement of a user from one sector to another.

Microcell Zone Concept

The micro-cell zone concept is associated with sharing the same radio equipment by
different micro-cells. It results in decreasing of cluster size and, therefore, increase in
system capacity. The micro-cell zone concept is used in practice to improve the capacity
of cellular systems.

To improve both capacity and signal quality of a cellular system, cell sectoring depends
upon correct setting up of directional antennas at the cell-site. But it also gives rise to
increase in the number of handoffs and trunking inefficiencies. In a 3-sector or 6-sector
cellular system, each sector acts like a new cell with a different shape and cell. Channels
allocated to the un-sectored cell are divided between the different sectors present in a cell,
thereby decreasing number of channels available in each sector. Furthermore, handoff takes
place every time a mobile user moves from one sector to another sector of the same cell.
This results in significant increase of network load on BSC and MSC of thecellular system.
The problem of channel partitioning and increase in network load become very hard if all
the 3 or 6-sectored directional antennas are placed at the centre of the cell.

As shown in the Fig. 1.15, three directional antennas are put at a point, Z1, also called zone-
site, where three adjacent cells C1, C2, and C3 meet with each other. Z1, Z2 and Z3 are
three zone-sites of the cell C1, and each zone-site is using three 135 degree directional
antennas. All the three zone-sites also behave as receivers, which also receive signals
transmitted by a mobile user present anywhere in the cell. All the three zone-sites are linked
to one common base station, as shown in Fig. 2.16. This arrangement is known as Lee's
micro-cell zone concept.

In order to avoid delay, these zone-sites are connected through a high-speed fiber link to
the base station. The base station first finds out, which of the three zone-sites has the better
received signal strength from the mobile user and then that particular zone-site is used to
transmit the signal to the mobile user. Therefore, only one zone-site is active at a time for
communicating with the user and it also minimizes the co-channel interference experienced
by the mobile user.

C2 Zone-site
C3
Z1
23
C1

Fig. 1.15: Location of Zone-sites in Sectored Cells

Therefore, micro-cell zone architecture minimizes the co-channel interference, improves
system capacity, demands less handoffs, and the system is easy to implement. The system
capacity for a system with cluster size k=3 is 2.33 times greater than the present analog
cellular system with k=7 for the C/I requirement of 18 dB. This micro-cell system gives
improved voice quality than the AMPS cellular system at 850 MHz. The micro-cell zone
concept can be used with both digital communication systems and personal communication
systems, and is best suited for indoor applications. It is also very useful to provide services
along highways or in crowded urban areas.

High-speed fiber links

Base
23
station

Fig. 1.16: Lee’s Microcell Zone Concept

Advantages of micro zone concept:

1. When the mobile user moves from one zone to another within the same cell, the
mobile user can keep the same channel for the call progress.
2. The effect of interference is very low due to the installation of low power
transmitters.
3. Better signal quality is possible.
4. Fewer handoffs when a call is in progress.

Repeaters for Range Extensions

Wireless operators want to provide dedicated coverage for users located within buildings,
or in valleys or tunnels as these areas are sometimes very hard to reach. Radio re-
transmitters, also known as repeaters, are frequently used to provide coverage in such areas
where range extension capabilities are required. Repeaters are bidirectional devices, as the
signals can be concurrently transmitted to and received from a base station.
Repeaters may be installed anywhere as they function using over the air signals, and are
able repeat entire frequency band. After receiving signals from base station, the repeater
amplifies the signals before it forwards them to the coverage area. As repeaters can also
reradiate the received noise, so repeaters must be installed very carefully. Directional
antennas or distributed antenna system (DAS) are linked practically to the repeater inputs
or outputs for spot coverage, mainly in tunnels or buildings.

A service provider dedicates some amount of cell site’s traffic for the areas covered by the
repeater by modifying the coverage of cell. As the repeater do not add more channels to
the system, it only reradiates the base station signal into specific locations. Repeaters are
generally used to provide coverage into those areas, where signal reception has been very
weak. Signal penetration inside the building is generally provided by installing micro-cells
outside the big building, and installing many repeaters inside the buildings. This technique
provides better coverage into targeted areas, but does not increase the capacity that is
required with the rise in the indoor and outdoor traffic. Therefore, dedicated base stations
inside buildings are required to meet the service demands of large number of cellular users
present inside the building. Finding a proper location for repeaters and distributed antennas
inside the building needs a very careful planning, mainly due to the interference signals
reradiated into the building. Also, repeaters must be able to match the available capacity
from the base station. Software SitePlanner helps the engineers to decide the best location
for putting up the repeaters and DAS network.

Conclusion

The fundamental concepts of frequency reuse, frequency planning, handoff, and trunking
efficiency are presented in this chapter. The performance determining parameters such as
grade of service, spectrum efficiency, and radio capacity under diverse situations are also
discussed. Handoffs are essential to pass mobile traffic from one cell to another, and there
is variety of different ways to implement handoffs. The capacity of a cellular system
depends upon several variables. The S/I influence the frequency reuse factor of a cellular
system, which restricts the number of radio channels within the coverage area. The number
of users in a particular area is greatly influe
 UNIT II
Mobile Radio Propagation: Link Calculation and Antenna System

Free Space Propagation Model:

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite communication systems and
microwave line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space propagation. As with most large- scale
radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that received power decays as a function of
the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e. a power law function). The free space power received
by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by
the Friis free space equation,

Pr(d)= PtGtGrλ2/(4πd)2

where Pt is the transmitted power, Pr (d) is the received power which is a function of the T-R separation, Gt
is the transmitter antenna gain, Gr is the receiver antenna gain, d is the T-R separation distance in meters
and λ is the wavelength in meters. The gain of an antenna is related to its effective aperture, Ae by,

G=4πAe/λ2

The effective aperture Ae is related to the physical size of the antenna, and λ is related to the carrier
frequency by,

λ = c/f= 2πc/ωc

where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz, ωc , is the carrier frequency in radians per second, and c is the
speed of light given in meters/s.

An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all directions,
and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The e/7'ective isotropic radiated power
(EIRP) is defined as

EIRP = PtGt
and represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of maximum
antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator. In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used
instead of EIRP to denote the maximum radiated power as compared to a half-wave dipole antenna (instead
of an isotropic antenna).

The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB, is defined as the
difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the received power, and may or may not
include the effect of the antenna gains. The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are
included is given by

PL (dB) = 10log(Pt/Pr) = -10log[PtGtGrλ2/(4πd)2]

When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are assumed to have unity gain, and path loss is given by

PL (dB) = 10log(Pt/Pr) = -10log[λ2/(4πd)2]

The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr for values of d which are in the far-field of the
transmitting antenna. The far-field, or Fraunhofer region, of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region
beyond the far-field distance df, which is related to the largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna
aperture and the carrier wavelength. The Fraunhofer distance is given by

df = 2D2/λ

where D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna. Additionally, to be in the far-field region,
df must satisfy

df>> D

# If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the transmit power in units of (a) dBm, and
(b) dBW If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the
received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from the antenna. What is Pr( 10 km) ?
Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.

The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms:

Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mechanisms which impact
propagation in a mobile communication system.
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object which has very large
dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflections occur from the surface
of the earth and from buildings and walls.

Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that
has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present
throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of waves around the obstacle,
even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and receiver. At high frequencies,
diffraction, like reflection depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and
polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.

Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions
that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is large.
Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other irregularities in the channel. In
practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce scattering in a mobile communications system.

Reflection:

When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted. If the plane wave is incident on a perfect
dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back
into the first medium, and there is no loss of energy in absorption. lf the second medium isa perfect
conductor, then all incident energy is reflected back into the first medium without loss of energy. The electric
field intensity of the reflected and transmitted waves may be related to the incident wave in the medium of
origin through the Fresnel reflection coefficient (Г). The reflection coefficient is a function of the material
properties, and generally depends on the wave polarization, angle of incidence, and the frequency of the
propagating wave.
Reflection from dielectrics:

Figure 3.4 shows an electromagnetic wave incident at an angle θi with the plane of the boundary between
two dielectric media. As shown in the figure, part of the energy is reflected back to the first media at an
angle θr, and part of the energy is transmitted (refracted) into the second media at an angle θ t. The nature of
reflection varies with the direction of polarization of the E-field. The behavior for arbitrary directions of
polarization can be studied by considering the two distinct cases shown in Figure
The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the incident, reflected, and transmitted rays.
In Figure 3.4a, the E—field polarization is parallel with the plane of incidence (that is, the E-field has
a vertical polarization, or normal component, with respect to the reflecting surface) and in Figure 3.4b,
the E-field polarization is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (that is, the incident E-field is pointing
out of the page towards the reader, and is perpendicular to the page and parallel to the reflecting
surface).
Because of superposition, only two orthogonal polarizations need be considered to solve general reflection
problems. The reflection coefficients for the two cases of parallel and perpendicular E-field polarization at
the boundary of two dielectrics are given by

Where η is the intrinsic impedance of the respective medium.

Or,

Where ɛ is the permittivity of the respective medium.

Brewster Angle:

The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium of origin. It occurs when the
incident angle BB is such that the reflection coefficient Г|| is equal to zero (see Figure 3.6), The Brewster
angle is given by the value of θB which satisfies

Sin(θB)= √(ɛ1)/√(ɛ1+ɛ2)

For the case when the first medium is free space and the second medium has a relative permittivity ɛr,
above equation can be expressed as

Sin(θB)= √(ɛr-1)/√(ɛr 2-1)

Note that the Brewster angle occurs only for vertical (i.e. parallel) polarization.
# Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on ground having a permittivity of ɛr = 4.

Reflection from Perfect Conductors:

Since electromagnetic energy cannot pass through a perfect conductor a plane wave incident on a conductor
has all of its energy reflected. As the electric field at the surface of the conductor must be equal to zero at
all times in order to obey Maxwel1’s equations, the reflected wave must be equal in magnitude to the
incident wave. For the case when E-field polarization is in the plane of incidence, the boundary conditions
require that

θi =θr

and Ei = Er (E-field in plane of incidence)

Similarly, for the case when the E-field is horizontally polarized, the boundary conditions require that
θi =θr
and Ei =- Er (E-field not in plane of incidence)

Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model:

In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the base station and a mobile is seldom the only
physical means for propagation, and hence the free space propagation model is in most cases inaccurate
when used alone. The 2-ray ground reflection model shown in Figure 3.7 is a useful propagation model that
is based on geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation path
between transmitter and receiver. This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the
large-scale signal strength over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use tall towers
(heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for line of-sight, microcell channels in urban environments.
Referring to Figure 3.7, ht is the height of the transmitter and hr is the height of the receiver. lf Eo is the
free space E-field (in units of V/m) at a reference distance do from the transmitter, then for d > do , the free
space propagating E—field is given by

Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance d'; and the reflected
wave that travels a distance d”.

The electric field E TOT( d, t) can be expressed as the sum of equations for distances d’ and d” (i.e. direct
wave and reflected wave.

Diffraction:

Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth, beyond the horizon,
and to propagate behind obstructions. Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver
moves deeper into the obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient
strength to produce a useful signal.

The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen`s principle, which states that all points on a
wavefront can be considered as point sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and that these
wavelets combine to produce a new wavefront in the direction of` propagation. Diffraction is caused by the
propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed region. The field strength of a diffracted wave in the
shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric field components of all the secondary wavelets in the
space around the obstacle.

Fresnel Zone Geometry:

Consider a transmitter and receiver separated in free space as shown in Figure 3.10a. Let an obstructing
screen of effective height h with infinite width (going into and out of the paper,) be placed between them
at a distance d1 from the transmitter and d2 from the receiver. It is apparent that the wave propagating from
the transmitter to the receiver via the top of the screen travels a longer distance than if a direct line- of-sight
path (through the screen) existed. Assuming h << d1, d2 and h >>λ , then the difference between the direct
path and the diffracted path, called the excess path length (Δ) , can be obtained from the geometry of Figure
as
Knife-edge Diffraction Model:

Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and buildings is essential
in predicting the field strength in a given service area. Generally, it is impossible to make very precise
estimates of the diffraction losses, and in practice prediction is a process of theoretical approximation
modified by necessary empirical corrections. Though the calculation of diffraction losses over complex and
irregular terrain is a mathematically difficult problem, expressions for diffraction losses for many
simple cases have been derived. As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over a knife-edge gives
good insight into the order of magnitude of diffraction loss.

When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the attenuation caused by
diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife edge. This is the simplest of
diffraction models, and the diffraction loss in this case can be readily estimated using the classical Fresnel
solution for the field behind a knife edge (also called a half-plane).

Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction:

ln many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist of more than one
obstruction, in which case the total diffraction loss due to all of the obstacles must be computed. Bullington
suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single equivalent obstacle so that the path loss can be
obtained using single knife-edge diffraction models. This method, illustrated in Figure 3.15, oversimplifies
the calculations and often provides very optimistic estimates of the received signal strength. In a more
rigorous treatment, Millington et. al. gave a wave-theory solution for the field behind two knife edges in
series. This solution is very useful and can be applied easily for predicting diffraction losses due to two
knife edges. However, extending this to more than two knife edges becomes a formidable mathematical
problem. Many models that are mathematically less complicated have been developed to estimate the
diffraction losses due to multiple obstructions.

Scattering:

The actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger than what is predicted by
reflection and diffraction models alone. This is because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface,
the reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering. Objects such as lamp posts
and trees tend to scatter energy in all directions, thereby providing additional radio energy at a receiver.
Flat surfaces that have much larger dimension than a wavelength may be modeled as reflective surfaces.
However, the roughness of such surfaces often induces propagation effects different from the specular
reflection described earlier in this chapter. Surface roughness is often tested using the Rayleigh criterion
which defines a critical height (hc) of surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence i.e. given by

hc= λ/(8sinθi)

A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less than hc, and is considered
rough if the protuberance is greater than hc. For rough surfaces, the flat surface reflection coefficient needs
to be multiplied by a scattering loss factor, ρs, to account for the diminished reflected field.

Outdoor propagation model:

Longley-Rice Model:

The Longley-Rice model is applicable to point-to-point communication systems in the frequency range
from 40 MHz to 100 GHz, over different kinds of terrain. The median transmission loss is predicted using
the path geometry of the terrain profile and the refractivity of the troposphere. Geometric optics techniques
(primarily the 2-ray ground reflection model) are used to predict signal strengths within the radio horizon.
Diffraction losses over isolated obstacles are estimated using the Fresnel-Kirchoff knife- edge models.
Forward scatter theory is used to make troposcatter predictions over long distances.

The Longley-Rice method operates in two modes. When a detailed terrain path profile is available, the path-
specific parameters can be easily determined and the prediction is called a point-to-point mode prediction.
On the other hand, if the terrain path profile is not available, the Longley-Rice method provides techniques
to estimate the path-specific parameters, and such a prediction is called an area mode prediction.

Okumura Model:

Okumura`s model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas. This model
is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (although it is typically extrapolated up
to 3000 MHz) and distances of 1 km to 100 km. It can be used for base station antenna heights ranging
from 30 m to 1000 m. Okumura developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation relative to free
space (Amu), in an urban area over a quasi-smooth terrain with a base station effective antenna height
(hte) of 200 m and a mobile antenna height (hre) of 3 m. These curves were developed from extensive
measurements using vertical omni-directional antennas at both the base and mobile, and are plotted as a
function of frequency in the range 100 MHz to 1920 MHz and as a function of distance from the base station
in the range 1 km to 100 km. To determine path loss using Okumura`s model, the free space path loss
between the points of interest is first determined, and then the value of Amu(f, d) (as read from the curves)
is added to it along with correction factors to account for the type of terrain. The model can be expressed
as

L50(dB) = LF+ Amu(f, d)-G(te)- G(re) - GAREA

where L50 is the 50th percentile (i.e., median) value of propagation path loss, LF is the free space
propagation loss, Amu is the median attenuation relative to free space, G(hte) is the base station antenna
height gain factor, G(hre) is the mobile antenna height gain factor, and G A R E A is the gain due to the type of
environment. Note that the antenna height gains are strictly a function of height and have nothing to do with
antenna patterns.

Hata Model:

The Hata model [Hat90] is an empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data provided by Okumura,
and is valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz. Hata presented the urban area propagation loss as a standard
formula and supplied correction equations for application to other situations. The standard formula for
median path loss in urban areas is given by

L50(urban)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16logfc -13.82loghte-a(hre) + (44.9 - 6.55loghte)logd

where fc is the frequency (in MHz) from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz, hte is the effective transmitter (base station)
antenna height (in meters) ranging from 30 m to 200 m,hre is the effective receiver (mobile) antenna height
(in meters) ranging from 1 m to 10 m, d is the T-R separation distance (in km), and a(hre)is the correction
factor for effective mobile antenna height which is a function of the size of the coverage area. For a small
to medium sized city, the mobile antenna correction factor is given by

a(hre) = ( 1.11ogfc - 0.7)hre - (1.56logfc - 0.8) dB

and for a large city, it is given by
a(hre) = 8.29(log1.54hre)2 -1.1 dB for fc <= 300 MHz
a(hre) = 3.2(log11.75hre)2 —4.97 dB for fc>= 300 MHz
To obtain the path loss in a suburban area the standard Hata formula in equations are modified as

L50(dB) = L50(urban)-2[log(fc/28)]2-5.4

and for path loss in open rural areas, the formula is modified as
L50(dB) = L50(urban) – 4.78(logfc)2 + 18.33logfc - 40.94
Indoor Propagation Models:

With the advent of Personal Communication Systems (PCS), there is a great deal of interest in
characterizing radio propagation inside buildings. The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional
mobile radio channel in two aspects - the distances covered are much smaller, and the variability of the
environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R separation distances. It has been observed
that propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by specific features such as the layout of the
building, the construction materials, and the building type. This section outlines models for path loss
within buildings.

Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction, and
scattering. However, conditions are much more variable. For example, signal levels vary greatly depending
on whether interior doors are open or closed inside a building. Where antennas are mounted also impacts
large-scale propagation. Antennas mounted at desk level in a partitioned office receive vastly different
signals than those mounted on the ceiling. Also, the smaller propagation distances make it more difficult to
insure far-field radiation for all receiver locations and types of antennas.

Partition Losses (same floor):

Buildings have a wide variety of partitions and obstacles which form the internal and external structure.
Houses typically use a wood frame partition with plaster board to form internal walls and have wood or
non-reinforced concrete between floors. Office buildings, on the other hand, often have large open areas
(open plan) which are constructed by using moveable office partitions so that the space may be reconfigured
easily, and use metal reinforced concrete between floors. Partitions that are formed as part of the building
structure are called hard partitions, and partitions that may be moved and which do not spanto the ceiling
are called soft partitions. Partitions vary widely in their physical and electrical characteristics, making it
difficult to apply general models to specific indoor installations.
Partition Losses between Floors:

The losses between floors of a building are determined by the external dimensions and materials of the
building, as well as the type of construction used to create the floors and the external surroundings. Even
the number of windows in a building and the presence of tinting (which attenuates radio energy) can impact
the loss between floors. It can be seen that for all three buildings, the attenuation between one floors of the
building is greater than the incremental attenuation caused by each additional floor. After about five or six
floor separations, very little additional path loss is experienced.

Propagation Model (Practical Link Budget design)

Free Space Propagation Model

The reduction of the average signal level as the mobile station moves away from the base station is called
propagation path loss.

A good path loss prediction model should be able to distinguish between rural, suburban, and urban
areas, since there are important differences in radio propagation in these different area types.

Typical Free Space Propagation model is given by

Received Power (Pr) = Pt + Gt + Gr - (32.44+20log (d) +20

log(f)) Where
Pr = Received power in
dBm Pt = Transmit power
in dBm
Gt = Transmitting antenna gain in dBi.

Gr = Receiving antenna gain in

dBi. d = Distance in Km
f = Frequency in MHz
Hata Model

Hata has developed three empirical path loss models based on the measurements by Okumura in Tokyo
area of Japan. The Hata model for typical path loss for urban area is given as

Lu=69.55+26.16 log(f)-13.82 log (hB)-a(hM)+[44.9-6.55 log (hB)] log(d)

Where

f=propagation frequency in MHz.

hB=height of the base station antenna in m
hM=height of the mobile station antenna in m

d=distance between base station and the mobile station in km.

The term a(hM) is a correction factor, the value of which depends upon the terrain type. The value of
a(hM) for small and medium sized cities can be found in dB as

a(hM)=[1.1 log(f)-0.7]hM-1.56 log(f)+0.8

and for large cities depending upon frequency as

a(hM)=8.29[log(1.54 hM)]2-1.10 when f≤200 MHz

a(hM)=3.2[log(11.75 hM)]2-4.97 when f≥400 MHz

For typical suburban area we subtract a correction factor

Lsu = Lu – 2 [log(f/28)]2- 5.4

For open area we have a different correction factor

Lr = Lu – 4.78 [log(f)]2+ 18.33 log(f)-40.94

The open area of the Hata model corresponds to flat deserted area. For path loss of typical rural area a
margin of 6-10 dB is often added to the path loss predicted by the open area Hata model.

In Hata model a large city is understood to be heavily built with relatively large buildings averaging more
than four floors in height. If the city has lower average buildings height, it is considered to be small or
medium.

The range of parameter values, where the Hata model is applicable, is

• f = 150 – 1500 MHz

• hB = 30 – 200 m
• hM = 1 – 10 m
• d = 1 - 20 km

For higher carrier frequencies of 1500- 2000 MHz the following modification of Hata model for urban
area has been proposed. This is also known as Cost231 Hata model and it is the extension of Hata model
for PCS (1900 MHz).

Lu = 46.3 + 33.9 log (f) – 13.82 log(hB) – a (hM) + [44.9-6.55log(hB)] log (d) +C

Where the correction factor a(hM) for small and medium-sized cities

a (hM) = [1.1 log(f)-0.7)] hM-1.56log (f) +0.8

These modified equation have been successfully used for cellular mobile network design at 1800 MHz
band. However, it should be noted that (modified) Hata model is only valid for macrocell design. The
Hata model is not applicable to microcells with d<1 km.

The Hata model also been extended to distances d= 20…100 km with the following modification

Lu = 69.55 + 26.16 log(f) – 13.82 log (hB ) –a(hM) + [ 44.9-6.55 log (hB)] log(d)]a

Examples:

1. A transmitter has a power output of 50 W at a carrier frequency of 200MHz. It is connected to

an antenna with a gain of 10 dBi. The receiving antenna is 15 Km away and has a gain of 3 dBi.
Calculate power delivered to the receiver, assuming free space propagation. Assume also that
there are no losses or mismatches in the system.
2. Let us consider a Kathmandu city with different GSM uplink parameters. The MS is
transmitting with power 2W .The minimum acceptable received power at BS is -116 dBm. The
carrier frequency is 900MHz, the height of base station is 30m and height of mobile station is
1m.Estimate the maximum cell radius and corresponding cell area.

Radio Link Power Budget

Transmission in uplink and downlink of cellular systems is asymmetric, since the BS

transmitter typically uses much higher power than the MS transmitter. However, the
transmission quality in uplink and downlink should be equal, especially near the cell edge.
Both speech and data services in cellular systems are dimensioned for equal transmission
quality in both directions. Transmission quality in uplink and downlink can be determined from
the link budget. The terms in the link budget are defined with aid of the block diagram in the
adjoining figure.
 GBS GMS

LBS-f1 LMS-f Ldpx-tx P

P A
BS-tx C DUPLEX MS-rx MS-RX
BS-TX COMB. L
FILTER
FILTER
c

PMS-tx
ANTENNA ANTENNA MS-TX
FEEDER FEEDER

Ldpx-rx
Gdiv LBS-f2
PBS-rx

ANTENNA
BS-RX DIVERSITY FEEDER
COMBINER

Where

• PBS-tx is the output power level of the base station

• Ac is the base station transmitter combining filter loss (dB),
• LBS-f1 is the Base station antenna feeder loss (dB),
• GBS is the base station antenna gain (dBi, relative to an isotropic radiator),
• LC is the radio path loss between isotropic antennas (dB),
• GMS is the mobile station gain (dBi),
• LMS-f is the mobile station antenna feeder loss (dB),
• Ldpx-rx is the mobile station duplex filter loss in the downlink direction (dB).
• Ldpx-tx is the duplex filter loss in the uplink direction (dB),
• Gdiv is the base station diversity gain (dB),
• PMS-rx is the received power level in the mobile station input terminal (dBm),
• PBS-rx is the received power level in the base station input terminal (dBm).

The following Figure shows a pictorial example of a radio link power budget. In addition to the link budget
of the transmitted signal, it also illustrates noise at the receiver. The noise has power NoB at the input of
the receiver, and it is amplified by the noise figure (NF) of the receiver.
 45

40
Power Level [dBm]

35

30

-95

-100

Power Level [dBm]

-105

-110

-115

Transmitter at Base Radio Channel Receiver at Mobile Station

Station
The abbreviation FM stands for fading margin for slow fading. Hence, the signal-to-noise ratio(SNR)in
the figure corresponds to the SNR that is encountered, when the receiver is shadowed by an obstruction.
The average SNR is better that this value. The SNR during a fade should still be larger than the minimum
acceptable Eb / No defined for the system. The maximum acceptable path loss can be computed as

Lc =EIRPmax- Prec, min

Where

EIRP is Effective Isotropic Radiated Power

Prec is Received power with (hypothetical) isotropic antenna

For downlink:

EIRPBTS, max = PBS-tx maximum BTS power (mean power over burst)

- Ac combiner and filter loss

- LBS-f1 antenna cable loss

+ GBS antenna gain

PMS, rec, min = PMS-rx MS reference sensitivity (for MS class i)

+ LMS-f antenna cable loss

- GMS antenna gain

+ Ldpx-rx duplex filter loss

For uplink:

EIRPMS, max = PMS-tx maximum transmission power of MS (mean power

over burst for MS class i)
- Ldpx-tx duplex filter loss

- LMS-f antenna cable loss

+ GMS antenna gain

PBTS, rec, min = PBS-rx BTS reference sensitivity

+ LBS-f1 antenna cable loss

- GBS antenna gain

- Gdiv diversity gain (if existing)

A balanced power budget is achieved if and only if

L c,uplink = Lc, downlink

Which is equivalent to

EIRPBTS,max - PMS,rec,min = EIRPMS,max - PBTS,rec,min

In reality, balanced power budget is only achieved with an accuracy of ±5 dB, depending primarily on the
employed mobile phone class and the initial network design goals. Therefore, uplink and downlink may
have different power ranges which may lead to significant performance differences on the cell boundary
or at indoor locations.

The acceptable path loss (without interference margin) for any cellular system can be computed separately
for uplink and downlink as:
 Lc,u PMS tx Ldpx tx LMS f GMS PB S rx LBS fi GB S Gdiv

Lc,d PBS tx Ac LBS fi GBS PMS rx LMS f GM S Ldpx rx

Example: power balance / unbalance in a GSM – system with following parameter values:

• PBS-tx = 10 W (40 dBm)

• PMS-tx = 1 W (30 dBm, handheld telephone)
• PMS-tx = 5 W (37 dBm, car mounted telephone)
• SBS = -104 dBm
• SMS = -102 dBm (handheld telephone)
• SMS = -104 dBm (car mounted telephone)
• Ldpx-tx = Ldpx-rx
• Gdiv = 7 dB
• Ac = 3 dB
The power unbalance of the handheld telephone:

L =Lc,d – Lc,u = [PBS-tx –Ac – LBS-fi + GBS]

- [PMS-rx + LMS-f – GMS +Ldpx-rx]

- [PMS-tx –Ldpx-tx - LMS-f + GMS]
+ [PBS-rx + LBS-fi - GBS – Gdiv]

= PBS-tx -Ac -PMS-rx -PMS-tx+ PBS-rx - Gdiv

= 40 – 3 + 102 – 30 – 104 –7 = -2 dB
The uplink direction is thus 2 dB better. This difference can be neglected in practical network design.
For the car mounted telephone the power unbalance is:
FORMULA
L = PBS-tx -Ac -PMS-rx -PMS-tx+ PBS-rx - Gdiv

= 40 – 3 + 104 – 37 –7 – 104 = -7 dB

The uplink direction is now 7 dB better. From the operator’s point of view it would be better if the power
unbalance were in favor of the downlink. This would guarantee better network control. However the real
time power control used in GSM can easily rectify situation and produce almost perfect power balance.
 UNIT III
Mobile Radio Propagation
Multipath Wave Propagation and
Fading

Multipath Propagation

In wireless telecommunications, multipath is the propagation phenomenon that re- sults

in radio signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. Causes of multipath
include atmospheric ducting, ionospheric reflection and refraction, and reflection from
water bodies and terrestrial objects such as mountains and buildings. The effects of
multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the
signal. In digital radio communications (such as GSM) multipath can cause errors and affect
the quality of communications. We discuss all the related issues in this chapter.

Multipath & Small-Scale Fading

Multipath signals are received in a terrestrial environment, i.e., where di fferent forms of
propagation are present and the signals arrive at the receiver from transmitter via a variety
of paths. Therefore there would be multipath interference, causing multi- path fading.
Adding the effect of movement of either Tx or Rx or the surrounding clutter to it, the
received overall signal amplitude or phase changes over a small amount of time. Mainly
this causes the fading.

Fading

The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases,
or multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period or short travel distance. This might
be so severe that large scale radio propagation loss effects might be ignored.
 Multipath Fading Effffects

In principle, the following are the main multipath effects:

1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval.

2. Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different mul-

tipath signals.

3. Time dispersion or echoes caused by multipath propagation delays.

Factors Influencing Fading

The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio propagation
channel:

(1) Multipath propagation – Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that re- sults inradio
signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of multipath
include constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal.

(2) Speed of the mobile – The relative motion between the base station and the mobile
results in random frequency modulation due to different doppler shifts on each of the
multipath components.

(3) Speed of surrounding objects – If objects in the radio channel are in mo- tion, they
induce a time varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding
objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates fading.

(4) Transmission Bandwidth of the signal – If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth
is greater than the “bandwidth” of the multipath channel (quanti- fied by coherence
bandwidth), the received signal will be distorted.
 Types of Small-Scale Fading

The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel depends on the
relation between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and the channel
parameters (rms delay spread and Doppler spread). Hence we have four different types of
fading. There are two types of fading due to the time dispersive nature of the channel.

Fading Effffects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread

Flat Fading

Such types of fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. Equivalently if the symbol period of the signal is more
than the rms delay spread of the channel, then the fading is flat fading.

So we can say that flat fading occurs when

BS BC

where B S is the signal bandwidth and B C is the coherence bandwidth. Also

TS × στ

where TS is the symbol period and σ τ is the rms delay spread. And in such a case, mobile
channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over its bandwidth.

Frequency Selective Fading

Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the co-herence
bandwidth of the mobile radio channel or equivalently the symbols duration of the signal
is less than the rms delay spread.

BS × BC

and
TS στ
At the receiver, we obtain multiple copies of the transmitted signal, all attenuated and delayed
in time. The channel introduces inter symbol interference. A rule of thumb for a channel to
have flat fading is if

στ ≤ 0.1
TS

Fading Effffects due to Doppler Spread

Fast Fading

In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration of the signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes frequency dispersion
leading to distortion. Therefore a signal undergoes fast fading if

TS × TC

where TC is the coherence time and

BS × BD

where B D is the Doppler spread. Transmission involving very low data rates suffer from
fast fading.

Slow Fading

In such a channel, the rate of the change of the channel impulse response is much less than
the transmitted signal. We can consider a slow faded channel a channel in which channel
is almost constant over atleast one symbol duration. Hence

TS TC

and
BS × BD

We observe that the velocity of the user plays an important role in deciding whether the
signal experiences fast or slow fading.
 Figure Illustration of Doppler effect.

Doppler Shift

The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer

moving relative to the source of the wave. In classical physics (waves in a medium), the
relationship between the observed frequency f and the emitted frequency f o is given
by:
. Σ
v ± vr
f = f0
v ± vs
where v is the velocity of waves in the medium, v s is the velocity of the source relative to
the medium and v r is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium.
In mobile communication, the above equation can be slightly changed according to our
convenience since the source (BS) is fixed and located at a remote elevated level from
ground. The expected Doppler shift of the EM wave then comes out to
vr vr
b
ce ± f o orλ, ± . As the BS is located at an elevated place, a cos φ factor would
also be multiplied with this. The exact scenario, as given in Figure 5.1, is illustrated below.
Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity v, along a path segment length d
between points A and B, while it receives signals from a remote BS source S. The
difference in path lengths traveled by the wave from source S to the mobile at points A and
B is ∆l = d cos θ = v∆t cos θ, where ∆t is the time required for the mobile to travel from
A to B, and θ is assumed to be the same at points A and B since the
source is assumed to be very far away. The phase change in the received signal due to
the difference in path lengths is therefore
2π∆l 2πv∆t
∆ϕ = = cos θ (5.11)
λ λ

and hence the apparent change in frequency, or Doppler shift (fd ) is

1 ∆ϕ v
fd = 2π. ∆t = . cos θ.
λ

Example 1

An aircraft is heading towards a control tower with 500 kmph, at an elevation of 20 ◦.

Communication between aircraft and control tower occurs at 900 MHz. Find out the
expected Doppler shift.
Solution As given here,
v = 500 kmph

the horizontal component of the velocity is

vj = v cos θ = 500 × cos 20◦ = 130 m/s

Hence, it can be written that

900 × 106 1
λ= = m
3× 108 3
130
fd = 1/3
= 390 Hz

If the plane banks suddenly and heads for other direction, the Doppler shift change will be
390 Hz to −390 Hz.

Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel

Mobile radio channel may be modeled as a linear filter with time varying impulse response
in continuous time. To show this, consider time variation due to receiver motion and time
varying impulse response h(d, t) and x(t), the transmitted signal.
The received signal y(d, t) at any position d would be
∫ ∞
y(d, t) = x(t) ∗ h(d, t) = x(τ ) h(d, t − τ ) dτ
−∞
∫ ∞
For a causal system: h(d, t) = 0, for t < 0 and for a stable system |h(d, t)| dt <
−∞
∞
Applying causality condition in the above equation, h(d, t − τ ) = 0 for t − τ < 0
⇒ τ > t, i.e., the integral limits are changed to

∫ t
y(d, t) = x(τ ) h(d, t − τ ) dτ.
−∞

Since the receiver moves along the ground at a constant velocity v, the position of the
receiver is d = vt, i.e.,
∫ t
y(vt, t) = x(τ ) h(vt, t − τ ) dτ.
−∞

Since v is a constant, y(vt, t) is just a function of t. Therefore the above equation can
be expressed as
∫ t
y(t) = x(τ ) h(vt, t − τ ) dτ = x(t) ∗ h(vt, t) = x(t) ∗ h(d, t)
−∞

It is useful to discretize the multipath delay axis τ of the impulse response into equal time
delay segments called excess delay bins, each bin having a time delay width equal

to ( τi+1 −τi) = ∆τ and τi = i∆τ for i ∈ {0, 1, 2, ..N − 1}, where N represents the total
number of possible equally-spaced multipath components, including the first arriving
component. The useful frequency span of the model is 2/∆τ . The model may be

used to analyze transmitted RF signals having bandwidth less than 2/ ∆τ.

If there are N multipaths, maximum excess delay is given by N ∆τ .

{y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t, τi)|i = 0, 1,...N − 1}

Bandpass channel impulse response model is

x(t) → h(t, τ ) = Re{hb(t, τ )ejωc t → y(t) = Re{r(t)ejωct }

Baseband equivalent channel impulse response model is given by

1 1
c(t) → hb(t, τ ) → r(t) = c(t) ∗ hb(t, τ )
2 2
Average power is
1
x2(t) = |c(t)|2

2
The baseband impulse response of a multipath channel can be expressed as
N −1
hb(t, τ ) = Σ ai(t, τ ) exp[j(2πfcτi(t) + ϕi(t, τ ))]δ(τ τi(t))
i=0 —

where ai (t, τ ) and τi(t) are the real amplitudes and excess delays, respectively, of the
ith multipath component at time t. The phase term 2πf cτi(t) + ϕi(t, τ ) in the above
equation represents the phase shift due to free space propagation of the ith multipath
component, plus any additional phase shifts which are encountered in the channel.
If the channel impulse response is wide sense stationary over a small-scale time or distance
interval, then
N −1
hb(τ ) = Σ aiexp[jθi]δ(τ τ i)
i=0 −

For measuring hb(τ ), we use a probing pulse to approximate δ(t) i.e.,

p(t) ≈ δ(t − τ )

Power delay profile is taken by spatial average of |hb(t, τ )|2 over a local area. The received
power delay profile in a local area is given by

p(τ ) ≈ k|hb(t; τ )|2.

Relation Between Bandwidth and Received Power

In actual wireless communications, impulse response of a multipath channel is mea- sured

using channel sounding techniques. Let us consider two extreme channel sounding cases.
Consider a pulsed, transmitted RF signal

x(t) = Re{p(t)ej2πfct}
.
4τmax
where p(t) = for 0 ≤ t ≤ Tbb and 0 elsewhere. The low pass channel output
Tbb
is

1 N −1 a exp[jθ ]p(t τ )
r(t) = Σ i i i
2 i=0 −

N −1 .
τmax Tb
= ai exp[jθi]. rect(t − )
Tbb − τi .
i=0 2
 Figure: A generic transmitted pulsed RF signal.

The received power at any time t0 is

|r(t )| = 1 τ∫max r(t)r∗ (t)dt
2
0
τmax
0
τ∫max .N−1 Σ
1 1 Σ a2(t )p2(t − τ ) dt

k 0 k
=τmax 4
0 k=0
1Σ
N −1
τ∫max.. Σ2
τ Tb
k −

= a2(t0)
max
rect(t − τi ) dt
τmax Tbb 2
k=0 0
N −1

Σ
= a2(t 0).
k
k=0

Interpretation: If the transmitted signal is able to resolve the multipaths, then average small-
scale receiver power is simply sum of average powers received from each multipath
components.
N −1 Σ N −1i
E [P WB ] = E [ Σ |ai exp(jθi)| 2] ≈ 2

a,θ a,θ a
i=0 i=0

Now instead of a pulse, consider a CW signal, transmitted into the same channel and
for simplicity, let the envelope be c(t) = 2. Then

Σ
N −1
r(t) = ai exp[jθi(t, τ )]
i=0
 and the instantaneous power is
ΣN −1
|r(t)|2 = | a exp[jθ (t, τ )]|2
i i
i=0

Over local areas, ai varies little but θi varies greatly resulting in large fluctuations.

Σ
N −1
2
E a,θ[P CW ] = E a,θ[ ai exp(jθi) ] |
i=0
Σ
N−1 Σ ΣN
N −1
≈ a2 + 2 |
r cos(θ −θ )

i ij i j
i=0 i=0 i,j i

where rij = Ea[a ia j].

If, rij = cos(θi − θj) = 0, then E a,θ [P CW ] = Ea,θ [P WB ]. This occurs if multipath
components are uncorrelated or if multipath phases are i.i.d over [0, 2π].
Bottomline:

1. If the signal bandwidth is greater than multipath channel bandwidth then fading
effects are negligible

2. If the signal bandwidth is less than the multipath channel bandwidth, large fading
occurs due to phase shift of unresolved paths.

Linear Time Varying Channels (LTV)

The time variant transfer function(TF) of an LTV channel is FT of h(t, τ ) w.r.t. τ .

∫ ∞
H(f, t) = FT [h(τ, t)] = h(τ, t)e−j2πfτ dτ
−∞
∫ ∞
h(τ, t) = FT −1[H(f, t)] = H(f, t)ej2πfτ df
−∞
The received signal
∫ ∞
r(t) = R(f, t)ej2πft df
−∞

where R(f, t) = H(f, t)X(f ).

Σ
For flat fading channel, h(τ, t) = Z(t)δ(τ − τi) where Z(t) = αn(t)e−j2πfcτn(t). In
this case, the received signal is
∫∞

r(t) = h(τ, t)x(t − τ ) dτ = Z(t)x(t − τi)

−∞
 Figure : Relationship among different channel functions.

where the channel becomes multiplicative.

Doppler spread functions:
∫ ∞
H(f, ν) = FT [H(f, t)] = H(f, t)e−j2πνtdt
−∞

and ∫ ∞
H(f, t) = FT −1[H(f, ν)] = H(f, ν)ej2πνtdν
−∞

Delay Doppler spread:

∫ ∞
H(τ, ν) = FT [h(τ, t)] = h(τ, t)e−j2πνt dt
−∞

Small-Scale Multipath Measurements

Direct RF Pulse System

A wideband pulsed bistatic radar usually transmits a repetitive pulse of width Tbb s, and
uses a receiver with a wide bandpass filter (BW = 2 Hz). The Tsignal is then
bb

amplified, envelope detected, and displayed and stored on a high speed oscilloscope. Immediate
measurements of the square of the channel impulse response convolved with the probing pulse
can be taken. If the oscilloscope is set on averaging mode, then this system provides a local
average power delay profile.
 Figure : Direct RF pulsed channel IR measurement.

This system is subject to interference noise. If the first arriving signal is blocked or
fades, severe fading occurs, and it is possible the system may not trigger properly.

Frequency Domain Channel Sounding

In this case we measure the channel in the frequency domain and then convert it into time
domain impulse response by taking its inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT). A vector
network analyzer controls a swept frequency synthesizer. An S- parameter test set is used
to monitor the frequency response of the channel. The sweeper scans a particular frequency
band, centered on the carrier, by stepping through discrete frequencies. The number and
spacing of the frequency step impacts the time resolution of the impulse response
measurement. For each frequency step, the S-parameter test set transmits a known signal
level at port 1 and monitors the received signal at port 2. These signals allow the analyzer
to measure the complex response, S21(ω), of the channel over the measured frequency
range. The S21(ω) measure is the measure of the signal flow from transmitter antenna to
receiver
 Figure : Frequency domain channel IR measurement.

antenna (i.e., the channel).

This system is suitable only for indoor channel measurements. This system is also non
real-time. Hence, it is not suitable for time-varying channels unless the sweep times are
fast enough.

Multipath Channel Parameters

To compare the different multipath channels and to quantify them, we define some
parameters. They all can be determined from the power delay profile. These pa - rameters
can be broadly divided in to two types.

Time Dispersion Parameters

These parameters include the mean excess delay,rms delay spread and excess delay
spread. The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is
defined as
Σ Σ
a2 τ k P(τ k)τ k
τ¯ = k Σ
2 =
Σ k P(τk)
a
where ak is the amplitude, τk is the excess delay and P (τk) is the power of the individual
multipath signals.
The mean square excess delay spread is defined as
P (τ )τ 2
τ¯ 2 Σ
Σ k
Pk=(τ k)
Since the rms delay spread is the square root of the second central moment of the power
delay profile, it can be written as
.
στ = τ¯2 − (τ¯)2

As a rule of thumb, for a channel to be flat fading the following condition must be satisfied

≤ 0.1
σSτ
T

where TS is the symbol duration. For this case, no equalizer is required at the receiver.
Example 2

1. Sketch the1 power delay profile and compute RMS delay spread for the follow- ing:
Σ −6
P (τ ) = δ(τ − n × 10 ) (in watts)
n=0

2. If BPSK modulation is used, what is the maximum bit rate that can be sent through
the channel without needing an equalizer?

Solution

1. P (0) = 1 watt, P (1) = 1 watt

(1)(0) + (1)(1)
τ = = 0.5µs
1+1

τ 2 = 0.5µs2 στ = 0.5µs
 στ
2. For flat fading channel, we need 0.1 ⇒ Rs = 1 = 0.2 × 104 = 200 kbps
Ts Ts

For BPSK we need Rb = R s = 200 kbps

Example 3 A simple delay spread bound: Feher’s upper bound

Consider a simple worst-case delay spread scenario as shown in figure below.

Here dmin = d0 and dmax = di + dr

Transmitted power = P T , Minimum received power = PRmin = P T hreshold

PRmin λ
= ttT ttR ( )2
PT 4πdmax

Put ttT = ttR = 1 i.e., considering omni-directional unity gain antennas

dmax = ( λ )( P T ) 12

4π PRmin
λ PT
τ max = dmax = ( )( ) 2 1

c 4πc P
1 )( PT R min
1

τmax = ( )2
4πf PRmin

Frequency Dispersion Parameters

To characterize the channel in the frequency domain, we have the following param- eters.
 (1) Coherence bandwidth: it is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
which the channel can be considered to pass all the frequency components with almost
equal gain and linear phase. When this condition is satisfied then we say the channel to be
flat.
Practically, coherence bandwidth is the minimum separation over which the two
frequency components are affected differently. If the coherence bandwidth is con- sidered
to be the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation function is above
0.9, then it is approximated as
1
BC ≈ .
50στ

However, if the coherence bandwidth is considered to be the bandwidth over which the
frequency correlation function is above 0.5, then it is defined as
1
BC ≈ .
5στ

The coherence bandwidth describes the time dispersive nature of the channel in the local
area. A more convenient parameter to study the time variation of the channel is the
coherence time. This variation may be due to the relative motion between the mobile and
the base station or the motion of the objects in the channel.
(2) Coherence time: this is a statistical measure of the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is almost invariant. When channel behaves like this, it is said to be slow
faded. Essentially it is the minimum time duration over which two received signals are
affected differently. For an example, if the coherence time is considered to be the
bandwidth over which the time correlation is above 0.5, then
it can be approximated as
9
TC ≈
16πf m

where fm is the maximum doppler spread given be fm = ν. λ

 Another parameter is the Doppler spread (BD) which is the range of frequencies over
which the received Doppler spectrum is non zero.

Statistical models for multipath propagation

Many multipath models have been proposed to explain the observed statistical na- ture of
a practical mobile channel. Both the first order and second order statistics

Figure: Two ray NLoS multipath, resulting in Rayleigh fading.

have been examined in order to find out the effective way to model and combat the channel
effects. The most popular of these models are Rayleigh model, which de- scribes the NLoS
propagation. The Rayleigh model is used to model the statistical time varying nature of the
received envelope of a flat fading envelope. Below, we discuss about the main first order
and second order statistical models.

NLoS Propagation: Rayleigh Fading Model

Let there be two multipath signals S1 and S2 received at two different time instants due to
the presence of obstacles as shown in Figure 5.6. Now there can either be constructive or
destructive interference between the two signals.
Let E n be the electric field and Θn be the relative phase of the various multipath
signals.So we have
Σ
N
Ẽ = En ejθn
n=1
Now if N→ ∞(i.e. are sufficiently large number of multipaths) and all the En are IID
distributed, then by Central Limit Theorem we have,
Σ
˜ E ejθn
N
lim E = n
lim
N→∞ N→∞ n=1

= Zr + jZi = Rejφ
where Zr and Zi are Gaussian Random variables. For the above case
.
R = Z2 + Z2
r i

and
Zi
φ = tan−1
Zr
For all practical purposes we assume that the relative phase Θn is uniformaly dis-
tributed.
jθ 1 ∫2π
E[e n] = ejθdθ = 0
2π

It can be seen that E n and Θn are independent. So,

Σ
E[Ẽ ] = E[ E nejθ n ] = 0
.. ..2 Σ Σ ΣΣ ΣN
E[ Ẽ jθ n ∗ −jθn ej(θn−θm)] = 2
. . ] = E[ E ne E ne ] = E[ E nE m En = P 0
m n

m n n=1

where P 0 is the total power obtained. To find the Cumulative Distribution Func- tion(CDF)
of R, we proceed as follows.
∫ ∫
FR(r) = P r(R ≤ r) = fZi,Zr (zi, zr)dzidzr
A

where A is determined by the values taken by the dummy variable r. Let Zi and Zr
be zero mean Gaussian RVs. Hence the CDF can be written as
∫ ∫ −(Z2 +Z2 )
1 r i

FR(r) = √ e 2σ2 dZi dZr

2πσ2
A

Let Zr = p cos(Θ) and Zi = p sin(Θ) So we have

2π 2π
∫ ∫ −p2
1
FR(r) = √ e 2σ2 pdpdθ
2πσ 2
00

2
−r
= 1 −e 2σ 2

Above equation is valid for all r ≥ 0. The pdf can be written as

r − r2
e 2σ
fR(r) = σ2 2

and is shown in Figure with different σ values. This equation too is valid for allr ≥ 0.
Above distribution is known as Rayleigh distribution and it has been derived
 Figure 5.7: Rayleigh probability density function.

for slow fading. However, if f D 1 Hz, we call it as Quasi-stationary Rayleigh

fading. We observe the following:
.
π
E[R] = σ
2

E[R2] = 2σ2
π 2
var[R] = (2 − )σ
2
median[R] = 1.77σ.

LoS Propagation: Rician Fading Model

Rician Fading is the addition to all the normal multipaths a direct LOS path.

Figure : Ricean probability density function.

 r 2 2
−(r +A ) Ar
)
fR(r) = σ2 e 2σ2 I0(
σ2
for all A ≥ 0 and r ≥ 0. Here A is the peak amplitude of the dominant signal and
I0(.) is the modified Bessel function of the first kind and zeroth order.
A factor K is defined as
A2
KdB = 10 log
2σ 2
As A → 0 then K dB → ∞.

Generalized Model: Nakagami Distribution

A generalization of the Rayleigh and Rician fading is the Nakagami distribution.

Figure: Nakagami probability density function.

Its pdf is given as,

2rm−1 mm −mr2
) Ω
fR(r) = ( me
Γ(m) Ω
where,
Γ(m) is the gamma function

Ω is the average signal power and

m is the fading factor.It is always greater than or equal to 0.5.

When m=1, Nakagami model is the Rayleigh model. When

(M + 1) 2
m=
2M + 1
Figure : Schematic representation of level crossing with a Rayleigh fading enve- lope at
10 Hz Doppler spread.

where
A
M=
2σ
Nakagami fading is the Rician fading.

As m →∞ Nakagami fading is the impulse channel and no fading occurs.

Second Order Statistics

To design better error control codes, we have two important second order param - eters of
fading model, namely the level crossing rate (LCR) and average fade duration (AFD).
These parameters can be utilized to assess the speed of the user by measuring them through
the reverse channel. The LCR is the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope
normalized to the local rms amplitude crosses a specific level ’R’ in a positive going
direction.
∫ √
∞
N = r˙p(R, ρe −ρ
2

R D
0

where r˙ is the time derivative of r(t), f D is the maximum Doppler shift and ρ is the value
of the specified level R, normalized to the local rms amplitude of the fading envelope.
The other important parameter, AFD, is the average period time for which the
receiver power is below a specified level R.
1
τ¯ = Pr(r ≤ R)
Nr

As ∫
−ρ
P r(r ≤ R) = pR(r)dr = 1 −e ,
2

0
therefore,
1 − e−ρ
2

D
τ¯ = √ ρe−ρ2

2−πρ2f
e −1
=√ .
2πfDρ
Apart from LCR, another parameter is fading rate, which is defined as the number of times
the signal envelope crosses the middle value (rm) in a positive going direction per unit time.
The average rate is expressed as
2v
N(rm) = .
λ

Another statistical parameter, sometimes used in the mobile communication, is called as

depth of fading. It is defined as the ratio between the minimum value and the mean square
value of the faded signal. Usually, an average value of 10% as depth of fading gives a
marginal fading scenario.

Simulation of Rayleigh Fading Models

Clarke’s Model: without Doppler Effffect

In it, two independent Gaussian low pass noise sources are used to produce in-phase and
quadrature fading branches. This is the basic model and is useful for slow fading channel.
Also the Doppler effect is not accounted for.

Clarke and Gans’ Model: with Doppler Effffect

In this model, the output of the Clarke’s model is passed through Doppler filter in the RF
or through two initial baseband Doppler filters for baseband processing as shown in Figure
5.11. Here, the obtained Rayleigh output is flat faded signal but not frequency selective.
Figure: Clarke and Gan’s model for Rayleigh fading generation using quadra- ture
amplitude modulation with (a) RF Doppler filter, and, (b) baseband Doppler filter.

Rayleigh Simulator with Wide Range of Channel Conditions

To get a frequency selective output we have the following simulator through which both
the frequency selective and flat faded Rayleigh signal may be obtained. This is
achieved through varying the parameters ai and τi, as given in Figure

Two-Ray Rayleigh Faded Model

The above model is, however, very complex and difficult to implement. So, we have the
two ray Rayleigh fading model which can be easily implemented in software as shown in
Figure 5.13.

hb(t) = α 1ejφ1δ(t) + α 2ejφ2δ(t − τ )

where α1 and α2 are independent Rayleigh distributed and φ1 and φ2 are indepen- dent and
uniformaly distributed over 0 to 2π. By varying τ it is possible to create a wide range
of frequency selective fading effects.
Figure : Rayleigh fading model to get both the flat and frequency selective channel
conditions.

Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical Model

This method involved averaging the square law detected pulse response while sweep- ing
the frequency of the transmitted pulse. The model assumes that the multipath components
arrive in clusters. The amplitudes of the received components are in- dependent Rayleigh
random variables with variances that decay exponentially with cluster delay as well as
excess delay within a cluster. The clusters and multipath components within a cluster form
Poisson arrival processes with different rates.

SIRCIM/SMRCIM Indoor/Outdoor Statistical Models

SIRCIM (Simulation of Indoor Radio Channel Impulse-response Model) generates realistic

samples of small-scale indoor channel impulse response measurements. Sub-
 Figure 5.13: Two-ray Rayleigh fading model.

sequent work by Huang produced SMRCIM (Simulation of Mobile Radio Channel Impulse-
response Model), a similar program that generates small-scale urban cellu- lar and micro-
cellular channel impulse responses.

Conclusion

In this chapter, the main channel impairment, i.e., fading, has been introduced which
becomes so severe sometimes that even the large scale path loss becomes insignificant in
comparison to it. Some statistical propagation models have been presented based on the
fading characteristics. Mainly the frequency selective fading, fast fading and deep fading
can be considered the major obstruction from the channel severity view point.
 UNIT IV

Equalization and Diversity

Introduction

Apart from the better transmitter and receiver technology, mobile communications require signal processing
techniques that improve the link performance. Equaliza- tion, Diversity and channel coding are channel impairment
improvement techniques. Equalization compensates for Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) created by multipath
within time dispersive channels. An equalizer within a receiver compensates for the average range of expected
channel amplitude and delay characteristics. In other words, an equalizer is a filter at the mobile receiver whose
impulse response is inverse of the channel impulse response. As such equalizers find their use in frequency selec-
tive fading channels. Diversity is another technique used to compensate fast fading and is usually implemented
using two or more receiving antennas. It is usually em- ployed to reduce the depths and duration of the fades
experienced by a receiver in a flat fading channel. Channel coding improves mobile communication link perfor-
mance by adding redundant data bits in the transmitted message.At the baseband portion of the transmitter, a
channel coder maps a digital message sequence in to another specific code sequence containing greater number of
bits than original con- tained in the message. Channel Coding is used to correct deep fading or spectral null. We
discuss all three of these techniques in this chapter. A general framework of the fading effects and their
mitigation techniques is shown in Figure 4 .1.

Figure 4.1: A general framework of fading effects and their mitigation techniques.
 Equalization

ISI has been identified as one of the major obstacles to high speed data transmission over mobile radio channels.
If the modulation bandwidth exceeds the coherence bandwidth of the radio channel (i.e., frequency selective fading),
modulation pulses are spread in time, causing ISI. An equalizer at the front end of a receiver compen- sates
for the average range of expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics. As the mobile fading channels are
random and time varying, equalizers must track the time-varying characteristics of the mobile channel and
therefore should be time- varying or adaptive. An adaptive equalizer has two phases of operation: training and
tracking. These are as follows.
Training Mode:

• Initially a known, fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter so that the receiver equalizer may
average to a proper setting.

• Training sequence is typically a pseudo-random binary signal or a fixed, of prescribed bit pattern.

• The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at the receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficient
in the worst possible channel condition. An adaptive filter at the receiver thus uses a recursive algorithm to
evaluate the channel and estimate filter coefficients to compensate for the channel.

Tracking Mode:

• When the training sequence is finished the filter coefficients are near optimal.

• Immediately following the training sequence, user data is sent.

• When the data of the users are received, the adaptive algorithms of the equal- izer tracks the changing
channel.

• As a result, the adaptive equalizer continuously changes the filter characteris- tics over time.

A Mathematical Framework

The signal received by the equalizer is given by

x(t) = d(t) ∗ h(t) + nb (t) (4.1)

where d(t) is the transmitted signal, h(t) is the combined impulse response of the transmitter,channel and the RF/IF
section of the receiver and nb (t) denotes the baseband noise.
If the impulse response of the equalizer is heq (t), the output of the equalizer is
 yˆ (t) = d (t) ∗ h (t) ∗ h eq (t) + nb (t) ∗ h eq (t) = d (t) ∗ g (t) + n b (t) ∗ h eq (t) . (4.2)

However, the desired output of the equalizer is d(t) which is the original source data. Assuming nb (t)=0, we can
write y(t) = d(t), which in turn stems the following equation:

g (t) = h (t) ∗ heq (t) = δ (t) (4.3)

The main goal of any equalization process is to satisfy this equation optimally. In frequency domain it can
be written as

Heq (f) H (f) = 1 (4.4)

which indicates that an equalizer is actually an inverse filter of the channel. If the channel is frequency selective,
the equalizer enhances the frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong frequencies in
the received frequency spectrum in order to provide a flat, composite received frequency response and linear
phase response. For a time varying channel, the equalizer is designed to track the channel variations so that
the above equation is approximately satisfied.

Zero Forcing Equalization

In a zero forcing equalizer, the equalizer coefficients cn are chosen to force the samples of the combined channel

and equalizer impulse response to zero. When each of the delay elements provide a time delay equal to the symbol
duration T, the frequency response Heq (f ) of the equalizer is periodic with a period equal to the symbol rate 1/T.

The combined response of the channel with the equalizer must satisfy Nyquist’s criterion

Hch (f) Heq (f) = 1, |f| < 1/ 2T (4.5)

where Hch (f ) is the folded frequency response of the channel. Thus, an infinite length zero-forcing ISI equalizer
is simply an inverse filter which inverts the folded frequency response of the channel.
Disadvantage: Since Heq (f ) is inverse of Hch (f ) so inverse filter may excessively amplify the noise at frequencies
where the folded channel spectrum has high atten- uation, so it is rarely used for wireless link except for static
channels with high SNR such as local wired telephone. The usual equalizer model follows a time varying or
adaptive structure which is given next.

A Generic Adaptive Equalizer

The basic structure of an adaptive filter is shown in Figure 4.2. This filter is called the transversal filter, and
in this case has N delay elements, N+1 taps and N+1 tunable complex multipliers, called weights. These weights
are updated continuously by an adaptive algorithm. In the figure the subscript k represents discrete time index.
The adaptive algorithm is controlled by the error signal ek. The error signal is derived by
comparing the output of the equalizer, with some signal dk which is replica of transmitted signal. The adaptive
algorithm uses ek to minimize the cost function and uses the equalizer weights in such a manner thatit minimizes
the cost function iteratively. Let us denote the received sequence vector at the receiver and

Figure 4.2: A generic adaptive equalizer. the input to the equalizer as

xk = [x k, x k−1,....., x k−N]T, (4.6)

and the tap coefficient vector as

wk = [w0, w1, ....., wN]T. (4.7)

k k k

Now, the output sequence of the equalizer yk is the inner product of xk and wk, i.e.,
y k = ×xk, w k ∗ = xT w k = w T x k. (4.8)
k k

The error signal is defined as

ek = dk − yk = dk − xT wk. k (4.9)

Assuming dk and xk to be jointly stationary, the Mean Square Error (MSE) is given as

MSE = E[e2] = E[(dk −yk)2]

k
= E[(dkk − xT wk)2]
= E[d2] + wTE[xkxT]wk − 2E[dkxT]wk k k k k
(4.10)
where wk is assumed to be an array of optimum values and therefore it has been taken out of the E()
operator. The MSE then can be expressed as

MSE = ξ = σ 2 + wT Rwk − 2pT wk k k (4.11)

where the signal variance σ2 = E[d2] and the cross correlation vector p between the
d k

desired response and the input signal is defined as

Σ Σ
p = E [dkxk] = E dkxk dkxk−1 dkxk−2 · · · dkxk−N . (4.12)

The input correlation matrix R is defined as an (N + 1) × (N + 1) square matrix, w

⎤here
2 xkxk−1 xkxk−2 ·· · xkxk−N
⎢ xk ⎥

k−1
⎥
k
xk−1xk⎢ x2 x k−1x k−2 ··· x k−1x k−N
Σ Σ ⎢ ⎥

R = E xkxT = E ⎢ xk−2xk xk−2xk−1 x2··· xk−2xk−N ⎥ . (4.13)

. . .
k −2
⎢
. . ..
. .. ···
⎣ ⎥
.k−N ⎥
⎦
xk−Nx k xk−Nx k−1 xk−Nxk−2 ··· x2
 .

∂ξ
Clearly, MSE is a function of wk. On equating ∂wk
to 0, we get the condition for
minimum MSE (MMSE) which is known as Wiener solution:

wk = R−1p. (4.14)

Hence, MMSE is given by the equation

MMSE = ξmin = σ2 − pTwk. d

(4.15)

Choice of Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization

Since an adaptive equalizer compensates for an unknown and time varying channel, it requires a specific algorithm
to update the equalizer coefficients and track the channel variations. Factors which determine algorithm’s
performance are:
Rate of convergence: Number of iterations required for an algorithm, in re- sponse to a stationary inputs, to
converge close enough to optimal solution. A fast rate of convergence allows the algorithm to adapt rapidly to
a stationary environ- ment of unknown statistics.

Misadjustment: Provides a quantitative measure of the amount by which the final value of mean square error,
averaged over an ensemble of adaptive filters, deviates from an optimal mean square error.

Computational complexity: Number of operations required to make one com- plete iteration of the algorithm.
Numerical properties: Inaccuracies like round-off noise and representation errors in the computer, which
influence the stability of the algorithm.
Three classic equalizer algorithms are primitive for most of today’s wireless stan- dards. These include the Zero
Forcing Algorithm (ZF), the Least Mean Square Algo- rithm (LMS), and the Recursive Least Square Algorithm
(RLS). Below, we discuss a few of the adaptive algorithms.
Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm

LMS algorithm is the simplest algorithm based on minimization of the MSE between the desired equalizer output
and the actual equalizer output, as discussed earlier. Here the system error, the MSE and the optimal Wiener solution
remain the same as given the adaptive equalization framework.
In practice, the minimization of the MSE is carried out recursively, and may be performed by use of the
stochastic gradient algorithm. It is the simplest equalization algorithm and requires only 2N+1 operations per
iteration. The filter weights are updated by the update equation. Letting the variable n denote the sequence of
iteration, LMS is computed iteratively by

wk (n + 1) = wk (n) + µek (n) x (n − k) (4.16)

where the subscript k denotes the kth delay stage in the equalizer and µ is the step size which controls the
convergence rate and stability of the algorithm.
The LMS equalizer maximizes the signal to distortion ratio at its output within the constraints of the equalizer
filter length. If an input signal has a time dispersion characteristics that is greater than the propagation delay
through the equalizer, then the equalizer will be unable to reduce distortion. The convergence rate of the LMS
algorithm is slow due to the fact that there is only one parameter, the step size, that controls the adaptation rate.
To prevent the adaptation from becoming unstable, the value of µ is chosen from

N,
0 < µ < λ2i (4.17)
i=1
where λi is the i-th eigenvalue of the covariance matrix R.
Normalized LMS (NLMS) Algorithm

In the LMS algorithm, the correction that is applied to wk (n) is proportional to the input sample x (n − k). Therefore
when x (n − k) is large, the LMS algorithm experiences gradient noise amplification. With the normalization of the
LMS step size by "x (n)"2 in the NLMS algorithm, this problem is eliminated. Only when x(n−k) becomes
close to zero, the denominator term " x (n)"2 in the NLMS equation becomes very small and the correction
factor may diverge. So, a small positive number ε is added to the denominator term of the correction factor.
Here, the step size is time varying and is expressed as

β
µ (n) = . (4.18)
"x (n)"2 + ε
Therefore, the NLMS algorithm update equation takes the form of

β
wk (n + 1) = wk (n) + e k (n) x (n − k) . (4.19)
"x (n)"2 + ε

Diversity

Diversity is a method used to develop information from several signals transmitted over independent fading paths.
It exploits the random nature of radio propagation by finding independent signal paths for communication. It is a
very simple concept where if one path undergoes a deep fade, another independent path may have a strong
signal. As there is more than one path to select from, both the instantaneous and average SNRs at the receiver
may be improved. Usually diversity decisions are made by receiver. Unlike equalization, diversity requires no
training overhead as a training sequence is not required by transmitter. Note that if the distance between two
receivers is a multiple of λ/2, there might occur a destructive interference be- tween the two signals. Hence
receivers in diversity technique are used in such a way thatthe signal received by one is independent of the
other. Diversity can be of various forms, starting from space diversity to time diversity. We take up the types one
by one in the sequel.

Figure 4.3: Receiver selection diversity, with M receivers.

Different Types of Diversity

Space Diversity

A method of transmission or reception, or both, in which the effects of fading are minimized by the simultaneous
use of two or more physically separated antennas, ideally separated by one half or more wavelengths. Signals
received from spatially separated antennas have uncorrelated envelopes. Space diversity reception methods can
 be classified into four categories: selection, feedback or scanning, maximal ratio combining and equal gain
combining.
(a) Selection Diversity:
The basic principle of this type of diversity is selecting the best signal among all the signals received

from different branches at the receiving end. Selection Diversity is the simplest diversity technique. Figure
7.3 shows a block diagram of this method where ’M’ demodulators are used to provide M diversity branches
whose gains are adjusted to provide the same average SNR for each branch. The receiver branches having
the highest instantaneous SNR is connected to the demodulator.
Let M independent Rayleigh fading channels are available at a receiver. Each channel is called a
diversity branch and let each branch has the same average SNR. The signal to noise ratio is defined as
Eb
SNR = Γ = α2 (4.20)
N0
 where Eb is the average carrier energy, N0 is the noise PSD, α is a random variable used to represent
amplitude values of the fading channel.
The instantaneous SNR(γi) is usually defined as γi = instantaneous signal power per branch/mean noise
power per branch. For Rayleigh fading channels, α has a Rayleigh distribution and so α2 and consequently γi
have a chi-square distribution
with two degrees of freedom. The probability density function for such a channel is

Γ −γ i
1
. (7.21)
p (γi) = e
Γ
The probability that any single branch has an instantaneous SNR less than some defined threshold γ is
∫ ∫
γ γ −γ
≤ γ]P=
r [γ p (γ ) dγ = 1
e −γi γ 1 −e
d= = P(Γ). (7.22)
Γ Γ
i i i i
0 0 Γ

Similarly, the probability that all M independent diversity branches receive signals which are simultaneously
less than some specific SNR threshold γ is
. −γ ΣM
Pr [γ ,γ ,...,γ 1 2 ≤Mγ] = 1 −e Γ P
= (γM
) (7.23)

where P M (γ) is the probability of all branches failing to achieve an instantaneous SNR = γ. Quite clearly, P M
(Γ) < P (Γ). If a single branch achieves SNR > γ, then the probability that SNR >γ for one or more branches
is given by
. −γ
ΣM
> γP]r = i − P M (γ) = 1 − 1 − e
[ γ1 Γ (7.24)

which is more than the required SNR for a single branch receiver. This expression shows the advantage when a
selection diversity is used.
To determine of average signal to noise ratio, we first find out the pdf of γ as
d M. γ Σ M −1 −γ/
p (γ) = P (γ) = 1 − e − /Γ e Γ. (7.25)
M Γ
dγ M

γ , can be then expressed as

The average SNR, ¯
∫ ∞ ∞ M−1
.
Σ
M γγp̄ = (γ) dγ = Mx 1 − e−x e−xdx (7.26)
0 0

where x = γ/Γ and Γ is the average SNR for a single branch, when no diversity is used.
 This equation shows an average improvement in the link margin without requir- ing extra transmitter power
or complex circuitry, and it is easy to implement as it needed a monitoring station and an antenna switch at the
receiver. It is not an optimal diversity technique as it doesn’t use all the possible branches simultaneously.
(b) Feedback or Scanning Diversity:
Scanning all the signals in a fixed sequence until the one with SNR more than a predetermined threshold
is identified. Feedback or scanning diversity is very similar to selection diversity except that instead of always
using the best of N signals, the N signals are scanned in a fixed sequence until one is found to be above a
predetermined threshold. This signal is then received until it falls below threshold and the scanning process is
again initiated. The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior, but the advantage is that it is very simple
to implement(only one receiver is required).
(c) Maximal Ratio Combining:
Signals from all of the m branches are weighted according to their individual signal voltage to noise power
ratios and then summed. Individual signals must be cophased before being summed, which generally requires an
individual receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna element. Produces an output SNR equal to the sum
of all individual SNR. Advantage of producing an output with an acceptable SNR even when none of the
individual signals are themselves acceptable. Modern DSP techniques and digital receivers are now making this
optimal form, as it gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known linear
diversity combiner. In terms of voltage signal,
Σm
rm = tti ri (7.27)
i=1

where tti is the gain and ri is the voltage signal from each branch.
(d) Equal Gain Combining:
In some cases it is not convenient to provide for the variable weighting capability required for true maximal
ratio combining. In such cases, the branch weights are all set unity, but the signals from each branch are co-
phased to provide equal gain combining diversity. It allows the receiver to exploit signals that are simultaneously

received on each branch. Performance of this method is marginally inferior to max- imal ratio combining and
superior to Selection diversity. Assuming all the tti to be
 Figure 4.4: Maximal ratio combining technique.

unity, here,
m Σ
rm = ri. (7.28)
i=1
Polarization Diversity

Polarization Diversity relies on the decorrelation of the two receive ports to achieve diversity gain. The two
receiver ports must remain cross-polarized. Polarization Diversity at a base station does not require antenna
spacing. Polarization diversity combines pairs of antennas with orthogonal polarizations (i.e. horizontal/vertical,

± slant 45o, Left-hand/Right-hand CP etc). Reflected signals can undergo polarization changes depending on the
channel. Pairing two complementary polarizations, this scheme can immunize a system from polarization
mismatches that would otherwise cause signal fade. Polarization diversity has prove valuable at radio and
mobile com- munication base stations since it is less susceptible to the near random orientations of transmitting
antennas.

Frequency Diversity

In Frequency Diversity, the same information signal is transmitted and received simultaneously on two or more
independent fading carrier frequencies. Rationale behind this technique is that frequencies separated by more
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel will be uncorrelated and will thus not experience the same fades.
The probability of simultaneous fading will be the product of the individual fading probabilities. This method
is employed in microwave LoS links which carry several channels in a frequency division multiplex mode
(FDM). Main disadvantage is that it requires spare bandwidth also as many receivers as there are channels used
for the frequency diversity.

Time Diversity

In time diversity, the signal representing the same information are sent over the same channel at different times.
Time diversity repeatedly transmits information at time spacings that exceeds the coherence time of the channel.
Multiple repetition of the signal will be received with independent fading conditions, thereby providing
for diversity. A modern implementation of time diversity involves the use of RAKE receiver for spread
spectrum CDMA, where the multipath channel provides redun- dancy in the transmitted message.
Disadvantage is that it requires spare bandwidth also as many receivers as there are channels used for the
frequency diversity. Two important types of time diversity application is discussed below.

Application 1: RAKE Receiver

In CDMA spread spectrum systems, CDMA spreading codes are designed to provide very low correlation
between successive chips, propagation delay spread in the radio channel provides multiple version of the
transmitted signal at the receiver. Delaying multipath components by more than a chip duration, will
 appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA receiver. CDMA receiver may combine the time delayed
versions of the original signal to improve the signal to noise ratio at the receiver. RAKE

Figure 4.5: RAKE receiver.

receiver collect the time shifted versions of the original signal by providing a sep- arate correlation receiver for
M strongest multipath components. Outputs of each correlator are weighted to provide a better estimate of
the transmitted signal than provided by a single component. Demodulation and bit decisions are based on the
weighted output of the correlators. Schematic of a RAKE receiver is shown in Figure 4.5.
Application 2: Interleaver

In the encoded data bits, some source bits are more important than others, and must be protected from errors. Many
speech coder produce several important bits in succession. Interleaver spread these bit out in time so that if
there is a deep fade or noise burst, the important bits from a block of source data are not c orruptedat the
same time. Spreading source bits over time, it becomes possible to make use of error control coding.
Interleaver can be of two forms, a block structure or a convolutional structure.
A block interleaver formats the encoded data into a rectangular array of m rows and n columns, and interleaves
nm bits at a time. Each row contains a word of source data having n bits. an interleaver of degree m consists of
m rows. source bits are placed into the interleaver by sequentially increasing the row number for each successive
bit, and forming the columns. The interleaved source data is then read out row-wise and transmitted over the
channel. This has the effect of separating the original source bits by m bit periods. Atthe receiver, de-interleaver
stores the received data by sequentially increasing the row number of each successive bit, and then clocks out the
data row-wise, one word at a time. Convolutional interleavers are ideally suited for use with convolutional
codes.
 UNIT -V
WIRELESSNETWORKS
 IEEE 802.11 extensions
As the first standard was wrapping up, the creation of a new standards activity begun in the
802.11 standards body. The new activity gave rise to two more standards; IEEE
b and IEEE 802.11a.
• 802.11b: This standard was developed by IEEE with the support from the consortium Wireless
Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA). This standard is backward compatible with the original
standard that added two new data rates 5.5 mbps and 11 Mbps using two coding techniques; the
mandatory coding mode known as Complementary Coding Keying (CCK) modulation and Packet
Binary Convolution Coding (PBCC). Because of backward compatibility with the 802.11, this
standard has gained wide popularity with millions of installed base, which is growing rapidly.
802.11a: The successor to 802.11b is 802.11a with greater speed and at a different frequency. It
operates at radio frequencies between 5 GHz incorporating a coded multi-carrier scheme known as
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multi-carrier (OFDM). The 5 GHz band is currently unlicensed and
less congested than the 2.4 GHz ISM band. The 802.11a specifies data speed as high as 54 mbps, also
supports 6, 12, 24, and 34 mbps. There is trade off between bandwidth and range - lower bandwidth
cases offering increases range. For 54 mbps, the typical range is 20-30 meters. The 802.11a and
802.11b devices can coexist without interference or reduced performance.

• 802.11g: The success of 802.11b has led to another extension that provides 22 Mbps transmission.
It retains backward compatibility with the popular 802.11b standard. This standard will become
802.11g.

Upper Layers
802.11 802.11 DSSS 802.11a 802.11b HR- 802.11g
FHSS OFDM DSSS OFDM

WiFi: Any of the above wireless LAN standards are referred to by the brand name “WiFi”. It
essentially denotes a set of Wireless LAN standards developed by the working group 11 of the
IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).

WiMAX: The story of wireless LAN cannot be complete without the mention of WiMAX, which
stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access by the WiMAX Forum. The forum
was formed in June 2001 to promote conformance and interoperability of the IEEE 802.16
standard, officially known as Wireless (Metropoliton Area Network) MAN. The Forum describes
WiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless broadband
access as an alternative to cable and DSL". It supports point to multi-point (PMP) broadband
wireless access. WiMAX can deliver a maximum of 70 Mbit/s, over a maximum distance of 70
miles (112.6 kilometers). It has some similarities to DSL in this respect, where one can either
have high bandwidth or long range, but not both simultaneously. The other feature to consider
with WiMAX is that available bandwidth is shared between users in a given radio sector, so if
there are many active users in a single sector, each will get reduced bandwidth.
1. Development of IEEE 802.11
The Physical layer (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) layer were mainly targeted by
the IEEE 802 project. When the idea of wireless local area network (WLAN) was first conceived,
it was just thought of another PHY of one of the available standards. The first candidate which
was considered for this was IEEE’s most prominent standard 802.3.
However later findings showed that the radio medium behaved quite different than the
conventional well behaved wire. As there was attenuation even over short distances, collisions
could not be detected. Hence, 802.3’s carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD) could not be applied.
The next candidate standard considered was
802.4. At that point of time, its coordinated medium access i.e. the token bus concept was believed
to be superior to 802.3’s contention-based scheme. Hence, WLAN began as 802.4L. Later in 1990
it became obvious that token handling in radio networks was rather difficult. The standardization
body realized the need of a wireless communication standard that would have its own very unique
MAC. Finally, on March 21, 1991, the project 802.11 was approved (fig. 1).

Figure 1 WLAN Network Architecture

2. IEEE 802.11 family

The most widely deployed 802.11 standard has a lot of extension and many more are currently
under development. First introduced in 1999,the IEEE 802.11 standards was primarily developed
keeping in mind the home and the office environment for wireless local area connectivity. The
Initial standards gave a maximum data rate of 2Mbps per AP which increased to 11 Mbps per
AP with the deployment of IEEE 802.11b.Newer extensions like IEEE 802.11g and IEEE
802.11a provided maximum data rate of 54Mbps per AP using various methods to boost up the
maximum data rates. WLAN devices based on IEEE 802.11g currently offer data rate 100-
125Mbps. Similarly, a relatively newer IEEE 802.11n gives a maximum data rate of about
540Mbps .Furthermore, in addition to these, several other standards were deployed which solved
many QoS and security issues related with the earlier standards. Additional mechanisms were
introduced to remedy QoS support and security problems in IEEE 802.11e [12] and IEEE
802.11i.The IEEE 802.11n standard which we earlier
talked about also introduced MAC enhancements to overcome MAC layer limitations in the
current standards. The IEEE 802.11s standard added mesh topology support to the IEEE 802.11.
The IEEE 802.11u improved internetworking with external non-802.11 networks. The IEEE
802.11w was an added onto 802.11i covering management frame security.

The IEEE 802.11ad standard adds a "fast session transfer" feature, enabling the wireless
devices to seamlessly make transition between the legacy 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands and the 60
GHz frequency band. The IEEE 802.11ac standard, still under development is expected to provide
a multi-station WLAN throughput of at least 1 Gbps and a single link throughput of at least 500
Mbps.

The IEEE 802.11a extension employs a number of channels ranging from 36-161 depending
on the frequency band (5.15-5.825 GHz) although it works with a fixed channel centre frequency
of 5 GHz. There are 12 non overlapping channels in the frequency band for the IEEE standard in
the U.S. and 19 non-overlapping channels in Europe. In contrast, there areonly 3 out 14 non-
overlapping in case of 802.11b [2]. IEEE 802.11n uses overlapping channels with channel
bandwidth 20 and 40MHz [19]. The 20MHz channel bandwidth is incorporated in every 802.11n
device, the 40MHz channel is optional.
Peer to Peer (P2P) WLAN links can be established with the help of directional antennas for
a few km ranges. A typical WLAN Access Point (AP) uses omnidirectional antennas with a range
of 30-50m (indoors) and 100m (outdoors).This range is greatly affected by the obstacles between
the AP and the STA.IEEE 802.11a suffer from increased range and attenuation compared to IEEE
802.11b/g networks, because it operates on the higher frequency range of 5MHz.Use of sectored
antennas instead of omnidirectional antennas increases the aggregate WLAN data rate in a given
area to 2-3 times .

Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer

IEEE 802.11 uses a contention based scheme known as Distributed Coordinated Function
(DCF). In this method the STA linked with the AP scans the air interface for channel availability.
If the interface is idle, the STA sends it data to the destination through the AP. If however the air
interface is busy or more than one STA tries to access the same AP; a collision occurs. The IEEE
802.11 uses a Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) to avoid the
collisions. IEEE 802.11 uses another MAC technique known as Point Coordination Function
(PCF) [18]. This mechanism is divided in to two parts. In the first part, the AP scans all its STA
in a round robin fashion and checks to see if any of the STAs has any packets to send. If any of
the STAs is not polled during the current period, it will be queued up for polling during the next
polling period. The scanned part uses the contention based scheme and it same as DCF.
 Moreover, due to polling mechanism in PCF the aggregate throughput of an IEEE 802.11
network decreases. DCF is the default MAC technique used in the IEEE 802.11 standard. While
the standard includes both the MAC techniques, PCF is included in the Wi-fi alliance standard
and hence not quite as popular as DCF [17]. In both the MAC techniques an automatic response
request mechanism is used in this method. Any device in the network receiving data will send an
acknowledgement signal (ACK) back to the sender. In case the receiver receives a corrupt data
packet, it issues a NAK (Negative Acknowledgement) and the sender resends the data packet.
There is a round trip delay as the sender has to wait for the ACK to transmit the next data packet
in the queue.
Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS)
In the contention based scheme called DCF if more than two STAs simultaneously try to access
the air interface, a collision occurs. To avoid such collision CSMA/CA may result in incorrect
medium information. This is called Hidden Node Problem in which collision in the some part of
the network cannot be detected [15]. If any two STAs cannot directly communicate, the AP
invokes a RTS/CTS mechanism. For each transmission, the source STA issues a RTS message.
The destination STA replies to this by sending a CTS message. Upon receiving the CTS message,
the source STA starts its data transmission. The medium is assumed to be in use given in the
message when they receive RTS and/or CTS message. In PCF using RTS/CTS reduces the
network throughput.

Authentication & Encryption

Security is also handled in the MAC layer. To avoid unauthorized access from other STAs, several
encryption methods have been used. One of earlier encryption mechanism was Wired Equivalent
Piracy (WEP). But the encryption method had security vulnerabilities and the Wi-fi Alliance
developed another encryption technique named Wi-Fi protection Access (WPA).
The IEEE 802.11i standard incorporated an enhanced version of WPA (WPA2) [20]. IEEE
802.11i also addressed security issues associated with authentication methods like open standard
and shared key authentication and incorporated IEEE 802.1X authentication method which is now
used in all the later versions of IEEE 802 family standards. In this method, users can authenticate
their identities by a RADIUS or diameter server.

Management Frame
The current 802.11 standards define "frame" types for use in management and control of
wireless links. The TGw implemented the IEEE 802.11w standard to implement the Protected
Management Frames. The TGw is still working on improving the IEEE 802.11 MAC layer.
Security can be enhanced by providing data confidentiality of management frames. These
extensions will have interactions with IEEE 802.11r as well as IEEE 802.11u
Advantages of wireless local area network (WLAN) :

• It’s a reliable sort of communication.

• As WLAN reduces physical wires so it’s a versatile way of communication.

• WLAN also reduces the value of ownership.

• It’s easier to feature or remove workstation.

• It provides high rate thanks to small area coverage.

• You’ll also move workstation while maintaining the connectivity.

• For propagation, the sunshine of sight isn’t required.

• The direction of connectivity are often anywhere i.e. you’ll connect devices in any direction unless it’s
within the range of access point.

• Easy installation and you would like don’t need extra cables for installation.

• WLAN are often useful in disasters situation e.g. earthquake and fire. WIreless network can connect
people in any disaster
• it’s economical due to the tiny area access.

• The amount of power it requires is more as it uses transmitter; therefore, the battery life of laptops
can be affected
Disadvantages of wireless local area network (WLAN) :

• WLAN requires license.

• it’s a limited area to hide.

• The Government agenciescan control the flow of signals of WLAN and can also limit it if required.
this will affect data transfer from connected devices to the web.

• If the amount of connected devices increases then data transfer rate decreases.

• WLAN uses frequency which may interfere with other devices which use frequency.

• If there’s rain or thunder then communication may interfere.

• Due to Low security as attackers can get access to the transmitted data.

• Signals could also be suffering from the environment as compared to using fiber optics.

• The radiation of WLAN are often harmful to the environment

• Wlan is expensive than wires and hubs as it access points.

• Signals can get from nearest signals by access points.

• it’s required to vary the network card and access point when standard changes.

• LAN cable remains required which acts because the backbone of the WLAN
• Low data transfer rate than wired connection because WLAN uses frequency.
• Chances of errors are high.

• Communication isn’t secure and may be accessed by unauthorized users

Wireless Network Topology

Wireless network topology — logical topology.
Wireless network topology shows how the computers connect each other when there is no physical connection.
The computers communicate each using the wireless devices.
This sample was created in ConceptDraw DIAGRAM diagramming and vector drawing software using
the Wireless Networks solution from Computer and Networks area of ConceptDraw Solution Park.

Example 1. Wireless Network Topology

This sample shows the Wireless network topology.
The infrastructure wireless network topology is a hub and spoke topology. It is also named “one to
many” topology. There is a single central wireless access point (WAP) in the infrastructure wireless
network topology.
The ad hoc wireless network topology is a “many to many” topology. There is no central access point,
every computer of the network communicates directly with other computer in the ad hoc wireless
network topology.
Using the predesigned objects, templates and samples of the Computer and Networks Solution for
ConceptDraw DIAGRAM you can create your own professional Computer Network Diagrams quick
and easy.
The Computer Network Diagrams produced with ConceptDraw DIAGRAM are vector graphic
documents and are available for reviewing, modifying, and converting to a variety of formats (image,
HTML, PDF file, MS PowerPoint Presentation, Adobe Flash or MS Visio).
professional-looking: Building plans, Home plans, House designs, Floor plans, Home interior designs,
Furniture and equipment layouts.
wireless LANs IEEE 802.11 standard

wireless LANs IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications of
wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio waves for connecting the nodes.

There are several standards of IEEE 802.11 WLANs. The prominent among them are 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b,
802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11p. All the standards use carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA). Also, they have support for both centralised base station based as well as ad hoc networks.

IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11 was the original version released in 1997. It provided 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps data rate in the 2.4 GHz
band and used either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
It is obsolete now.

IEEE 802.11a
802.11a was published in 1999 as a modification to 802.11, with orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM) based air interface in physical layer instead of FHSS or DSSS of 802.11. It provides a maximum data
rate of 54 Mbps operating in the 5 GHz band. Besides it provides error correcting code. As 2.4 GHz band is
crowded, relatively sparsely used 5 GHz imparts additional advantage to 802.11a.

Further amendments to 802.11a are 802.11ac, 802.11ad, 802.11af, 802.11ah, 802.11ai, 802.11aj etc.

IEEE 802.11b
802.11b is a direct extension of the original 802.11 standard that appeared in early 2000. It uses the same
modulation technique as 802.11, i.e. DSSS and operates in the 2.4 GHz band. It has a higher data rate of 11
Mbps as compared to 2 Mbps of 802.11, due to which it was rapidly adopted in wireless LANs. However, since
2.4 GHz band is pretty crowded, 802.11b devices faces interference from other devices.

Further amendments to 802.11b are 802.11ba, 802.11bb, 802.11bc, 802.11bd and 802.11be.

IEEE 802.11g
802.11g was indorsed in 2003. It operates in the 2.4 GHz band (as in 802.11b) and provides a average throughput
of 22 Mbps. It uses OFDM technique (as in 802.11a). It is fully backward compatible with 802.11b. 802.11g
devices also faces interference from other devices operating in 2.4 GHz band.

IEEE 802.11n
802.11n was approved and published in 2009 that operates on both the 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands. It has
variable data rate ranging from 54 Mbps to 600 Mbps. It provides a marked improvement over previous standards
802.11 by incorporating multiple-input multiple-output antennas (MIMO antennas).

IEEE 802.11p
802.11 is an amendment for including wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE) to support Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITS). They include network communications between vehicles moving at high speed
and the environment. They have a data rate of 27 Mbps and operate in 5.9 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications of wireless LANs
(WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN.
Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.

The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the logical link control sublayer and
upper layers of the OSI network. It is responsible for encapsulating frames and describing frame formats.

IEEE 802.11 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL

MAC Sublayer frame of IEEE 802.11

The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −

• Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control information of
the frame.
• Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its acknowledgement
occupy the channel.
• Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source, immediate
destination and final endpoint respectively.
• Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
• Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size of data
field is 2312 bytes.
• Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.
 Avoidance of Collisions by 802.11 MAC Sublayer
In wireless systems, the method of collision detection does not work. It uses a protocol called carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
The method of CSMA/CA is −

• When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or busy.
• If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
• If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount of time and then sends the
frame.
• After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
• The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives the acknowledgement before
expiry of timer, it marks a successful transmission.
• Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.
Co-ordination Functions in 802.11 MAC Sublayer
IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer uses two co-ordination functions for collision avoidance before transmission −

• Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) −

o It is a mandatory function used in CSMA/CA.
o It is used in distributed contention-based channel access.
o It is deployed in both Infrastructure BSS (basic service set) as well as Independent BSS.
• Point Coordination Function (PCF) −
o It is an optional function used by 802.11 MAC Sublayer.
o It is used in centralized contention-free channel access.
o It is deployed in Infrastructure BSS only.
•
IEEE 802.16

• IEEE 802.16 is a series of wireless broadband standards written by the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE Standards Board established a working group in
1999 to develop standards for broadband for wireless metropolitan area networks. The
Workgroup is a unit of the IEEE 802 local area network and metropolitan area
network standards committee.
 • Although the 802.16 family of standards is officially called WirelessMAN in IEEE, it has been
commercialized under the name "WiMAX" (from "Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access") by the WiMAX Forum industry alliance. The Forum promotes and certifies
compatibility and interoperability of products based on the IEEE 802.16 standards.
• The 802.16e-2005 amendment version was announced as being deployed around the world in
2009.[1] The version IEEE 802.16-2009 was amended by IEEE 802.16j-2009.

Standard Description Status

802.16 Fixed Broadband Wireless Access (10–66 GHz) Superseded

802.16.2 Recommended practice for coexistence Superseded

802.16c System profiles for 10–66 GHz Superseded

802.16a Physical layer and MAC definitions for 2–10 GHz Superseded

License-exempt frequencies
P802.16b Withdrawn
(Project withdrawn)

Maintenance and System profiles for 2–11 GHz

P802.16d Merged
(Project merged into 802.16-2004)

Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access System

802.16 Superseded
(rollup of 802.16–2001, 802.16a, 802.16c and P802.16d)

Coexistence with 2–11 GHz and 23.5–43.5 GHz

P802.16.2a Merged
(Project merged into 802.16.2-2004)

IEEE Recommended Practice for Local and metropolitan area networks

Coexistence of Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems
802.16.2 Current
(Maintenance and rollup of 802.16.2–2001 and P802.16.2a)
Released on 2004-March-17.

802.16f Management Information Base (MIB) for 802.16-2004 Superseded

802.16-2004/Cor 1– Corrections for fixed operations

Superseded
2005 (co-published with 802.16e-2005)

802.16e Mobile Broadband Wireless Access System Superseded

 IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Media Access
Control (MAC) Bridges
802.16k Amendment 2: Bridging of IEEE 802.16 Current
(An amendment to IEEE 802.1D)
Released on 2007-August-14.

802.16g Management Plane Procedures and Services Superseded

Mobile Management Information Base

P802.16i Merged
(Project merged into 802.16-2009)

Air Interface for Fixed and Mobile Broadband Wireless Access System
802.16-2009 (rollup of 802.16–2004, 802.16-2004/Cor 1, 802.16e, 802.16f, 802.16g and Superseded
P802.16i)

802.16j Multihop relay Superseded

802.16h Improved Coexistence Mechanisms for License-Exempt Operation Superseded

Advanced Air Interface with data rates of 100 Mbit/s mobile and 1 Gbit/s fixed.
802.16m Also known as Mobile WiMAX Release 2 or WirelessMAN-Advanced. Superseded[2]
Aiming at fulfilling the ITU-R IMT-Advanced requirements on 4G systems.

IEEE Standard for Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems
It is a rollup of 802.16h, 802.16j and Std 802.16m
802.16-2012 (but excluding the WirelessMAN-Advanced radio interface, which was moved to Superseded
IEEE Std 802.16.1).
Released on 2012-August-17.

IEEE Standard for WirelessMAN-Advanced Air Interface for Broadband

802.16.1 Wireless Access Systems Current
Released on 2012-September-07.

IEEE Standard for Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems
802.16p Amendment 1: Enhancements to Support Machine-to-Machine Applications Current
Released on 2012-October-08.

IEEE Standard for WirelessMAN-Advanced Air Interface for Broadband

Wireless Access Systems
802.16.1b Current
Amendment 1: Enhancements to Support Machine-to-Machine Applications
Released on 2012-October-10.
 IEEE Standard for Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems
802.16n Amendment 2: Higher Reliability Networks Current
Approved on 2013-March-06.

IEEE Standard for WirelessMAN-Advanced Air Interface for Broadband

Wireless Access Systems
802.16.1a Current
Amendment 2: Higher Reliability Networks
Approved on 2013-March-06.

IEEE Standard for Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems
802.16-2017 It is a rollup of 802.16p, 802.16n, 802.16q and Std 802.16s Current
Released on 2017-September.

WIRELESS Personal Area Networks

A personal area network is a network concerned with the exchange of information in the vicinity of a
person. Typically, these systems are wireless and involve the transmission of data between devices
such as smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers, etc. The purpose of such a network is
usually to allow either transmission of data or information between such devices or to server as the
network that allows further up link to the Internet. Developments in the area of Personal Area
Networks (PANs) are largely overseen by the IEEE 802.15 working group
Personal Area Network (PAN): It is an interconnection of personal technology devices to
communicate over a short distance, which is less than 33 feet or 10 meters or within the range of an
individual person, typically using some form of wireless technologies. Some of these technologies are:
●
Bluetooth technology: The idea behind Bluetooth is to embed a low cost transceiver chip in
each device, making it possible for wireless devices to be totally synchronized without the user
having to initiate any operation. The chips would communicate over a previously unused radio
frequency at up to 2 Mbps. The overall goal of Bluetooth might be stated as enabling
ubiquitous connectivity between personal technology devices without the use of cabling as
written in Mckeown (2003a).
●
High rate W-PANs: As per standard IEEE 802.15 TG3, launched in 2003, these technologies
use higher power devices (8 dBm) than regular Bluetooth equipment (0 dBm) to transmit data
at a rate of up to 55 Mbps and over a range of up to 55 m Ailisto et al (2003).
●
Low power W-PANs: As per standard IEEE 802.15 TG4, these technologies are particularly
useful for handheld devices since energy consumption for data transmission purposes, and
costs, are extremely low. The range of operation of up to 75 m is higher than current Bluetooth
applications, but the data transfer rate is low (250 Kbps) Ailisto et al (2003).

HIPER LAN

HIPERLAN is a European family of standards on digital high speed wireless communication in the
5.15-5.3 GHz and the 17.1-17.3 GHz spectrum developed by ETSI. The committee responsible for
HIPERLAN is RES-10 which has been working on the standard since November 1991.
The standard serves to ensure the possible interoperability of different manufacturers' wireless
communications equipment that operate in this spectrum. The HIPERLAN standard only describes a
common air interface including the physical layer for wireless communications equipment, while
leaving decisions on higher level configurations and functions open to the equipment manufacturers.

The choice of frequencies allocated to HIPERLAN was part of the 5-5.30 GHz band being allocated
globally to aviation purposes. The Aviation industry only used the 5-5.15GHz frequency, thus making
the 5.15-5.30 frequency band accessible to HIPERLAN standards.

HIPERLAN is designed to work without any infrastructure. Two stations may exchange data directly,
without any interaction from a wired (or radio-based) infrastructure. The simplest HIPERLAN thus
consists of two stations. Further, if two HIPERLAN stations are not in radio contact with each other,
they may use a third station (i.e. the third station must relay messages between the two communicating
stations).

Products compliant to the HIPERLAN 5 GHz standard shall be possible to implement on a PCMCIA
Type III card. Thus the standard will enable users to truly take computing power on the road.

The HIPERLAN standard has been developed at the same time as the development of the SUPERnet
standard in the United States.

HIPERLAN requirements

• Short range - 50m

 • Low mobility - 1.4m/s
• Networks with and without infrastructure
• Support isochronous traffic
• audio 32kbps, 10ns latency
• video 2Mbps, 100ns latency
• Support asynchronous traffic
• data 10Mbps, immediate access

Quality of service

Performance is one of the most important factors when dealing with wireless LANs. In contrast to
other radio-based systems, data traffic on a local area network has a randomized bursty nature, which
may cause serious problems with respect to throughput.

Many factors have to be taken into consideration, when quality of service is to be measured. Among
these are:

• The topography of the landscape in general

• Elevations in the landscape that might cause shadows, where connectivity is unstable or
impossible.
• Environments with many signal-reflection surfaces
• Environments with many signal-absorbing surfaces
• Quality of the wireless equipment
• Placement of the wireless equipment
• Number of stations
• Proximity to installations that generate electronic noise
• and many more

The sheer number of factors to take into consideration means, that the physical environment will
always be a factor in trying to asses the usefulness of using a wireless technology like HIPERLAN.

Simulations show that the HIPERLAN MAC can simultaneously support

• 25 audio links at 32kbit/s, 10ms delivery

• 25 audio links at 16kbit/s, 20ms delivery
• 1 video link at 2Mbit/s, 100ms delivery
• Asynch file transfer at 13.4Mbit/s

New HIPERLAN standards ahead

A second set of standards have been constructed for a new version of HIPERLAN - HIPERLAN2.
The idea of HIPERLAN2 is to be compatible with ATM.

There is also undergoing work to establish global sharing rules. The WINForum for NII/SUPERNET
in the US aim to support HIPERLAN 1 and HIPERLAN 2. This effort involves interaction between
ETSI RES10, WINForum, ATM Forum.
Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
Wireless Local Loop (WLL) is a generic word for an access system that connects users to the local
telephone company's switch via wireless links rather than traditional copper cables. This system, also
known as fixed wireless access (FWA) or fixed radio, provides telephone, facsimile, and data services
to business and residential subscribers using analog or digital radio technology.
• WLL systems enable the rapid deployment of basic phone service in areas where geography or
telecommunications development makes traditional wireline service prohibitively expensive.
• WLL systems are easy to integrate with a modified public telephone network (PSTN), and they
can usually be installed within a month of acquiring equipment, much faster than traditional
wiring, which can take months to set up and years to increase the capacity to meet the growing
demand for communication services.
• Analog systems for medium- to low-density and rural applications are among WLL's offerings.
• There are WLL systems based on Code Division Multiple Access for high-density, high-growth
urban and suburban settings (CDMA). Telecommunications systems such as TDMA (Time
Division Multiple Access) and GSM (Global System for Mobile) are also available.
 • Digital WLL systems can offer higher-speed fax and data services in addition to providing better
speech quality than analog systems.
• Existing operations support systems (OSS) and transmission and distribution systems are also
compatible with WLL technology.
What are the most common wireless access methods?
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code
division multiple access (CDMA) are all used to accomplish WLL (CDMA).
CDMA is the one that is utilized in India. This is a full-fledged mobile phone system. In fact, in
nations like the United States and Korea, it is the most widely used technology for mobile phone
services.
Benefits of Using WLL
WLL systems are scalable, allowing operators to continue to use their existing infrastructure as the
system grows. WLL customers use a radio unit connected to the PSTN via a local base station to
obtain phone service.
A transceiver, power source, and antenna make up the radio unit. It runs on AC or DC power, can be
mounted indoors or out, and usually comes with a battery backup for when the power goes out. The
radio unit connects to the premise's cabling on the customer side, allowing customers to utilize their
current phones, modems, fax machines, and answering machines.
Following are some of the benefits of using WLL −
• It eliminates the need to build a network connection for the first or final mile.
• Since no copper cables are used, the cost is low.
• Wireless communication is much more secure because of digital encryption technology.
• It is very scalable since it does not require the installation of more wires to scale.