Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.

( Politique)
Statistical Description of Data
11

Chapter
status
-

↳
word derived from • Latin word a .

•
flatus word 9 Statism .

Germany Slaistik .

Background of Chapter
Conceptual Background

LDR__

heDR@lWY. O
Basic of Statistics Collection of Mode of Presentation Some Statistical
Data of Data Terms

Introduction

E8¥É④¥
Data Meaning

Importance of Statistics

Limitation of Statistics
E-
Methods to
Collect Data
Meg NI
'
,

Tools Used In statistics .

Primary Secondary Textual Tabular Graphical

Method Method Presentation Presentation Presentation

a
Pwg
¥
Direct Personal Newspaper & Line Diagram

guy
Observation Periodicals
Frequency Distribution

Indirect Oral Publications of Individual Discrete / Continuous Bar Diagram

Investigation Trade Asso. Series Series

Pie Chart ✓
Estimate from Research
local Source papers

Data Through Official Non-Graphical Diagrammatic

Questionaries publications Presentation Presentation

Investigation International Serial Order -

Histogram
Through Sources

=
Enumerators
Ascending/Descending Frequency Polygon

Tables or Chart Frequency Curve

-

Groups / Class Interval Ogive

Statistics Aman Khedia

Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.2

Introduction
-Plural Sense Singular Sense
-

Scientific method that is employed for

It refers to the numerical data
collecting, analyzing and presenting data,
(qualitative as well as quantitative)
leading finally to drawing statistical

÷
collected in a systematic manner with
inferences about some important
some definite aim or object in view.
characteristics.
Example: The number of persons
suffering from malaria in different
colonies of Delhi or number of
unemployed girls in different states of
India and so on.

Application of statistics
Economics
Economics and Statistics are closely associated. Time Series Analysis, Index
Numbers, Demand Analysis etc. are some overlapping areas of Economics and
Statistics.
-
Business Management
Because of the never-ending complexity in the business and industry
environment, most of the decision-making processes rely upon different
quantitative techniques which could be described as a combination of statistical
methods and operations research techniques.
Statistical decision theory is another component of statistics that focuses on the
analysis of complicated business strategies with a list of alternatives – their
merits as well as demerits. .
Statistics in Commerce and Industry
Data on previous sales, raw materials, wages and salaries, products of identical
nature of other factories etc are collected, analysed and experts are consulted in
order to maximise profits. Measures of central tendency and dispersion,
correlation and regression analysis, time series analysis, index numbers,
sampling, statistical quality control are some of the statistical methods employed
in commerce and industry.

✗
Statistics and its techniques are widely used in every branch of knowledge. W.I.
King rightly says: “Science of statistics is the most useful servant. But only of great value to those
who understand its proper use.”
Important limitations
1. Statistics does not deal with individual item.
Not

¥
ant
2. Statistics deals with quantitative data. Relevant

was
3. Statistics laws are true only on averages.
4. Statistics does not reveal the entire story.
5. Statistics is liable to be misused.
6. Statistics data should be uniform and homogeneous.

Statistics Aman Khedia

Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.3

Methods of Collecting Data

Data: The word data means information (its literary meaning is given as facts). This
can be defined as the information collected through censuses and surveys or in a
routine manner or other sources is called data.
Quantitative Data/ Quantitative Characteristic: Also known as a variable or in
other words, a variable is a measurable quantity.

Discrete Variable: When a variable assumes a finite or a countably

infinite number of isolated values. Examples: Number of misprints a
book, Number of road accidents in a particular locality etc.

Variable

Continuous Variable: When a variable assumes infinite Uncountably

number of values. Examples: Height, Weight, Sale, Profit etc.

Qualitative Data: Also known as attributes. Example: Gender of a baby,

Nationality of a person, Color of a flower etc.

Note: So far as the statistical analysis of the characteristic is concerned, we need to

convert qualitative information to quantitative information by providing a numeric
description to the given characteristic.

Types of statistical Data

There are two types of statistical data:

1. Primary data → 1ˢᵗ time .

2. Secondary data
=

1. Primary data: The data which are collected for the first time by an
__
investigator or agency are known as primary data.
= _ =

2. Secondary data: Secondary data can be defined as, data as being already
collected, are used by a different person or agency.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Methods of collecting primary data

Interview method Mailed Observation Questionnaire

Questionnaire method filled and sent
Method by
Personal

÷
enumerators
Interview

Indirect
Interview

Telephone
Interview

Statistics Aman Khedia

 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.4

*¥
¥÷-
1. Personal Interview: the investigator meets the respondents directly and
collects the required information then and there from them. Best
Methad
Application: In case of a natural calamity like a super cyclone or an earthquake
or an epidemic like plague, we may collect the necessary data much more quickly
and accurately by applying this method.

2. Indirect Interview: Under this method, investigator collects the necessary

information from the persons associated with the problems.
Application: if there are some practical problems in reaching the respondents
_**F
directly, as in case of rail accident.

a
3. Telephone Interview: Under this method, relevant information can be gathered
by the researcher himself by contacting the interviewee over the phone.
Advantage: Quick, Wide Coverage & Non-Expensive
Disadvantages: Non-Responses
_F☆
Ñost¥thaᵈ .

4. Mailed Questionnaire: Mailed questionnaire method comprises of framing a

I n

well-drafted and soundly-sequenced questionnaire covering all the important

aspects of the problem under consideration and sending them to the respondents
with pre-paid stamp after providing all the necessary guidelines for filling up the
questionnaire. • To
loves wide Area Non / Responsiveness'D man ?✓
=

% 5. Observation Method: Under this method-

observation or using instrument.
data are collected by direct

E-
Example: Data on the height and weight of a group of students
= →

-6. Questionnaire filled and sent by enumerators: Questionnaire form of data

_
collection is used for larger enquiries from the persons who are surveyed.
Enumerators collects information directly by interviewing the persons having
information, Question are explained and hence data is collected

Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

Amp
sources
-1
(a) International sources like WHO, ILO, IMF, World Bank etc.

(b) Government sources like Statistical Abstract by CSO, Indian Agricultural

Statistics by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and so on.

E-
(c) Private and quasi-government sources like ISI, ICAR, NCERT etc.

(d) Unpublished sources of various research institutes, researchers etc.

_
_

There is no Ridégid
or enhauttinl list lontidgaboulfohly
may Enanlpul
.

fourth
of secondary -

for our
Enemy Point
Statistics grief .

Aman Khedia
 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.5

Mode of Presentation of Data

step
② first
-
→
.

Textual Tabular Graphical

Presentation Presentation → Presentation

Textual Presentation

This method comprises presenting data with the help of a paragraph or a number
of paragraphs.
Example: The official report of an enquiry commission, Government Reports etc.

Example: ‘In 2009, out of a total of five thousand workers of Roy Enamel Factory,
four thousand and two hundred were members of a Trade Union. The number of
female workers was twenty per cent of the total workers out of which thirty per cent
were members of the Trade Union.

In 2010, the number of workers belonging to the trade union was increased by
twenty per cent as compared to 2009 of which four thousand and two hundred were
male. The number of workers not belonging to trade union was nine hundred and
fifty of which four hundred and fifty were females.’

Merits Demerits
• simplicity even a layman can present • Dull
and understand the data by this
method. • Monotonous
• The observations with exact
magnitude can be presented with the Two
• Does not facilitate Comparison
help of textual presentation. • For manifold classification this
Learns method cannot be recommended.
☆ • This type of presentation can be taken

ox
as the first step towards the other
methods of presentation

Tabular Presentation

Tabulation may be defined as logical and systematic arrangement of statistical data

in rows and Columns.
Objective
To simplify To clarify the Economize To facilitate
To depict trend a
the complex objective of space. comparison.
data. pattern of data
investigation.

To facilitate To detect errors and

To help To clarify the
statistical omissions
reference for characteristics of
analysis.
future data.
studies.

Statistics Aman Khedia

Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.6

www.VK Essential parts of a statistical Table

③
Format of a Table
rTable No. XXX →
②
Title: [Head note or prefatory Note]
→②}→7ad
O→⑨
I
Caption
Stub Sub-Heads Sub-Heads Total
Heading Column Head Column Head Column Head Column Head (5)
↓ (1) (2) (3) (4)
Row 1
Row2 Body of Table
Row 3
Total
( vital Party table)

I Foot Note →
Source Note: ⑥→⑦
Number and Date: No. Dc 1172-25/2/2006
-
-
-

-
A table should be numbered for identification especially when there
are a large number of tables in a study. The number may be put at
Table Number
-
the center, above the title or at the bottom of the table.
- - -

Every table should have a title It should be clear brief and self-
Table Title explanatory. The title should be set in bold type so as to give it
prominence.
- -

The date of preparation of table should always be written on the

Date table. It enables to recollect the chronological order of the table
-
prepared. -

O Stubs
(Row Heading)
Each row of the table must have a heading. The designations of the
rows are called stubs or stub items

O Captions
(Column Heading)
A table has many columns; sub-headings of the columns are called
captions or headings.

÷
It is the most vital part of the table It contains the numerical

:-.
Body information. It should be made as comprehensive as possible.

Unit of The unit of measurement should always be stated along with the
title if this is uniform throughout
-

Measurement
-

A note at the bottom of the table should always be given to indicate

Source Notes the primary source as well as the secondary source from where the
-

data has been taken particularly. When there is more than one source.

It is always placed at the bottom of the table. It is a statement which

Foot notes & contains explanation of some specific items which cannot be
understood by the reader from the title or captions and stubs. The
Refrennses
unit of measurement should always be stated along with the title if
this is uniform throughout

Statistics Aman Khedia

 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.7

Iambic Ways of Presentation

¥-0.77
Individual Series Frequency Distribution
(Discrete / Continuous Series)

0 Non-Graphical
Presentation
Graphical
Presentation

E- :#
Serial Order Histogram

Ascending/Descending
- ✓ Frequency Polygon
Tables or Chart ✓ Frequency Curve
Groups / Class Interval Ogive

Non-Graphical Methods

•
Serial Order
When the raw data are arranged in systematic manner it is said to be in serial order
@
Ascending/Descending
-

MEE
A raw data can be arranged in Ascending or Descending order of Magnitude
=

0
Tables Or Chart %:&
In order to maker the data easily understandable, we tabulate the data in the form of tables or
charts. A Table has three columns.
-
1.Variable -
-
2.Tally Marks
-
3.Frequency
-

Any character which can vary from It is a method of The number of times
→ -

one individual to another is called a keeping count in blocks an observation occurs

-
_

Variable. of Five. in the given data is

=
For eg. Age, Income, Height etc. called the frequency of
Variables with numbers as possible the observation.
values are called Quantitative
Variable whereas those with name
of place, quality etc are called
Qualitative Variable.

00
¥
Groups Or Class Interval

80-85
85-90
90 -95 6

8
95 1W
-

Statistics Aman Khedia

 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.8

/
Area af class At
Diagrammatic Presentation
Histogram

✗• Adistribution.
histogram is used to depict a frequency
_
-
⑤
• A Histogram is a graph containing a set of →

¥-8 class interval by its width and the

frequency in each class interval by its
height.

✓• The area of each rectangle is proportional

to the frequency in the respective class- ,
-

=
interval and the total area of the .
histogram is proportional to the total
frequency.
• This type of diagram is used exclusively
for showing frequency distributions of
quantitative data that are continuous in
__
÷ →
was
nature.
→

Histogram With Histogram With Histogram When

Equal Class Interval Unequal Class Interval Mid-Points are Given

Possibles connect Hinn 4=292--10

Yes .

Enlllllinl Slug

x EE.hn?l.&i-I
1-5 5-10 10-15 x oasa¥ÉÉ"↑%÷
1-5 6-9 10-15 x 100 120 140

Enid point
- _ -

⑨
f 5 12 8 f 5 12 8 f 5 6 4

NEED?
12 -

8- I /
'
+ -

É ☒
aim ITF-ETo%Ef.iq#s.s---
Ma¥ ✓
Key Points to Remember
✓ Different Scales May be taken on the 2 axes (i.e., x-axis & y-axis)
-

✓Kink mark () is used if class interval is not starting from 0

✓In Histogram both height as well as width of each rectangle matters Whereases in bar diagram
-

only height of each bar matters

Statistics Aman Khedia

 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.9

Frequency Polygon
• A frequency polygon is a line graph for graphical representation of frequency
distribution
• In order the to draw a frequency polygon mid-point of the class interval (mid-
point of the top horizontal sides of the rectangles in a histogram) and its
corresponding frequency The plotted points are the joined successively by the line
segments and the figure, so drawn, is given the shape of a polygon

50 -1W Example: The following is the distribution of total household expenditure (in ₹) of 202 workers

:
in a city.

C-
Expenditure (in ₹) Number of Workers Expenditure (in ₹) Number of Workers
100-150 25 300-350 30
150-200 : 40 350-400 22
200-250 33 400-450 16
250-300 : 28 450-500 8
Draw a histogram and a frequency polygon of the above data
Solution

•
freeway
↑
,,
•
a
Polygons

¥É =

☒
histogram .

Note
To draw frequency polygon without constructing histogram compute class mark (Mid-Point of
- -

class interval) and then plot class mark and frequency in the graph paper.

Statistics Aman Khedia

Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.10

⑧
Frequency Curve
• A frequency curve is drawn by smoothing the
frequency polygon. It is smoothed in such a way
that the sharp turns are avoided freeway
→ turn

¥É:
• The curve is drawn in such a way that area
included under the curve is approximately
→
the
same as that of the frequency polygon

0 I -0
• To draw the frequency curve, firstly draw a
0
histogram, then draw a frequency polygon and
lastly smooth it to get frequency curve.
Polygon .

• The main objective of frequency Types

curve of
is frequency
to curve
present graphically, the area covered by
histogram in aBell-Shaped Curvemanner.
more symmetrical U-Shaped Curve
• Most of the commonly used • For a U-shaped curve, the frequency is
distributions provide bell-shaped curve minimum near the central part and the
frequency slowly but steadily reaches
• On a bell-shaped curve, the frequency, its maximum at the two extremities
starting from a rather low value,
• The distribution of Kolkata bound
gradually reaches the maximum value,
commuters belongs to this type of
somewhere near the central part and curve as there are maximum number
then gradually decreases to reach its of commuters during the peak hours in
lowest value at the other extremity. the morning and in the evening.
°

Man Min Mak

Min Maa Min
-

cop
-
-
-

,%ᵈn✓
,

central #
past → Pootitof out
( Meen) a

• = • come?f A

J-Shaped Curve
min → Man
•

• The J-shaped curve starts with a

=
minimum frequency and then gradually
reaches its maximum frequency at the
other extremity.
•
• The distribution of commuters coming
to Kolkata from the early morning hour
to peak morning hour follows such a
distribution. Sometimes, we may also
come across an inverted J-shaped

Me
frequency curve.

- Mixed Curve

Lastly, we may have a combination

of these frequency curves, known as
mixed curve. These are exhibited in
the following figures.
Statistics Aman Khedia
-
Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.11

Ogive or Cumulative frequency

It is a graph which represent the data of cumulative frequency distribution. By

Two co
plotting cumulative frequency against the respective class boundary, we get ogives.

co-ED.cat
Less than Ogive
-
More than Ogive •
If cumulative frequencies are plotted If cumulative frequencies are plotted
with upper limit of class intervals, then with lower limit of class intervals, then
it is the less than Ogive it is the less than Ogive

Assumption
0
It is assumed that the class preceding the first class in the classification exists and its frequency is
zero.
=

Example: Draw a less than Ogive and More than Ogive from the following distribution
Weekly Wages EPO 20 20 40 60 80 100
•
-
- - _ _
→
No of Workers 41 92 156 194 201
Solution
Cumulative frequency

.④_§
Weekly Wages F
Less than More than

⑧④ →
41
•
⑧④
C⑧⊕ ••⑧§9i I
92 -

⑧①☒
60-800
156
•

194
•
038.4194 ⑧f✓
80 201
• 7-
4⑧ ⊕
=⑧ 120,41)( 40,927,160,1501

000 Point to Remember

• Ogives is used to find Median,

0 000
quartiles, deciles and percentiles

÷"°
Draw a Straight line from point
of intersection of two Ogives on
-
X-axis

⑥ ii.. • That point on X-axis is Required

•
•
Median

"q⑧
Statistics
Indian Aman Khedia
Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.12

Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

Line Diagram
0
Bar Diagram Pie Chart

Line Diagram

It is simplest of all diagram. Line diagram are simple mathematical graph drawn on
- @__
-
the graph paper by plotting one variable on x-axis and another on y-axis.

0→
This diagram felicitate comparison & no technical Skill is required to draw

When we observe the values of a variable at different period of time, the series
•
so formed is known as time series. We take time on X-axis and Value of Variable
on Y-axis. The Time series graph is also known as Histogram

m⇐_ Time Series Graph

Can be Constructed
☒
Natural Scale
Can be
Ratio Scale
Can be
Absolute Changes are Shown

E
Can be Constructed
Relative Changes are Shown
Can be Constructed
I }•ña
.

A
Example: Draw a line diagram from the following distribution
Commodity Food Cloth Rent Fuel Misc.
15 I
Price 10 2 12 2 22
2 18 2

Solution:

Line Diagram
25

20

%
15

0
10

0
food Cloth Rent Fuel Misc

Series 1

Statistics Aman Khedia

Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.13

Bar Diagram
v. v.v
5-5-0-4
-

Bars i.e., rectangles of equal width and usually of varying lengths are drawn either

as
_

horizontally or vertically.

• It is especially useful in comparing qualitative data or quantitative data of discrete

type.
#→- ⑨ ③
→

• While horizontal bar diagram is used for qualitative data or data varying over
*
¥ space, the vertical bar diagram is associated with quantitative data or time series -2
data.
→= ⑨
vanity onetime
-

data
-
Types of Bar diagram

÷
1. Simple Bar Diagram:
2. Multiple or Grouped Bar Diagram:
3. Divide or component Bar Diagram.
4. Percentage subdivided Bar Diagram

Example: Draw a bar chart on

!
'

! TE
•

procurement of rice in India

Year
'
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 .

Rice
_
4500 =
5700 6100
-
6500
-
4300
-
7800

0--000--00

Example: The production of wheat and rice of a region are given below:

Years 2012 2013 2014 2015

☒
- - - -

Wheat 12 15 18 19
Rice 25 30 32 36

Multiple Line Chart

-
Multiple Bar Diagram

:-.
- -
-

-
R

?
-

11$
I ' ' .

Statistics Same units are used Aman Khedia

in two or more related time Ilias
Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.14

0-8-v.nu#*--g---
Difference Between Histogram & Bar Chart
Histogram Bar Chart
→

Refers to graphical representation, that Refers to Pictorial representation of data that

displays data by way of bars to show uses bars to compare different category of
frequency of numerical data data
Distribution of Non-discrete Variable
* Distribution of Discrete Variable
(Continuous Variable) - - -

Quantitative Data Categorial Data

Bars Touches each other’s Bars Don’t touch each other’s

* -⑦
Bars Can’t be reordered * ⑤
Bars Can be reordered

0 -
-
Width of Bars can or cannot be same
_ _→
Width of Bars is same

-0--0--0
Pie Diagram
• A pie diagram is a circular graph which represent the total value with its
components. The area of the circle represents the different parts.

0
• In pie diagram the data are expressed as percentage. Each Component is
expressed as percentage of total value. The pie diagram is also known as angular

output
diagram
-

0--7=-43
• The surface area of circle is 2𝜋 radians or 360 degrees

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Angle of the circle = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
× 3600

Example:120 students of a college were asked to opt different work experience. The
details of these options are as under. Represent in Pie diagram

Area of
work
No of
Students
Angle 9→l%
Photography
→
6
-1%1200=18--0 31-0
ae⑧
-
Clay .

modelling
30 go
/
Kitchen
Gardening
48 mi
"
Doll Making 12 36
'

Book
Binding
24 72

Statistics
E- FE Aman Khedia
 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.15

Some Statistical Terms

✓
1. Raw Data A raw data is a statistical data in original form before any statistical technique
is applied to redefine, process or summarize it.

A- r⑧
1. Variable or Variant Any character which can vary from one individual to another is called
variable or variate. For example, age, income, height, intelligence, color, etc.,

%
2. Discrete Series When the discrete variables are arranged in the form of a series, it is

15
called a discrete or discontinuous series.

3. Continuous Series When the continuous variables are arranged in the form of a series, it
is called continuous series or exclusive series.

✓ ☐
4. Array An array is an arrangement of data in order of magnitude either in descending or
ascending order.

=
5. Descending order When data is arranged from the highest value to the lowest value, the
array so formed is in descending order.

6. Ascending Order When the data is arranged from the lowest value to the highest value,
the array so formed is in ascending order.

Example: If the given data is 17, 7, 11, 5, 13, 9 then

Array in Ascending order: 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17

-

Array in Descending order: 17, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5

=

7. Range It is difference between the largest and the smallest number in the given data. The
-0
range of the data given on illustration 2 is 17 – 5 = 12.

⇐ 8. Class /Class Limit If the observations of a series are divided into groups and the groups
-

are bounded by limits, then each group is called a class. The end values of a class are
called the class limits. In other words, the two end limits of each class are called class
limits. The smaller value of the two limits is called the lower limit and the higher value of
the same is called the upper limit of the class. These two class limits are sometimes called
%oYupper
the stated class limits.

⑧⑨ limit@→ Class

{
-

••

÷:
at
30-40

Statistics Aman Khedia

50-60
 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.16

__ 9. Class interval The difference between the lower limit (L) and the upper limit (U) of the
class is known as Class interval (I). Thus: I = U – L. In other words, the range of a class is
called its class interval.
→

Example: The given data is

Marks obtained Tally Marks No. of Students
1 – 10
Has
IIII I
11*-1 ☒
6
11 – 20 III 3
21 – 30 IIII II 7
31 - 40 II 2
Total 16
In the above data the classes are: 1 – 10, 11 – 21, 21 – 30, 31 – 40.

F-
10. Actual Class Limit or Class Boundaries In the Above example, there is a gap of 1 mark
←

between the limits of any two adjacent classes. This gap may be filled up by extending
the two limits of each class by half of the value of the gap.
Thus
1
Lower class boundary = Lower class limit - 2 of the gap
1
Upper class boundary = Upper class limit + 2 of the gap

The class boundary of the class 11 to 20 is

1
Lower class boundary = 11 - 2 of 1 = 11 - 0.5 = 10.5
1
Upper class boundary = 20 + 2 of 1 = 20 + 0.5 = 20.5

In other words, the class boundaries are the limits up to which the two limits, (actual) of
each class may be extended to fill up the gap that exists between the classes. The class
boundaries of each class, so obtained are called the Actual class limits or True class
limits.
1
True lower-class limit = lower class limit - 2 of the gap
1
True upper-class limit = upper class limit + 2 of the gap
Note 1. In the case of exclusive series True class limits are the same as class limits.

Example
→•~
Class Interval Class Boundaries

}9nmi⑤}→%wou
11 – 20 10.5 – 20.5
"
÷ ÷ 21 – 30
31 – 40 suis
20.5 – 30.5
30.5 – 40.5

a④
Statistics Aman Khedia
?⃝
 Chap. 11 Statistical Description of Data 11.17

11. Class- mark or Mid-point or Mid-value The central value of the class interval is called
-
-

the mid-point or mid-value or class mark. It is the arithmetic mean of the lower class and
upper-class limit of the same class., _ -
1431
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡+𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
Mid – value of class = 2
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡+𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
Or Class mark =

@ mediant
- -

2
-
11+20
The class mark of the class 11 – 20 is = 15.5
- 2
.

12. Class Magnitude It is the difference between the upper-class boundary and the lower-
-

class boundary of the class.

-60
In the above example the class magnitude of the class, 20.5 – 30.5 is (30.5 – 20.50) = 10.

MINIBIKE
⑧ Best method to Present Dalli (most accurate & Tabulate
=

② Most attractive .
Elder trends] =
a
Diagramatic .

charts ?
_

Ratio
logarithm
→
③ Charts uses

⑨ ELEVEN .

class
↳ upper Ways But Includes the long .

Enctude the

a
mhluedlyigsiuemutually.gl#due
lountinious Variable
a. .

discrete Variable

Best consistency
Surutihy
→
⑤ ↳ accuracy .

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