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Repetitorium

Mathematics: Analysis
DLBBIMD01
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 3

A warm welcome!

In the following question catalogue, you can expect extensive practice tasks and thus
a good opportunity to consolidate what you have learned and prepare for the exam.
Here are a few basic tips on how to use it:

• The level of difficulty (easy, medium, difficult) of the questions is marked L, M

or S accordingly.
• You can practise individual questions with different levels of difficulty first or
focus on just one level of difficulty first, just as it best supports you and your
learning strategy.
• If you cannot solve a question right away, first look at the solution hint only.
Then try again to answer the question.
• The questions are intended for practice and knowledge consolidation and are
not identical to the exam questions.
• In the following Repetitorium, the generic masculine is used for better
readability. Notwithstanding this, we would like to emphasise that it always
refers to men and women, inter- and trans* persons as well as those who do
not want to or cannot assign themselves to a gender.
4

Definition of the levels of difficulty

Easy question

• Closely oriented to the script

• Task type from the script, only with new values
• No transfer necessary

Medium question

• Oriented to the script, but new task type

• Only a small transfer necessary

Difficult question

• Solvable on the basis of the script and own reflection

• Requires a greater transfer performance
 5

Lesson 1 - Sequences and Series

1.1 Sequences: Convergence and Monotony

Question 1
L
2
Consider the sequence with the following law of formation: 𝑏𝑛 = with 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁\{0}.
𝑛2
Calculate the first four elements.

Question 2
L

What does it mean for a sequence to be monotone increasing or strictly monotone

increasing? Give an example in each case.

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Insert 𝑛 = 1, 2, … , 4 into the law of formation.

Short solution
1 2 1
𝑏1 = 2, 𝑏2 = , 𝑏3 = , 𝑏4 =
2 9 8
Detailed solution
2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1
𝑏1 = 2
= 2, 𝑏2 = 2 = = , 𝑏3 = 2 = , 𝑏4 = 2 = =
1 2 4 2 3 9 4 16 8
Solution question 2
Solution hint

Think about the meaning of “increasing”.

Short solution

• monotone increasing: Each sequence element is greater than or equal to its

predecessor.
• strictly monotone increasing: Each sequence element is greater than its
predecessor.

Detailed solution
6

In a monotone increasing sequence, each member of the sequence is greater than or

equal to its predecessor. In a strictly monotone increasing sequence, each member
of the sequence is greater than its predecessor.

Example of a monotone increasing sequence:

𝑏𝑛 = 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4 …

Example of a strictly monotone increasing sequence:

𝑏𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 …
 7

Question 3
M

Consider the sequence: 1, 3, 9, 27, … . State the law of formation.

Question 4
M

Consider the sequence: 7, 12, 17, 22 … . State the law of formation.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

How can the nth member be calculated?

Short solution

𝑏𝑛 = 3𝑛−1

Detailed solution

𝑏𝑛 = 3𝑛−1 ; 𝑏1 = 31−1 = 30 = 1; 𝑏2 = 32−1 = 31 = 3; 𝑏3 = 33−1 = 32 = 9; etc.

Solution question 4
Solution hint

How can the nth member be calculated?

Short solution

𝑏𝑛 = 2 + 5𝑛

Detailed solution

𝑏𝑛 = 2 + 5𝑛; 𝑏1 = 2 + 5 ∙ 1= 7; 𝑏2 = 2 + 5 ∙ 2 = 12; 𝑏3 = 2 + 5 ∙ 3 = 17; etc.

8

Question 5
S

Consider the series with the law of formation:

2𝑛3 + 3
3𝑛3 + 𝑛 − 2
Specify the limit value for 𝑛 → ∞ specify.

Question 6
S

Consider the sequence: 2, 6, 18, 54, …

State the law of formation. Is it an arithmetic or a geometric sequence?

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Factor out the highest power of 𝑛.

Short solution
2
3
Detailed solution
3 3
2𝑛3 + 3 𝑛3 (2 + 3 ) 2+ 3 2
lim 3 = lim 𝑛 = lim 𝑛 =
𝑛→ꝏ 3𝑛 + 𝑛 − 2 𝑛→ꝏ 3 𝑛 2 𝑛→ꝏ 1 2 3
𝑛 (3 + 3 − 3 ) 3+ 2− 3
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

Solution question 6
Solution hint

Consider the laws of formation for arithmetic and geometric sequences.

Short solution

It is a geometric sequence with the law of formation:

 9

𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∙ 3𝑛−1

Detailed solution

An arithmetic sequence has a constant increment 𝑑:

𝑑 = 𝑎𝑛+1 − 𝑎𝑛

For the given sequence, e.g.

𝑑 = 6 − 2 = 4; 𝑑 = 18 − 6 = 12

Thus 𝑑 is not constant and the sequence is not arithmetic.

The given sequence satisfies a geometric law of formation:

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 ∙ 𝑞 𝑛−1

𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∙ 3𝑛−1 ; 𝑎1 = 2 ∙ 30 = 2, 𝑎2 = 2 ∙ 31 = 6, 𝑎3 = 2 ∙ 32 = 18, 𝑎4 = 2 ∙ 33
= 54, …
10

1.2 Series: Definition and Convergence

Question 1
L

Consider the following infinite series: 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ⋯

Is this a convergent or divergent series? Justify your answer.

Question 2
L

What is meant by an arithmetic series? Give an example.

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Familiarise yourself with the terms "convergent" and "divergent". What is the
implication of increasing sequence elements?

Short solution

divergent series

Detailed solution

The sequence elements are monotone increasing. This implies that the series cannot
be convergent. An infinite series can only converge if its elements are a null sequence.
Thus the series is divergent.

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Research what is meant by the notion of an arithmetic series.

Short solution

Stepwise addition of elements of an arithmetic sequence

 11

Detailed solution

An arithmetic series results from the stepwise addition of the elements of an

arithmetic sequence. Example: 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + ⋯
12

Question 3
M
1
Consider the series formed from the sequence 𝑒𝑛 = . Can the series converge?
𝑛2

Question 4
M

Consider the geometric sequence 𝑎𝑛 = 0.75𝑛 , where 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁\{0}. Does the

associated series converge? If so, determine the limit.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

An infinite series can only converge if 𝑒𝑛 is a null sequence.

Short solution

𝑒𝑛 is a null sequence, so the series can converge.

Detailed solution

Since 𝑒𝑛 is a null sequence, the series can converge. However, this condition is not
sufficient. The null sequence criterion alone therefore cannot be used to decide
whether the series converges.

Solution question 4
Solution hint

A geometric series converges if and only if |𝑞| < 1.

Short solution

Yes, since |𝑞| < 1, limit value = 3.

Detailed solution: The geometric series ∑ 𝑞 𝑛 converges since 𝑞 = 0.75 and therefore
|𝑞| < 1. The limit can be calculated as follows:
𝑞 0.75
lim 𝑠𝑛 = ∑ꝏ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑞 = = =3
𝑛→ꝏ 1−𝑞 1−0.75
 13

Question 5
S

Martin Müller currently earns € 35,000 per year. Every year he receives a salary
increase of € 500. How much does Mr. Müller earn in the following three years per
year as well as cumulatively in the four years? Indicate the type of series or sequence.

Question 6
S

At the beginning of 2020, Petra Maier invests €10,000 in her bank account for 5 years
with an interest rate of 3%. How much money will Petra Maier have at her disposal
at the beginning of 2025?

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Familiarise yourself with the terms arithmetic and geometric sequence/series.

Short solution

Salary of the following three years: 𝑎1 = 35,500, 𝑎2 = 36,000, 𝑎3 = 36,500

Arithmetic sequence → per year 36,000.

In the following three years, he earns an average of €36,000 per year. If one
cumulates the four years, this results in 143,000. It is an arithmetic series.

Detailed solution

Salary of the following three years:

𝑎0 = 35,000

𝑎1 = 35,000 + 500 = 35,500

𝑎2 = 35,500 + 500 = 36,000

𝑎3 = 36,000 + 500 = 36,500

It is an arithmetic sequence.

Cumulated salary within the three years:

𝑠0 = 35,000
14

𝑠1 = 35,000 + 35,500 = 70,500

𝑠2 = 70,500 + 36,000 = 106,500

𝑠3 = 106,500 + 36,500 = 143,000

It is an arithmetic series.

Solution question 6
Solution hint

geometric series

Short solution

𝐾5 = 11,592.74

Detailed solution

𝐾𝑛 = 𝐾0 ∙ 𝑞 𝑛

𝐾5 = 10,000 ∙ 1.035 = 11,592.74

𝑝
𝑞 = 1+
100
 15

1.3 Special Sequences and Series

Question 1
L
1 𝑛
Consider the sequence with the law of formation 𝑎𝑛 = (1 + 𝑛) . What is the limit
of the sequence as 𝑛 → ꝏ ?

Question 2
L
3 𝑛
Determine the limit value lim (1 + 𝑛) using the limit theorems.
𝑛→∞

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Insert a large value for 𝑛 or let 𝑛 run towards infinity.

Short solution

e=2.71828

Detailed solution

𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎2 = 2.25, 𝑎3 = 2.37, 𝑎4 = 2.44, 𝑎5 = 2.49, 𝑎6 = 2.52, … , 𝑎100

= 2.705, … , 𝑎1000 = 2.717, … , 𝑎10000 = 2.718, …
Limit value: 𝑒 = 2.71828

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Recall the limit theorems.

Short solution

𝑒3
Detailed solution

The following holds:

16

𝑥 𝑛
lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
3 𝑛
lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 3
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
 17

Question 3
M

1 𝑛+2
Determine the limit value lim (1 + 𝑛) using the limit theorems.
𝑛→∞

Question 4
M

Determine the limit value lim (−0.3)𝑛 using the limit theorems.
𝑛→∞

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Recall the limit theorems.

Short solution

Detailed solution

1 𝑛+2
lim (1 + )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1 𝑛 1 2
= lim (1 + ) ⋅ (1 + ) (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑛 1 2
= lim (1 + ) ⋅ lim (1 + )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
2 1
= 𝑒 ∙ lim (1 + + 2 ) (𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛
2 1
= 𝑒 ⋅ ( lim (1) + lim ( ) + lim 2 ) = 𝑒 ⋅ (1 + 0 + 0) = 𝑒
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

1 𝑛
According to the limit theorems: lim (1 + 𝑛) = 𝑒
𝑛→∞

Solution question 4
Solution hint
18

Recall the limit theorems.

Short solution

Detailed solution

The following holds:

lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 for |𝑥| < 1; lim (−0.3)𝑛 = 0 since |𝑥| = |−0,3| < 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
 19

Question 5
S

1 𝑛−1
Determine the limit value lim (1 − 𝑛) using the limit theorems.
𝑛→∞

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Recall the limit theorems. Write the expression as a fraction using the power laws.

Short solution
1
𝑒
Detailed solution

1 𝑛 1 𝑛 1
1 𝑛−1 (1 − 𝑛) lim (1 − 𝑛) 1
lim (1 − ) = lim = 𝑛→∞
= 𝑒 =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 1 1 1 𝑒
(1 − 𝑛) lim (1 − 𝑛)
𝑛→∞
20

Lesson 2 - Functions and Inverse Functions

2.1 Functions and Their Properties

Question 1
L

For 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 and 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ, 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, determine the composition

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

Question 2
L

State the domain and image of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = √3𝑥 − 4

Solution question 1
Solution hint

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))

Short solution:
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 1; (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = (2𝑥 + 1)3

Detailed solution
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 2𝑥 3 + 1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = (2𝑥 + 1)3

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Domain: all possible x-values; image: all possible y-values (function values).

Short solution
4
𝐷 = {𝑥; 𝑥 ≥ } ; 𝑊 = {𝑦; 𝑦 ≥ 0}
3
 21

Detailed solution

Because of the root, the function values can only be positive and zero. 𝑊 =
{𝑦; 𝑦 ≥ 0}. The root cannot be taken from a negative number, i.e. 3𝑥 − 4 ≥ 0 and
4 4
thus 𝑥 ≥ 3 . 𝐷 = {𝑥; 𝑥 ≥ 3}
22

Question 3
M

Write the following function without the modulus: 𝑓(𝑥) = |2𝑥 − 1|. Draw the
function.

Question 4
M

Specify the normal parabola which is shifted by 1 upwards on the y-axis and by 2 to
the left on the x-axis.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

The modulus is a function which maps negative values to positive function values.

Short solution
1
2𝑥 − 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
1
−2𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 <
2
 23

Detailed solution

𝑓(𝑥) = |2𝑥 − 1| =
1
2𝑥 − 1, 𝑖𝑓 2𝑥 − 1 ≥ 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥
= { 2
1
−(2𝑥 − 1) = −2𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 2𝑥 − 1 < 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 <
2

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Normal parabola 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

Short solution

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)2 + 1
Detailed solution

Normal parabola 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

Shift upwards by 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1

Shift 2 to the left 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − (−2))2 + 1 = (𝑥 + 2)2 + 1

24

Question 5
S

Consider the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 1. Justify whether the function is

surjective, injective and bijective. Is the function invertible? If yes, state the inverse
function.

Question 6
S

Find the degree 2 polynomial function that is symmetric w.r.t. the y-axis and runs
through the points 𝑃(0,1) and 𝑄(2,3).

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Familiarise yourself with the terminology, in particular domain and image of a

function.

Short solution

surjective, injective, bijective, invertible

Detailed solution

A function is surjective if for each element in the codomain 𝐵, there is at least one
input value in the domain. The function is surjective because both the domain and
the image include all real numbers (𝐷 = 𝑊 and 𝑊 = 𝑅). A function is injective if
different input values are mapped onto different function values. Our function is
injective because no two input values are mapped onto the same element from the
codomain. Since the function is both surjective and injective, it is bijective. Since the
function is bijective, it is also invertible and the inverse function exists. Solve the
equation for 𝑥:

𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 1

3 𝑦 1
𝑥=√ −
2 2

Thus the inverse function is

3 𝑥 1
𝑔(𝑥) = √ −
2 2
 25

Solution question 6
Solution hint

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Insert the conditions into this equation.

Short solution:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1
2
Detailed solution

Since the function is symmetric w.r.t. the y-axis, the following holds: 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
Thus, the function can only have even powers of x, i.e.: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐.

Inserting point 𝑃(0,1): 𝑓(0) = 0 + 𝑐 = 1 and thus 𝑐 = 1, i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 1.

1 1
Inserting point 𝑄(2,3): 𝑓(2) = 4𝑎 + 1 = 3 and thus 𝑎 = 2, i.e. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 2 + 1.
26

2.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Question 1
L

State the monotonicity behaviour of the following exponential function: 𝑓(𝑥) =

−2𝑥 + 100

Question 2
L

Calculate the inverse function of the following logarithmic function: 𝑓(𝑥) = log 4 𝑥

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Familiarise yourself with the terms "monotone increasing or decreasing" and "strictly
monotone increasing or decreasing".

Short solution

strictly monotone decreasing

Detailed solution

The function is strictly monotone decreasing, since for all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 the following
implication holds: 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 → 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 )

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Exponential function

Short solution

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 = 4𝑥

Detailed solution
 27

The inverse function of the exponential function is the logarithmic function. For the
function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 the corresponding inverse function is 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 =
log 𝑎 (𝑥). Thus the inverse function of 𝑓 is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 = 4𝑥 .
28

Question 3
M

Atlantis has a population of 15,000,000 inhabitants in 2020. The population grows by

2 % per year. How many inhabitants will Atlantis have in 2050?

Question 4
M

Determine the limit values as 𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑥 → −∞ for the following function.

4 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
5

Solution question 3
Solution hint

The exponential growth function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥 .

Short solution

27,170,423.76
Detailed solution

As the population increases by 2% per year, the following holds:

2
𝑏 =1+ = 1.02; 𝑎 = 15,000,000
100
and thus 𝑓(𝑥) = 15,000,000 ∙ 1.02𝑥 , 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = 30 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠;

𝑓(30) = 15,000,000 ∙ 1.0230 = 27,170,423.76

The number of inhabitants in 2050 is 27.170.423,76.

Solution question 4
Solution hint:

Let 𝑥 tend to ∞ and to −∞.

 29

Short solution
4 −𝑥 4 −𝑥
lim (5) = ꝏ ; lim (5) = 0
𝑥→ꝏ 𝑥→−ꝏ

Detailed solution

4 −𝑥 5 𝑥 5
lim ( ) = lim ( ) = ꝏ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 > 1
𝑥→ꝏ 5 𝑥→ꝏ 4 4
4 −𝑥 4 𝑥 4
lim ( ) = lim ( ) = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 1
𝑥→−ꝏ 5 𝑥→ꝏ 5 5
30

Question 5
S

John Maier currently earns €40,000 per year. In ten years, he would like to earn twice
as much.

a) He assumes that there is no constant annual salary increase, but an annual

salary increase in percent. How large would the annual percentage increase
have to be to for his salary to double in 10 years?
b) After how many years would his salary triple?

Question 6
S

a) Petra Müller would like to invest 10,000 €. In 15 years she would like to
receive at least € 25,000. What annual interest rate must she be offered so
that this amount is available to her after 15 years?
b) Petra Müller is considering whether she should rather invest a fixed, constant
amount at the beginning of each year for 15 years. How large would this
amount have to be so that she has € 25,000 at her disposal after 15 years?
She assumes the same interest rate as calculated in a).

Solution question 5
Solution hint

The exponential growth function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥

Short solution:

a) Annual percentage increase 7%

b) 16.24 years

Detailed solution:

a) The double salary is 80,000.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥 ; 𝑎 = 40,000
10
80,000 = 40,000 ∙ 𝑏10 ; 80,000 = 40,000 ∙ 𝑏10 ; 2 = 𝑏10 ; 𝑏 = √2 = 1.07
This means that the annual increase must be 7 %.
 31

b) The triple salary is 120,000.

120,000 = 40,000 ∙ 1.07𝑛 ; 3 = 1.07𝑛 ; lg (3) = 𝑙𝑔(1.07𝑛 ); lg (3) = 𝑛 lg (1.07); 𝑛

lg(3)
= ; 𝑛 = 16.24
lg(1.07)

The salary has tripled after 16.24 years.

Solution question 6
Solution hint

a) Use the formula for exponential growth. b) Find out what is meant by the keyword
"annuity in advance".

Short solution

a) annual interest 6%; b) €1,013.27

Detailed solution

𝑎) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 𝑥 ; 𝑎 = 10,000; 𝑥 = 15; 25,000 = 10,000∙𝑏15 ; 2.5 = 𝑏15 ; 𝑏 =

15
√2.5 = 1.06. The annual interest rate must therefore be 6 %.

b) Let 𝑘 denote the yearly payment of the annuity, let 𝑞 = 1 + 0.06 = 1.06 be the
interest factor and let 𝑅𝑛 = 25,000 denote the accumulated amount after 𝑛 = 15
years. Since the annuity 𝑘 is paid 𝑛 = 15 times at the beginning of each year and
interest is paid on a yearly basis, the final amount 𝑅𝑛 is related to the yearly payments
as follows:

𝑘 ⋅ 𝑞 + 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑞 2 + 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑞 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑞 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑛
Factoring out 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑞 and then applying the formula for a geometric series, the previous
equation can be rewritten as
𝑞𝑛 − 1
𝑘⋅𝑞⋅ = 𝑅𝑛 .
𝑞−1
Solving this equation for 𝑘 gives
𝑞−1 1.06 − 1
𝑘 = 𝑅𝑛 ∙ 𝑛
= 25,000 ∙ = 1,013.27.
𝑞 ⋅ (𝑞 − 1) 1.06 ⋅ (1.0615 − 1)
In summary: With an interest rate of 6%, Petra has to pay €1,013.27 at the beginning
of each year for 15 years in order to receive the €25,000 after 15 years.
32

2.3 Trigonometric Functions

Question 1
L

State the following angles in radians: 0°, 30°, 120°, 330°

Question 2
L

State the domain as well as the roots of cot(𝑥).

Solution question 1
Solution hint

360° correspond to 2𝜋

Short solution

0° = 0; 30° = 0.52; 120° = 2.09; 330° = 5.76

Detailed solution
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
Arc length 𝑥 = 360 ∙ 𝛼 0° = 360 ∙ 0 = 0; 30° = 360 ∙ 30 = 0.52; 120° = 360 ∙ 120 =
2𝜋
2.09; 330° = 360 ∙ 330 = 5.76

Solution question 2
Solution hint
cos (𝑥)
cot(𝑥) =
sin (𝑥)

Short solution
𝜋
𝐷 = {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 𝑛 ∙ 𝜋}; 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 ꞓ 𝑍.
2
Detailed solution
 33

cos (𝑥)
Since cot(𝑥) = , the denominator sin 𝑥 must not be 0. The roots of sin 𝑥 are:
sin (𝑥)
𝑛 ∙ 𝜋, with 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

This results in the domain 𝐷 = {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 𝑛 ∙ 𝜋}. cot (𝑥) is zero if and only if cos (𝑥) is
𝜋
zero, i.e. for 𝑥 = 2 (2𝑛 + 1) with 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
34

Question 3
M

Solve the following equation: sin2 (x) + sin(x) = 0

Question 4
M

Solve the following equation: 1 + cot 2 (x) = 0

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Factor out sin (𝑥).

Short solution
3
𝑥 = 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋 and 𝑥 = 2 𝜋 + 𝑛 ∙ 2𝜋 with 𝑛 ꞓ 𝑍

Detailed solution

sin2 (x) + sin(x) = 0

sin(x) ∙ (sin(x) + 1) = 0

According to the zero-product property, the product is zero if either sin(𝑥) = 0 or

sin(𝑥) + 1 = 0.

sin(𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 = 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋 with 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

3
sin(𝑥) + 1 = 0 → sin(𝑥) = −1 and thus 𝑥 = 2 𝜋 + 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝜋 with 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

Solution question 4
Solution hint
cos (𝑥)
cot(𝑥) =
sin (𝑥)
 35

Short solution

There is no solution.

Detailed solution

2 (x)
cos2 (x)
1 + cot = 0; 1 + 2
= 0; sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) = 0
sin (x)

This result leads to a contradiction as

sin2 (x) + cos 2 (x) = 1

36

Question 5
S

Solve the following equation: 3cos2 (𝑥) − 6 sin(𝑥) = −6

Question 6
S

Solve the following equation:

1
= sin2 (𝑥)
cot 2 (𝑥) ∙ (1 + tan2 (𝑥))

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Try to express cos 2 by sin. Perform a substitution.

Short solution
𝜋
𝑥 = 2 + 2𝜋𝑛 with 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

Detailed solution

3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) − 6 sin(𝑥) = −6

3(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)) − 6 sin(𝑥) = −6

3 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥) − 6 sin(𝑥) = −6

−3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥) − 6 sin(𝑥) + 9 = 0

sin2 (𝑥) + 2 sin(𝑥) − 3 = 0

Substitute sin(𝑥) = 𝑢: 𝑢2 + 2𝑢 − 3 = 0

Quadratic formula:

𝑢1,2 = −1 ± √1 + 3 = −1 ± 2; 𝑢1 = 1, 𝑢2 = −3

Re-substitution:
𝜋
a) sin(𝑥) = 1 and thus 𝑥 = 2 + 2𝜋𝑛 with 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

b) sin (𝑥) = −3 and thus no solution

 37

Solution question 6
Solution hint
cos (𝑥)
cot(𝑥) =
sin (𝑥)

Short solution

𝑥∈ℝ

Detailed solution
1
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)
𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝑥) ∙ (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥))
cos (𝑥)
Replace cot(𝑥) with sin (𝑥) in the square and bring sin to the numerator:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) ∙ (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥))

Divide both sides by sin2 (𝑥):

1
=1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) ∙ (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥))

Both sides times the denominator:

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) ∙ (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥)) = 1

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)
Replace 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥) with 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 (𝑥)

2 (𝑥)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∙ (1 + )=1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥)

Multiply and reduce the fraction:

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥) = 1

1=1
Generally valid statement and thus 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
38

Lesson 3 - Differential Calculus

3.1 First Derivative and Power Law

Question 1
L

Determine the first derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 1 using the difference
quotient.

Question 2
L

Determine the first derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1

Solution question 1
Solution hint
△𝑦
Difference quotient: △𝑥

Short solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = 6𝑥

Detailed solution

△𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 3(𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 1 − (3𝑥 2 − 1)

= =
△𝑥 ℎ ℎ
3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 − 1 − 3𝑥 2 + 1 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 ℎ(6𝑥 + 3ℎ)
= = =
ℎ ℎ ℎ
= 6𝑥 + 3ℎ

lim (6𝑥 + 3ℎ) = 6𝑥

ℎ→𝑜

and thus 𝑓`(𝑥) = 6𝑥

Solution question 2
Solution hint

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 ; 𝑓`(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Short solution
 39

𝑓`(𝑥) = −12𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3

Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = −4 ∙ 3𝑥 3−1 + 2𝑥 2−1 − 3𝑥1−1 + 0𝑥 0−1

= −12𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
40

Question 3
M

Determine the derivative of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3√𝑥 − 10𝑥 −2 + 5.

Question 4
M

Determine the derivative of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 3 sin 𝑥.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Write √𝑥 as a power.

Short solution
3 −1
𝑓`(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 20 𝑥 −3
2
Detailed solution
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 −2 + 5
1 1−1 3 1
𝑓`(𝑥) = 3 ∙ 𝑥 2 − 10 ∙ (−2) 𝑥 −2−1 = 𝑥 −2 + 20 𝑥 −3
2 2

Solution question 4
Solution hint: Recall the derivatives of the exponential and sine functions.

Short solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 3 cos(𝑥)
Detailed solution

ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ; ℎ`(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑔(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) ; 𝑔`(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) ;

𝑓`(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 3cos (𝑥)

 41

Question 5
S

The equation of motion of an object is 𝑠(𝑡) = 5𝑡 3 − 80𝑡 2 − 44,300𝑡 + 10 with the

distance 𝑠 in metres and the time 𝑡 in seconds. What is the speed of the object after
1 minute?

Question 6
S

Determine the derivative of the function:

𝑓(𝑢) = −3 sin(𝑥) ∙ 𝑢2 + 4𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑢 ∙ 𝑥 + 3𝑎 ∙ cos (𝑢)

Solution question 5
Solution hint

The first derivative of s(t) gives the velocity v(t).

Short solution:
𝑚 𝑘𝑚
𝑣(𝑡) = 100 = 360
𝑠 ℎ
Detailed solution:

𝑠`(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) = 15𝑡 2 − 160𝑡 − 44,300

1 min = 60s
𝑚 𝑘𝑚
𝑣(60) = 15 ∙ 602 − 160 ∙ 60 − 44,300 = 100 = 360
𝑠 ℎ

Solution question 6
Solution hint

Pay attention with regard to which variable the derivative is taken

Short solution
42

𝑓`(𝑢) = −6𝑢 ∙ sin(𝑥) − 2𝑥 − 3𝑎 ∙ sin (𝑢)

Detailed solution

The variable is 𝑢, i.e. the derivative is taken w.r.t. 𝑢. The other letters 𝑎 and 𝑥
represent constants.

𝑓`(𝑢) = −3 sin(𝑥) ∙ 2𝑢 + 0 − 2𝑥 ∙ 1 + 3𝑎 ∙ (−sin (𝑢))

= −6𝑢 ∙ sin(𝑥) − 2𝑥 − 3𝑎 ∙ sin (𝑢)
 43

3.2 Differentiation Rules and Higher Derivatives

Question 1
L

Derive the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 and summarise your result.

Question 2
L

Determine the second derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −5 sin(𝑥) + 3𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑥

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Product rule

Short solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 ∙ (1 + 𝑥)

Detailed solution

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥) ∙ 𝑣(𝑥), 𝑓`(𝑥) = 𝑢`(𝑥) ∙ 𝑣(𝑥) + 𝑣`(𝑥) ∙ 𝑢(𝑥)

𝑢(𝑥) = 2𝑥, 𝑢`(𝑥) = 2; 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑣`(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑓`(𝑥) = 2 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 2𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ (2 + 2𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 ∙ (1 + 𝑥)

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Take the first derivative and differentiate it again.

Short solution

𝑓``(𝑥) = 5 sin(𝑥) + 3𝑒 𝑥
Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = −5 cos(𝑥) + 3𝑒 𝑥 − 2; 𝑓``(𝑥) = 5 sin(𝑥) + 3𝑒 𝑥

44

Question 3
M

Determine the derivative of the following function:

2𝑥 3 − 5
𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥

Question 4
M

Determine the derivative of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = −2sin (3𝑥 2 )

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Quotient rule

Short solution

12𝑥 3 + 15
𝑓`(𝑥) =
9𝑥 2
Detailed solution

𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢`(𝑥) ∙ 𝑣(𝑥) − 𝑣`(𝑥) ∙ 𝑢(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑓`(𝑥) =
𝑣(𝑥) 𝑣(𝑥)2
𝑢`(𝑥) ∙ 𝑣(𝑥) − 𝑣`(𝑥) ∙ 𝑢(𝑥)
𝑓`(𝑥) =
𝑣(𝑥)2

𝑢(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5, 𝑢`(𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 ; 𝑣(𝑥) = 3𝑥, 𝑣`(𝑥) = 3

6𝑥 2 ∙ 3𝑥 − 3 ∙ (2𝑥 3 − 5) 18𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 3 + 15 12𝑥 3 + 15

𝑓`(𝑥) = = =
(3𝑥)2 9𝑥 2 9𝑥 2

Solution question 4
Solution hint
 45

Chain rule

Short solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = −12𝑥 ∙ cos (3𝑥 2 )

Detailed solution

First differentiate the outer function (i.e. the sine), then differentiate the inner
function (i.e. the argument of the sine function):

𝑓`(𝑥) = −2 ∙ cos(3𝑥 2 ) ∙ 3 ∙ 2𝑥 = −12𝑥 ∙ cos (3𝑥 2 )

46

Question 5
S

Determine the derivative of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 ∙ sin (𝑥)

Question 6
S

Determine the second derivative of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 3𝑥 and

summarise your result.

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Chain and product rule

Short solution
1
𝑓`(𝑥) = ∙ (sin(𝑥) + 𝑥 ∙ cos(𝑥))
2√𝑥 ∙ sin (𝑥)

Detailed solution

The outer derivative of the square root function is

1
2√𝑥 ∙ sin (𝑥)

Then the inner derivative is determined using the product rule:

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 ∙ sin(𝑥)

𝑔`(𝑥) = 1 ∙ sin(𝑥) + 𝑥 ∙ cos(𝑥)

The outer derivative is multiplied by the inner derivative. Thus the derivative is:
1
𝑓`(𝑥) = ∙ (sin(𝑥) + 𝑥 ∙ cos(𝑥))
2√𝑥 ∙ sin (𝑥)

Solution question 6
Solution hint
 47

First determine the first derivative with the product and chain rule, then differentiate
this derivative again.

Short solution:

𝑓``(𝑥) = 𝑒 3𝑥 ∙ (12 + 18𝑥)

Detailed solution:

First determine the first derivative with the product rule:

𝑢(𝑥) = 2𝑥, 𝑢`(𝑥) = 2; 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑒 3𝑥 , 𝑣`(𝑥) = 3𝑒 3𝑥 (chain rule)

This gives:

𝑓`(𝑥) = 2𝑒 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 ∙ 3𝑒 3𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 (2 + 6𝑥)

Differentiate the first derivative again with the product rule:

𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 3𝑥 , 𝑢`(𝑥) = 3𝑒 3𝑥 ; 𝑣(𝑥) = 2 + 6𝑥, 𝑣`(𝑥) = 6

This gives:

𝑓``(𝑥) = 3𝑒 3𝑥 ∙ (2 + 6𝑥) + 6 ∙ 𝑒 3𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ∙ (6 + 18𝑥 + 6)

= 𝑒 3𝑥 ∙ (12 + 18𝑥)
48

3.3 Taylor Series and Taylor Polynomial

Question 1
L

Expand the following function into a Taylor series at the point 0: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 +
3.

Question 2
L

Expand the following function into a Taylor series at the point 0: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 . It suffices
to consider the first three derivatives.

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Determine the derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) and then insert the point 0.

Short solution
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑘
∑ 𝑥 = 3 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2
𝑘!
𝑘=0

Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 2; 𝑓``(𝑥) = 2; 𝑓```(𝑥) = 0; etc.

𝑓(0) = 3; 𝑓`(0) = 2; 𝑓``(0) = 2; 𝑓```(0) = 0

This gives the Taylor series as
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑘 2 2 0 0 0
∑ 𝑥 = 3 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 5 + ⋯ = 3 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2
𝑘! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑘=0
Since the initial function is already a polynomial, the Taylor polynomial is equal to the
initial function.

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Determine the derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) and then insert the point 0.

Short solution:
 49

∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑘 1 1
∑ 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑘! 2 6
𝑘=0

Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑓``(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ; 𝑓```(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ; etc.

𝑓(0) = 1; 𝑓`(0) = 1; 𝑓``(0) = 1; 𝑓```(0) = 1

This gives the Taylor series as
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (0) 𝑘 1 1 1 1 1
∑ 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑘! 1! 2! 3! 2 6
𝑘=0

Question 3
M

Expand the following function into a Taylor series at the point 𝑥 = 2: 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 2 +
3𝑥 + 1.

Question 4
M

Expand the following function into a Taylor series at the point 𝑥 = 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 .
Three derivatives are sufficient.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Note that the Taylor expansion is at the point 𝑥 = 2.

Short solution
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑥0 )
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑘 = 1 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2
𝑘!
𝑘=0

Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 3; 𝑓``(𝑥) = −2; 𝑓```(𝑥) = 0; etc.

𝑓(2) = 3; 𝑓`(2) = −1; 𝑓``(2) = −2; 𝑓```(2) = 0

This gives the Taylor series
50

∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑥0 ) −1 −2 0
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑘 = 3 + (𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑥 − 2)3 + ⋯
𝑘! 1! 2! 3!
𝑘=0
= 3 − 𝑥 + 2 − (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) = 1 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2
Since the initial function is already a polynomial, the Taylor polynomial is equal to the
initial function.

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Note that the Taylor expansion is at the point 𝑥 = 1.

Short solution
2 2 (𝑥 2 (𝑥 2
4𝑒 2
𝑇 = 𝑒 + 2𝑒 − 1) + 2𝑒 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
3
Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = 2𝑒 2𝑥 ; 𝑓``(𝑥) = 4𝑒 2𝑥 ; 𝑓```(𝑥) = 8𝑒 2𝑥 ; 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

𝑓(1) = 𝑒 2 ; 𝑓`(1) = 2𝑒 2 ; 𝑓``(1) = 4𝑒 2 ; 𝑓```(1) = 8𝑒 2

This results in
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑥0 ) 𝑘 2
2𝑒 2 4𝑒 2 2
8𝑒 2
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = 𝑒 + (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
𝑘! 1! 2! 3!
𝑘=0
2 2 (𝑥 2 (𝑥
4𝑒 2
2
= 𝑒 + 2𝑒 − 1) + 2𝑒 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
3
 51

Question 5
S

Expand the following function into a Taylor series at the point 𝑥 = 1: 𝑓(𝑥) = sin (𝑥 +
2). Three derivatives are sufficient.

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Note that the Taylor expansion is at the point 𝑥 = 1.

Short solution
∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑥0 )
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑘
𝑘!
𝑘=0
sin(3) cos (3)
= sin(3) + cos(3) (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1)2 − (𝑥 − 1)3
2 6
Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = cos(𝑥 + 2) ; 𝑓``(𝑥) = − sin(𝑥 + 2) ; 𝑓```(𝑥) = −cos (𝑥 + 2); 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

𝑓(1) = sin(3) ; 𝑓`(1) = cos(3) ; 𝑓``(1) = − sin(3) ; 𝑓```(1) = −cos (3)

This gives the Taylor series

∞
𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑥0 )
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑘
𝑘!
𝑘=0
cos (3) −sin (3)
= sin (3) + (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2
1! 2!
−cos (3)
+ (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
3!
sin(3) cos (3)
= sin(3) + cos(3) (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1)2 − (𝑥 − 1)3
2 6
52

3.4 Curve Sketching

Question 1
L

Determine the extreme values of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 1.

Question 2
L

Consider the following function:

−2
𝑓(𝑥) =
3−𝑥
Determine the pole of the function and its behaviour at the pole. Sketch the function.

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Determine the first derivative and set it equal to zero.

Short solution
1 11 1 7
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 (− , ) , 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 ( , )
3 9 3 9
Detailed solution
1 1
𝑓`(𝑥) = 9𝑥 2 − 1 = 0; 𝑥1 = , 𝑥𝑥 = − ;
3 3
1 7 1 11
𝑓 ( ) = , 𝑓 (− ) =
3 9 3 9
To check whether a point is a local maximum or minimum, calculate the second
derivative:
1 1
𝑓``(𝑥) = 18𝑥; 𝑓`` ( ) = 18 ∙ = 6 > 0 → 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
3 3
1 1
𝑓`` (− ) = 18 ∙ (− ) = −6 < 0 → 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
3 3
1 11 1 7
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 (− , ) , 𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 ( , )
3 9 3 9
 53

Solution question 2
Solution hint

The denominator must not be 0. Determine the left-sided and right-sided limits at
the pole.

Short solution

Pole at 𝑥 = 3; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = − ∞

𝑥→3+ 𝑥→3−

Detailed solution

The denominator must not be 0 and thus 3 − 𝑥 ≠ 0; 𝑥 ≠ 3. The function therefore

has a pole at the position 𝑥 = 3.
−2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = +∞
𝑥→3+ 𝑥→3+ 3 − 𝑥

(There is a very small negative number in the denominator.)

−2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = −∞
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3− 3 − 𝑥

(There is a very small positive number in the denominator.)

54

Question 3
M

Determine the point or points of inflection of the following function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 −

𝑥 2 + 2.

Question 4
M

Determine the domain and image of the function:

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1
Additionally, determine the local extrema, the limit values at the poles as well as the
limit values as 𝑥 tends to +∞ and −∞. Sketch the function.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Determine the second derivative and set it to 0.

Short solution
1 1
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 𝑎𝑡 ( , 1,86) , 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 𝑎𝑡 = (− , 1,86)
√6 √6
Detailed solution

𝑓`(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥; 𝑓``(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 2; 𝑓```(𝑥) = 24𝑥

1 1
𝑓``(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 2 = 0 and thus 𝑥1 = and 𝑥2 = −
√6 √6
For inflection points, the following must hold:
1 1 1 1
𝑓```(𝑥) ≠ 0; 𝑓``` ( ) = 24 ∙ ≠ 0; 𝑓``` (− ) = −24 ∙ ≠0
√6 √6 √6 √6
Hence, there are two inflection points.
2 4 2
1 1 4
1 1 1 1
𝑓 ( ) = ( ) − ( ) + 2 = 1,86; 𝑓 (− ) = (− ) − (− ) + 2
√6 √6 √6 √6 √6 √6
= 1,86
 55

and thus
1 1
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 𝑎𝑡 ( , 1,86) , 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 𝑎𝑡 (− , 1,86)
√6 √6
Solution question 4
Solution hint

Domain: The denominator must not be zero.

Limits as 𝑥 tends to ±∞: Factor out the highest power of 𝑥 in the numerator and in
the denominator.

Short solution

𝐷 = ℝ\{1}; 𝑊 = ]−∞, 4 − 2√6] ∪ [4 + 2√6 , +∞[;

2
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 (1 + √ , 4 + 2√6) ;
3

2
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 (1 − √ , 4 − 2√6) ;
3

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
lim = ∞ ; lim = −∞;
𝑥→1+ 𝑥−1 𝑥→1− 𝑥−1
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
lim = ∞ ; lim =−∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥−1 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−1
Detailed solution

Domain: 𝑥 − 1 ≠ 0 and thus 𝑥 ≠ 1. 𝐷 = ℝ\{1}

Calculation of the first and second derivatives:

(𝑥 − 1)(6𝑥 − 2) − (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) (6𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 2) − (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)

𝑓`(𝑥) = =
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2
3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1
=
(𝑥 − 1)2
(𝑥 − 1)2 (6𝑥 − 6) − (3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1) ⋅ 2(𝑥 − 1)
𝑓``(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 1)4
(6𝑥 − 12𝑥 + 6) − (6𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 2)
2
4
= 3
=
(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)3
56

Local extrema:

𝑓`(𝑥) = 0 → 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1 = 0

6 + √24 2 6 − √24 2
→ 𝑥1 = = 1 + √ , 𝑥2 = = 1−√
6 3 6 3
3 3
3 3
𝑓``(𝑥1 ) = +4√ > 0, 𝑓``(𝑥2 ) = −4√ < 0
2 2

Hence, the function has a local minimum at 𝑥1 and a local maximum at 𝑥2 . The
corresponding values of the function are:
2
2 2 2
3 (1 + √3) − 2 (1 + √3) + 1 4 + 4√3
𝑓(𝑥1 ) = = = 4 + 2√6
√2 √2
3 3
2
2 2 2
3 (1 − √ ) − 2 (1 − √ ) + 1 4 − 4√3
3 3
𝑓(𝑥2 ) = = = 4 − 2√6
2 2
−√3 −√3

This gives:

2
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 (1 + √ , 4 + 2√6) ;
3

2
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 (1 − √ , 4 − 2√6)
3

Behaviour at the poles:

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2
lim = lim = +∞
𝑥→1+ 𝑥−1 𝑥→1+ 𝑥 − 1

3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 2
lim = lim = −∞
𝑥→1− 𝑥−1 𝑥→1− 𝑥 − 1

Behaviour as 𝑥 tends to +∞ and −∞:

 57

2 1 2 1
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 (3 − 𝑥 + 2 ) 𝑥 (3 − 𝑥 + 2 )
lim = lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 =∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥−1 𝑥→∞ 1 𝑥→∞ 1
𝑥(1 − 𝑥) 1−𝑥

2 1 2 1
3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 2 (3 − 𝑥 + 2 ) 𝑥 (3 − 𝑥 + 2 )
lim = lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥−1 𝑥→−∞ 1 𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥(1 − 𝑥 ) 1−𝑥

The image of the function extends from the local minimal value 4 + 2√6 to +∞ and
from the local maximum value 4 − 2√6 to −∞, i.e.:

𝑊 = ]−∞, 4 − 2√6] ∪ [4 + 2√6 , +∞[

58

Question 5
S

Perform curve sketching for the following function:

2𝑥 − 1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Domain, image, roots, poles, limits, symmetry, extrema, inflection points, graph

Short solution

see detailed solution

Detailed solution

• Domain: The denominator must not be zero, D = R\{0}

2𝑥−1 1 1
Image: 𝑓(𝑥) = = 2 − 𝑥 and can take all real values except 0, hence
𝑥 𝑥
1
2 − 𝑥 can take all real values except 2, i.e. the image of 𝑓 is W = R\{2}
2𝑥−1 1
• Roots: 𝑓(𝑥) = = 0 if and only if 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 and thus 𝑥 = 2. The root is
𝑥
1
therefore (2 , 0).
• Pole: The denominator must not be 0 and thus 𝑥 ≠ 0
2𝑥−1 −1 2𝑥−1
• Limit values at the pole: lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = −∞; lim =
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0− 𝑥
−1
lim =∞
𝑥→0− 𝑥

Limits as 𝑥 tends to ±∞:

1
2𝑥 − 1 𝑥(2 − 𝑥) 1
lim = lim = lim (2 − ) = 2;
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
1
2𝑥 − 1 𝑥(2 − 𝑥) 1
lim = lim = lim (2 − ) = 2
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
 59

2(−𝑥)−1 −2𝑥−1 2𝑥+1

• Symmetry: 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑥 = −𝑥 = 𝑥 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦) ≠
−𝑓(𝑥)(𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦) This means the function has neither axis symmetry
not point symmetry.

• Derivatives: Apply the quotient rule for the first derivative.

2𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 1
𝑓`(𝑥) = 2
= 2 = 𝑥 −2
𝑥 𝑥
1
𝑓``(𝑥) = −2𝑥 −3 = −2
𝑥3
1
𝑓```(𝑥) = 6𝑥 −4 = 6
𝑥4
1
• Extrema: 𝑓`(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 = 0. This is not possible, i.e. there are no extrema.

1
• Inflection points: 𝑓``(𝑥) = −2 𝑥 3 = 0. This is not possible, i.e. there are no
inflection points.

• Drawing:
60

3.5 Outlook: Partial Derivatives

Question 1
L

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 2𝑥1 + 3𝑥1 ∙ 𝑥2 . Determine the values of the
function for the input values (1,0), (0,1), (1,2).

Question 2
L

Differentiate the function w.r.t. to 𝑦 : 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 2 ∙ 𝑦 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑦 ∙ 𝑥.

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Insert the values for 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 .

Short solution

𝑓(1,0) = 2; 𝑓(0,1) = 0; 𝑓(1,2) = 8

Detailed solution

𝑓(1,0) = 2 ∙ 1 + 3 ∙ 1 ∙ 0 = 2; 𝑓(0,1) = 2 ∙ 0 + 3 ∙ 0 ∙ 1 = 0; 𝑓(1,2)

=2∙1+3∙1∙2 =8

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Consider 𝑥 as a constant and differentiate w.r.t. 𝑦 only.

Short solution

𝑓`(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 2 − 2𝑥

Detailed solution
 61

𝑓`(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 ∙ 1 + 2 − 2 ∙ 1 ∙ 𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 + 2 − 2𝑥
62

Question 3
M

Calculate all the 1st and 2nd order partial derivatives of the following function:
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑦.

Question 4
M

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 3 𝑥. Show that the 2nd partial derivative
obtained by differentiating first w.r.t. 𝑥 and then w.r.t. 𝑦 is equal to the 2nd partial
derivative obtained by differentiating first w.r.t. 𝑦 and then w.r.t. 𝑥.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

When differentiating w.r.t. 𝑥, consider 𝑦 as a constant, and vice versa.

Short solution

𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 2 + 4𝑦; = 3 + 4𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)

= 4; = 0; =0
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑦
Detailed solution

𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 2 + 4𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡);
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 3 + 4𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡);
𝜕𝑦
Now differentiate the first derivative again:

Taking the derivative w.r.t. 𝑦 of the first derivative w.r.t 𝑥:

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
=4
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦
Taking the derivative w.r.t. 𝑥 of the first derivative w.r.t 𝑥:

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
=4
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
 63

Taking the derivative w.r.t. 𝑥 of the first derivative w.r.t 𝑥:

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
=0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑥
Taking the derivative w.r.t. 𝑦 of the first derivative w.r.t 𝑦:

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
=0
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑦

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Differentiate the function first w.r.t. 𝑥 and then w.r.t. 𝑦; differentiate the function
first w.r.t. 𝑦 and then w.r.t. 𝑥.

Short solution

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 3 + 3𝑦 2 ; = 3 + 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
Detailed solution

𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 3𝑦 + 𝑦 3 ; = 3𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 ;
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 2
𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 3 + 3𝑦 ; = 3 + 3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥
64

Question 5
S

Determine all 1st and 2nd order partial derivatives of the following function:

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 2𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑧𝑥 + 5𝑥 3 𝑧𝑦 2

Solution question 5
Solution hint

When differentiating w.r.t. one variable, consider the others as constants.

Short solution

𝑓𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 + 15𝑥 2 𝑧𝑦 2 ; 𝑓𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 10𝑥 3 𝑧𝑦; 𝑓𝑧 = −3𝑥 + 5𝑥 3 𝑦 2 ; 𝑓𝑥𝑦

= 2 + 30𝑥 2 𝑧𝑦; 𝑓𝑥𝑧 = −3 + 15𝑥 2 𝑦 2 ; 𝑓𝑦𝑧 = 10𝑥 3 𝑦; 𝑓𝑥𝑥
= 30𝑥𝑧𝑦 2 ; 𝑓𝑦𝑦 = 10𝑥 3 𝑧; 𝑓𝑧𝑧 = 0

Detailed solution
𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 + 15𝑥 2 𝑧𝑦 2 ;
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= 2𝑥 + 10𝑥 3 𝑧𝑦;
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= −3𝑥 + 5𝑥 3 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= = 2 + 30𝑥 2 𝑧𝑦;
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= = −3 + 15𝑥 2 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥
𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= = 10𝑥 3 𝑦
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦

𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕 2 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

= 30𝑥𝑧𝑦 2 ; = 10𝑥 3 𝑧; =0
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑧
 65

Lesson 4 - Integral Calculus

4.1 The Indefinite Integral and Integration Rules

Question 1
L

Determine the anti-derivatives of the following functions:

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 𝑎; 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − sin (𝑥)

Question 2
L

Determine the anti-derivative of the following function:

3
𝑓(𝑥) = + √𝑥
2𝑥 2

Solution question 1
Solution hint
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑐
𝑛+1
The derivative of the exponential function is again the exponential function. The
derivatives of the cos function is −𝑠𝑖𝑛.

Short solution

𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐;
3
𝐺(𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + cos(𝑥) + 𝑐
2
Detailed solution
1 1
𝐹(𝑥) = 3 ∙ 𝑥 2+1 − 4 ∙ 𝑥1+1 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
2+1 1+1
1 3
𝐺(𝑥) = 2𝑒 𝑥 + 3 ∙ 𝑥1+1 + cos(𝑥) + 𝑐 = 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + cos(𝑥) + 𝑐
1+1 2
66

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Rewrite the function so that the 𝑥 in the first element is in the numerator. Write the
root as a power.

Short solution
3 2 3
𝐹(𝑥) = − + √𝑥 + 𝑐
2𝑥 3
Detailed solution
3 3 −2 1
𝑓(𝑥) = + √ 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2𝑥 2 2
3 1 1 1 3 1 3
𝐹(𝑥) = ∙ 𝑥 −2+1 + 𝑥1+2 + 𝑐 = − 𝑥 −1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
2 −2 + 1 1 2 3
1+2 2
3 2 3
= − + √𝑥 + 𝑐
2𝑥 3
 67

Question 3
M

Determine the anti-derivative of the following function:

3
𝑓(𝑥) = −4 ∙ 3𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝑒 4𝑥 −
𝑥

Question 4
M

Determine the anti-derivative of the following function:

2
𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑥 − 5

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Use the integration rules.

Short solution
4 1
𝐹(𝑥) = − 3𝑥 + 𝑒 4𝑥 − 3 ∙ ln |𝑥| + 𝑐
ln(3) 2

Detailed solution
1 1 1
Integration rules: ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln(𝑎) 𝑎 𝑥 ; ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 ; ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥|

3 1 1
∫ (−4 ∙ 3𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝑒 4𝑥 − ) 𝑑𝑥 = −4 ∙ 3𝑥 + 2 ∙ 𝑒 4𝑥 − 3 ∙ ln |𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑥 ln(3) 4
4 1
= − 3𝑥 + 𝑒 4𝑥 − 3 ∙ ln |𝑥| + 𝑐
ln(3) 2

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Use the chain rule.

68

Short solution
2
𝐹(𝑥) = ln |3𝑥 − 5| + 𝑐
3
Detailed solution
2 2 3 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |3𝑥 − 5| + 𝑐
3𝑥 − 5 3 3𝑥 − 5 3
 69

Question 5
S

Determine the anti-derivative of the following function: ℎ(𝑥) = sin2(𝑥).

Question 6
S

Determine the anti-derivative of the following function: 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 ).

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Use partial integration.

Short solution
1 1
∫ sin2(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − sin(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥) + 𝑥 + 𝑐
2 2
Detailed solution

Use partial integration and then solve for ∫ sin2(𝑥)𝑑𝑥:

∫ 𝑓`(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔`(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ;

𝑔(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) , 𝑔`(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) , 𝑓`(𝑥) = sin(𝑥) , 𝑓(𝑥) = − cos(𝑥) ;

∫ sin2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − sin(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥) − ∫(− cos(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥

∫ sin2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − sin(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥) + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫ sin2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − sin(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥) + ∫(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥

∫ sin2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − sin(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥) + ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

2 ∫ sin2(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − sin(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥) + 𝑥 + 𝑑

1 1
∫ sin2(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − sin(𝑥) ∙ cos(𝑥) + 𝑥 + 𝑐
2 2
70

Solution question 6
Solution hint

Apply partial integration twice.

Short solution

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑐

Detailed solution

𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 2

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑎 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

General formula for partial integration

∫ 𝑓`(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔`(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Partial integration of

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥: 𝑔 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑔` = 2𝑥, 𝑓` = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 = 𝑒 𝑥

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 2 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Partial integration of
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 : 𝑔 = 2𝑥, 𝑔` = 2, 𝑓` = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 = 𝑒 𝑥

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥;

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑏
End result:
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 − (𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 − (2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑥 )) + 𝑐
= 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑒 𝑥 (−1 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐
= −𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐 = −𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑐
 71

4.2 The Definite Integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Question 1
L

Determine the following definite integral:

1

∫(𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
−1

Question 2
L

Determine the following definite integral:

2𝜋

∫ (sin(𝑥) + 3) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Determine the anti-derivative; upper limit minus lower limit.

Short solution
1

∫(𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2
−1

Detailed solution
1
1
3
1 4 2
∫(𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥]
4 −1
−1
1 4 1
= ∙ 1 − 12 + 1 − ( ∙ (−1)4 − (−1)2 + (−1))
4 4
1 1
= −1+1− +1+1=2
4 4
72

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Determine the anti-derivative; upper limit minus lower limit.

Short solution
2𝜋

∫ (sin(𝑥) + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = 7.42
𝜋

Detailed solution
2𝜋

∫ (sin(𝑥) + 3) 𝑑𝑥 = [− cos(𝑥) + 3𝑥]2𝜋

𝜋
𝜋
= − cos(2𝜋) + 3 ∙ 2𝜋 − (− cos(𝜋) + 3 ∙ 𝜋) =
= − cos(2𝜋) + 3 ∙ 2𝜋 + cos(𝜋) − 3𝜋 = 3𝜋 − 2 = 7.42
 73

Question 3
M

Determine the area that the following function encloses with the x-axis: 𝑓(𝑥) =
−(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4.

Question 4
M

Determine the area enclosed by the following function with the coordinate axes:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 8.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

First determine the roots of the function.

Short solution

𝐴 = 10.66 area units

Detailed solution

𝑓(𝑥) = −(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 + 4 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = 𝑥(−𝑥 + 4) = 0

Thus the roots are 𝑥1 = 0 and 𝑥2 = 4.

4

∫(−(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4) 𝑑𝑥
0
4
4
2
1 3 2
= ∫(−𝑥 + 4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [− 𝑥 + 2𝑥 ]
3 0
0
1 1
= − ∙ 43 + 2 ∙ 42 − (− ∙ 03 + 2 ∙ 02 ) = 10.66 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3 3

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Sketch the function. Determine its root.

Short solution

𝐴 = 12 area units
74

Detailed solution

Calculation of the root: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 8 = 0 and thus 𝑥 = −2, i.e. root at (−2,0)
0 0
1 4 1 1
∫ ( 𝑥 + 8) 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑥 + 8𝑥] = ∙ 04 + 8 ∙ 0 − ( ∙ (−2)4 + 8 ∙ (−2))
3
−2 4 −2 4 4
= −(4 − 16) = 12 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
 75

Question 5
S

Determine the area enclosed by the following two functions:𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 − 4

and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 − 20

Question 6
S

Determine the area enclosed by the following two functions:𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) =
−𝑥 2 + 8

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Determine 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥). Calculate the points of intersection of the two functions.
Make a sketch.

Short solution

𝐴 = 85.33 area units

Detailed solution

ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 − 4 − (2𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 − 20) = −𝑥 2 + 16 = 0

Thus the two points of intersection are 𝑥1 = −4 and 𝑥2 = 4.

4 4 4
2
1 3
∫ (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = ∫ ( −𝑥 + 16) 𝑑𝑥 = [− 𝑥 + 16𝑥]
−4 −4 3 −4
1 3 1
= − ∙ 4 + 16 ∙ 4 − (− ∙ (−4)3 + 16 ∙ (−4))
3 3
1 3 1 3
= − ∙ 4 + 16 ∙ 4 − ∙ 4 + 16 ∙ 4 = 85.33 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
3 3
76

Solution question 6
Solution hint

First determine the points of intersection of the two functions.

Short solution

Area: 𝐴 = 21,33

Detailed solution

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥); 𝑥 2 = −𝑥 2 + 8; 2𝑥 2 = 8; 𝑥 2 = 4

Thus the two points of intersection are 𝑥1 = −2 and 𝑥2 = 2.

2 2 2
2
2 3
∫ (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)) = ∫ ( 2𝑥 − 8) 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑥 − 8𝑥]
−2 −2 3 −2
2 2 32
= ∙ 8 − 16 − ( ∙ (−8) + 16) = − 32 = −21.33
3 3 3
Thus the area is 𝐴 = 21.33.

Note: An area is always positive, so take the absolute value if necessary.

77
78

4.3 Volume and Surface Area of Solids of Revolution and Arc Length

Question 1
L

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 1. Suppose this function rotates in the interval [0, 3].
What kind of solid of revolution is created in the process? What is its volume?

Question 2
L

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. Calculate its arc length on the interval [1, 5].

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Visualise the object. Volume:

𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑓 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Short solution

Cylinder, 𝑉 = 3𝜋

Detailed solution

If the constant function is rotated around the x-axis, a cylinder is created.

𝑏 3
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑓 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫ 12 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∙ [𝑥]30 = 𝜋(3 − 0) = 3𝜋
𝑎 0

Solution question 2
Solution hint
 79

𝑏
Arc length: 𝐿 = ∫𝑎 √1 + 𝑓 `2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Short solution

𝐿 = 4√2

Detailed solution

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥; 𝑓`(𝑥) = 1;
𝑏 5 5
5
𝐿 = ∫ √1 + 𝑓 `2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 + 12 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √2 𝑑𝑥 = [√2𝑥]1 = √2(5 − 1)
𝑎 1 1
= 4√2
80

Question 3
M

Determine the volume of the solid of revolution generated by the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑒 𝑥 − 3 in the interval [3, 6].

Question 4
M

Determine the surface area of the solid of revolution generated by the function
𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 in the interval [0, 4].

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Volume:
𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑓 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Short solution

𝑉 = 1,005,716.82

Detailed solution:
6 6
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (2𝑒 − 3) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫ (4𝑒 2𝑥 − 12𝑒 𝑥 + 9) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋[2𝑒 2𝑥 − 12𝑒 𝑥 + 9𝑥]63
𝑥 2
3 3
= 𝜋 (2𝑒 12 − 12𝑒 6 + 54) − 𝜋 (2𝑒 6 − 12𝑒 3 + 27)
= 1,007,579.25 − 1,862.43 = 1,005,716.82

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Surface area:
𝑏
𝑀 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)√1 + 𝑓`2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Short solution
 81

𝑀 = 54.45

Detailed solution
1
𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥; 𝑓`(𝑥) =
√2𝑥

𝑏 4
1
𝑀 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)√1 + 𝑓`2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∫ √2𝑥√1 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0 2𝑥
4 4
2𝑥 + 1
= 2𝜋 ∫ √2𝑥 √ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∫ √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝑥 0
4 1 1 3 4
= 2𝜋 ∫ (2𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝜋 [ (2𝑥 + 1)2 ]
0 3 0
1 3 1 3 1
= 2𝜋( (2 ∙ 4 + 1)2 ) − 2𝜋 ( (2 ∙ 0 + 1)2 ) = 2𝜋 ∙ 9 − 2𝜋 ∙
3 3 3
= 54.45
82

Question 5
S

Consider a cone with radius 𝑟 = 4 𝑐𝑚 and height ℎ = 8 𝑐𝑚. Draw a diagram in which
the cone rotates about the x-axis, has its apex on the x-axis at 𝑥 = −1 and is open to
the right. Give the functional equation for the associated solid of revolution. Suppose
that the cone is cut off at the y-axis. Calculate the surface area of the right side of the
cone.

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Determine the equation of the straight line. Surface area:

𝑏
𝑀 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)√1 + 𝑓`2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Short solution

𝑀 = 110.64 𝑐𝑚2

Detailed solution

The cone passes through the point P(-1, 0) and through the point Q(7, 4) because the
height is 8 cm and the radius is 4 cm. Determine the equation of the straight line:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Inserting the two points gives
1 1
𝑦= 𝑥+
2 2
and thus the function of the solid of revolution is:
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+
2 2
Its derivative is:
1
𝑓`(𝑥) =
2
The surface area is determined based on the limits 0 and 7 and is thus equal to:
 83

7 7
1 1 1 1 1 5
𝑀 = 2𝜋 ∫ ( 𝑥 + )√1 + ( )2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋 ∫ ( 𝑥 + )√ 𝑑𝑥
0 2 2 2 0 2 2 4

5 7 1 1 1 2 1 7
= 2𝜋 ∙ √ ∫ ( 𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = √5 𝜋 [ 𝑥 + 𝑥]
4 0 2 2 4 2 0
1 1
= √5 𝜋 ( ∙ 72 + ∙ 7) = 110.64
4 2
The surface area is 𝑀 = 110.64 𝑐𝑚2 .
84

Lesson 5 - Differential Equations

5.1 Introduction and Basic Terms

Question 1
L

What is meant by a differential equation? What determines the order of a differential

equation?

Question 2
L

What is the unknown, i.e. the variable for which a differential equation is to be
solved?

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Think of derivatives.

Short solution

Differential equation: relation between a function and its derivative(s); order:

highest occurring derivative.

Detailed solution

A differential equation is an equation that establishes a relationship between a

function and its derivatives. The highest derivative that occurs in a differential
equation determines its order.

Solution question 2
Solution hint

What does a differential equation involve?

 85

Short solution

The solution of a differential equation is a function.

Detailed solution

Conventional equations are solved for an unknown variable 𝑥. Differential equations,

on the other hand, involve an unknown function 𝑓(𝑥). That is, the solution of a
differential equation is a function.
86

Question 3
M

Which of the following equations is a differential equation?

𝑎) 𝑦 − 3 = 𝑦`; 𝑏) 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧`; 𝑐) 2𝑥 + 1 = 4;

𝑑) 2𝑎´ + 3 − 𝑎 = 𝑎``; 𝑒) 𝑒 𝑦` = 1 + 𝑒 𝑦

Question 4
M

State the order of the following differential equations.

𝑎) 𝑦`` + 3 − 𝑦` = 𝑦; 𝑏) 𝑎 = 𝑎`; 𝑐) sin(𝑦) = cos (𝑦``)

Solution question 3
Solution hint

A differential equation contains a function and its derivative(s).

Short solution

a), b), d), e)

Detailed solution

c) is not a differential equation. The equation only depends on the unknown 𝑥. All
other equations are differential equations since they contain not only the function
but also its derivative(s).

Solution question 4
Solution hint

The highest derivative indicates the order of the differential equation.

Short solution

a) 2nd order, b) 1st order, c) 2nd order

 87

Detailed solution

In all three cases the highest derivative must be considered. In a) this is the second
derivative. Thus, this differential equation has order 2. This is also the case in c). In
b), the equation has order 1 since the first derivative is the highest derivative.
88

Question 5
S

Explain why differential equations can be used for equations of motion in physics.

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Consider the formulas for position, velocity and acceleration in an accelerated

motion.

Short solution

𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣`(𝑡) = 𝑠``(𝑡)

Detailed solution

For an accelerated motion with constant acceleration the following holds:

1
Position: 𝑠(𝑡) = 2 𝑎𝑡 2

Velocity: 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑠`(𝑡)

Acceleration: 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑎 = 𝑣`(𝑡) = 𝑠``(𝑡)

In other words: If the position is differentiated, the velocity is obtained. If the velocity
is differentiated again, the acceleration is obtained.
 89

5.2 Solution of First-Order Linear Homogeneous Differential Equations

Question 1
L

Determine the solution of the following differential equation with initial value 𝑦(0) =
4 : 𝑦` = 5𝑦.

Question 2
L

Determine the solution of the following differential equation with initial value 𝑦(0) =
1 : 𝑦` − 𝑦 = 0.

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Rearrange the differential equation so that there is only a number on the right side.
Then integrate both sides.

Short solution

𝑦 = 4𝑒 5𝑥

Detailed solution

𝑦` = 5𝑦
𝑦`
=5
𝑦
𝑦`
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 5 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

ln |𝑦| = 5𝑥 + 𝑐
|𝑦| = 𝑒 5𝑥+𝑐

𝑦 = ± 𝑒 𝑐 𝑒 5𝑥
90

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 5𝑥

𝑦(0) = 𝑎𝑒 5∙0 = 𝑎 = 4

Thus the solution is:

𝑦 = 4𝑒 5𝑥

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Divide the differential equation by 𝑦. Then integrate both sides.

Short solution

𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
Detailed solution

𝑦` − 𝑦 = 0

𝑦` = 𝑦
𝑦`
=1
𝑦
𝑦`
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

ln |𝑦| = 𝑥 + 𝑐
|𝑦| = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑐

𝑦 = ±𝑒 𝑐 𝑒 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑥

𝑦(0) = 𝑎𝑒 0 = 𝑎 = 1

Thus the solution is:

𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
 91

Question 3
M

Consider the following differential equation: 𝑦` + 2𝑥𝑦 = 0. Determine the general

solution and the particular solution for 𝑦(0) = −2.

Question 4
M

Consider the following differential equation: 𝑦` = 𝑦 ∙ sin (𝑥). Determine the general
solution.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Divide by 𝑦 and integrate.

Short solution
2
General solution: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑥
2
Particular solution for 𝑦(0) = −2: 𝑦 = −2𝑒 −𝑥

Detailed solution

General solution:

𝑦` + 2𝑥𝑦 = 0

𝑦` = −2𝑥𝑦
𝑦´
= −2𝑥
𝑦
𝑦´
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(−2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

ln |𝑦| = −𝑥 2 + 𝑐
2 +𝑐
|𝑦| = 𝑒 −𝑥
92

2
𝑦 = ±𝑒 𝑐 𝑒 −𝑥
2
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑥
2 2
Particular solution for 𝑦(0) = −2: 𝑦(0) = 𝑎𝑒 −0 = 𝑎 = −2 and thus 𝑦 = −2𝑒 −𝑥 .

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Divide by 𝑦 and integrate.

Short solution

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 −cos (𝑥)
Detailed solution

𝑦` = 𝑦 ∙ sin(𝑥)
𝑦`
= sin(𝑥)
𝑦
𝑦`
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑦
ln |𝑦| = − cos(𝑥) + 𝑐
|𝑦| = 𝑒 − cos(𝑥)+𝑐
𝑦 = ±𝑒 − cos(𝑥)+𝑐
𝑦 = ±𝑒 𝑐 𝑒 − cos(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 −cos (𝑥)
 93

Question 5
S

Determine the general solution of the following differential equation:

𝑦` + (2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )𝑦 = 0

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Divide by 𝑦 and integrate.

Short solution
2 3 1 4
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝑥
4

Detailed solution

𝑦` + (2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )𝑦 = 0
𝑦`
= −2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3
𝑦
𝑦`
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(−2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
𝑦
2 1
ln |𝑦| = − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + 𝑐
3 4
2 3 1 4
|𝑦| = 𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝑥 +𝑐
4

2 3 1 4 2 3 1 4
𝑦 = ±𝑒 𝑐 𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝑥
4 = 𝑎𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝑥
4
94

5.3 Solution of First-Order Linear Nonhomogeneous Differential Equations

Question 1
L

Determine the solution to the following nonhomogeneous differential equation:

𝑦` − 3𝑦 = 2
Question 2
L

Determine the solution to the following nonhomogeneous differential equation:

2𝑦` − 𝑦 = 1

Solution question 1
Solution hint

First solve the homogeneous differential equation and find a particular solution of
the nonhomogeneous equation by trial and error.

Short solution
2
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 3𝑥 −
3
Detailed solution

The solution of the homogeneous differential equation 𝑦` − 3𝑦 = 0 is:

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 3𝑥

Particular solution by trial and error: Trying the ansatz 𝑦` = 0 gives −3𝑦 = 2 and
thus:
2
𝑦=−
3
The solution of the inhomogeneous differential equation is given by the sum of the
general solution of the homogeneous differential equation and the particular
solution:
2
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 3𝑥 −
3
 95

Solution question 2
Solution hint

First solve the homogeneous differential equation and find a particular solution of
the nonhomogeneous equation by trial and error.

Short solution
1
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 2𝑥 − 1
Detailed solution

The solution of the homogeneous differential equation 2𝑦` − 𝑦 = 0 is:

1
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 2𝑥

Particular solution by trial and error: Trying the ansatz with 𝑦` = 0 gives −𝑦 = 1 and
thus:

𝑦 = −1

The solution of the inhomogeneous differential equation is given by the sum of the
general solution of the homogeneous differential equation and the particular
solution:
1
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 2𝑥 − 1

Question 3
M

Set up the differential equation for the following limited growth problem:

A species populates a habitat with currently 200 animals. However, the habitat is
limited to 5,000 animals. The species reproduces at a growth rate of 7% of the
difference between the maximum number and the current number of animals.

Question 4
M

An organism is currently infected by 100 viruses. The viruses multiply by 14 % every

hour. Set up the corresponding differential equation and determine the growth
function. When will there be 500,000 viruses in the organism?
96

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Consider what 𝑦` means in this case.

Short solution

𝑦`(𝑡) = 0.07 ∙ (5.000 − 𝑦(𝑡))

Detailed solution

The growth rate is 7 % or 0.07. The growth of the species is represented by 𝑦` and
thus:

𝑦`(𝑡) = 0.07 ∙ (5.000 − 𝑦(𝑡))

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Consider what 𝑦` means in this case.

Short solution

𝑦` = 0.13𝑦; 𝑦(𝑡) = 100𝑒 0.13𝑡 ; t = 65.52 hours

Detailed solution

The number of viruses grows by 14 % each hour. If time 𝑡 is measured in hours, this
gives the ansatz

1.14𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 (𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛),

which yields the growth rate 𝑎 = ln(1.14) = 0.13 and thus:

𝑦` = 0.13𝑦
This homogeneous differential equation has the following solution:

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑒 0.13𝑡
Since there are exactly 100 viruses in the organism at time 𝑡 = 0, the following holds:

𝑦(0) = 𝑎𝑒 0.13∙0 = 100

and thus 𝑎 = 100. The growth function is therefore:
 97

𝑦(𝑡) = 100𝑒 0.13𝑡

To know when 500,000 viruses will be in the body, the growth function must be
solved for 𝑡:

500,000 = 100𝑒 0.13𝑡

5,000 = 𝑒 0.13𝑡

ln(5,000) = 0.13𝑡

𝑡 = 65.52

This means that after about 66 hours, there will be 500,000 viruses in the body.

Question 5
S

Set up the differential equation and the growth function for the following limited
growth problem:

There are currently 1,000 birds in a rainforest. Food is limited to 10,000 birds. The
birds reproduce at a growth rate of 5% of the difference between the maximum
number and the current number of birds.

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Consider what 𝑦` means in this case. This leads to the differential equation. Include
the maximum population and the current number of birds when setting up the
growth function.

Short solution

𝑦`(𝑡) = 0.05 ∙ (10,000 − 𝑦(𝑡)); 𝑦(𝑡) = −9,000𝑒 −0.05𝑡 + 10,000

Detailed solution

The growth rate is 5 % or 0.05. The growth of birds is represented by 𝑦` and thus:

𝑦`(𝑡) = 0.05 ∙ (10,000 − 𝑦(𝑡))

This results in:

𝑦` + 0.05𝑦 = 500
98

The corresponding homogeneous differential equation is

𝑦` + 0.05𝑦 = 0
and is solved by:

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 −0.05𝑡

Thus, the general solution of the inhomogeneous differential equation is:

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑒 −0.05𝑡 + 𝑏

If we let 𝑡 → ∞, we obtain 𝑦(∞) = 𝑏 = 10,000 because the maximum size of the

population is 10,000. As the number of birds is 1,000 for 𝑡 = 0, we can determine 𝑎:

𝑦(0) = 𝑎 ∙ 1 + 10,000 = 1,000

and thus 𝑎 = −9,000. The function of limited growth therefore is:

𝑦(𝑡) = −9,000𝑒 −0.05𝑡 + 10,000

 99

5.4 Outlook: Partial Differential Equations

Question 1
L

Explain the difference between ordinary and partial differential equations.

Question 2
L

What are partial differential equations needed for? Give examples of applications.

Solution question 1
Solution hint

Research what is meant by the two terms.

Short solution

Ordinary differential equations: one variable; partial differential equations: several

variables.

Detailed solution

In ordinary differential equations the unknown function depends on one variable

only. In partial differential equations the unknown function depends on several
variables, e.g. time and space; in terms of derivatives, partial derivatives of first and
higher order occur.

Solution question 2
Solution hint

Research in the script or on the internet.

Short solution

Boltzmann equation, Schrödinger equation, Dirac equation, Maxwell equations,

Euler-Lagrange equations
100

Detailed solution

In physics, as well as in geophysics and astrophysics, many laws are formulated with
the help of partial differential equations. Examples of these are: Boltzmann equation,
Schrödinger equation, Dirac equation, Maxwell equations, Euler-Lagrange equations
etc. Partial differential equations are also used in ecology and in economics.

Question 3
M

Consider the wave equation: 𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥 . Show that 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = sin(𝜋𝑐𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑥) is a
possible solution.

Question 4
M

Consider the following partial differential equation: 𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 = 0. Show that

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) is a possible solution.

Solution question 3
Solution hint

Calculate partial derivatives of the given solution.

Short solution

𝑢𝑥𝑥 = −𝜋 2 sin(𝜋𝑐𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑥)

𝑢𝑡𝑡 = −𝜋 2 𝑐 2 sin(𝜋𝑐𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑥)

Detailed solution:

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = sin(𝜋𝑐𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑥)

Differentiate 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) w.r.t. 𝑥:

𝑢𝑥 = 𝜋 sin(𝜋𝑐𝑡) cos(𝜋𝑥)

Differentiate 𝑢𝑥 w.r.t. 𝑥 again:

𝑢𝑥𝑥 = −𝜋 2 sin(𝜋𝑐𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑥)

 101

Differentiate 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) w.r.t. 𝑡:

𝑢𝑡 = 𝜋𝑐 cos(𝜋𝑐𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑥)
Differentiate 𝑢𝑡 w.r.t. 𝑡 again:

𝑢𝑡𝑡 = −𝜋 2 𝑐 2 sin(𝜋𝑐𝑡) sin(𝜋𝑥)

This gives:

𝑢𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐 2 𝑢𝑥𝑥

Solution question 4
Solution hint

Calculate partial derivatives of the given solution.

Short solution

𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) − 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 0

Detailed solution

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )

𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )

𝑢𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
This gives:

𝑢𝑥𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) − 𝑒 𝑡 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 0
102

Question 5
S

Consider the following partial differential equations:

𝑎) − 𝑎 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 ; 𝑏) 𝑎 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡

Find a possible solution in each case.

Solution question 5
Solution hint

Find a possible solution by trial and error.

Short solution

𝑎) 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ; 𝑏) 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

Detailed solution

Consider which function, if differentiated twice, yields the same function again.
Consider which function, if differentiated once, yields the same function again.

a) Possible solution:

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑢𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

𝑢𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

𝑢𝑡 = 𝑎 ∙ sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

−𝑎 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎 ∙ sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

This gives:

−𝑎 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡

b) Possible solution:

𝑢(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

𝑢𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

𝑢𝑡 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
 103

𝑎 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑡

This gives:

𝑎 𝑢𝑥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡