30/06/2020 1

TR232: SOIL MECHANICS (3.0 UNITS)

University of Dar es Salaam

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Transportation & Geotechnical Engineering

2020
30/06/2020 2

Chapter Four: Compaction Properties of Soils

Chapter contents

✓ Introduction

✓ Compaction tests – standard proctor and modified AASHTO

✓ Effect of fines content on compaction

✓ Effect of initial water content on compaction

✓ Effect of re-used sample on compaction testing

✓ Field compaction of soils; Methods & control

✓ Strength of compacted material – California bearing ratio (CBR) test

✓ Effect of soaking
 30/06/2020 3

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Definition of terms
➢ Compaction is a process of packing together soil particles by reducing air
voids. Normally done by mechanical means such as rolling, ramming or
vibration.
➢ Not to be confused with consolidation (See Chapter 2)

➢ Compaction is assessed qualitatively through the dry density of a soil, ⍴d

➢ Increase of soil ⍴d produced by compaction depends on soil type, water

content and amount and manner of application of the compaction energy

➢ Objective of compaction is to improve the engineering properties of a soil

mass through;
1. Reducing compressibility and permeability
2. Increasing shear strength

➢ Particularly applicable in road and embankment construction procedures

 30/06/2020 4

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Laboratory Standard Compaction Test
Standard Proctor Compaction Test, Proctor (1933)
➢ Widely used around the world as guided by various standards e.g. BS
1377-4, ASTM D 698 & D 1557
 30/06/2020 5

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Procedure for Laboratory Standard Proctor Compaction Test
➢ A representative sample (~15kgs) of air-dried soil passing 20mm test sieve
is sub-divided into five to six 2.5kg samples.
➢ Each sample is thoroughly mixed with different amounts of water to obtain
a suitable range of water contents; the difference being of the order of 1.5
– 2%.
➢ Soil is then compacted in three layers of approx. equal weights in moulds
with extension attached. Each layer is given 25 blows from a 2.5kg rammer
dropped from a height of 305mm. Surface of each layer should be
roughened to obtain a better bond.
➢ Amount of soil used is just enough to fill the mould leaving not more than 5
– 10mm to be struck when extension is removed.
➢ The soil in the mould is weighed and a representative of specimen is taken
for determining the water content
➢ From the knowledge of natural (bulk) density ⍴ and water content w the dry
density ⍴d is evaluated according to the equation;
𝜌
𝜌𝑑 =
1+𝑤
 30/06/2020 6

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Procedure for the Standard Laboratory Proctor Compaction Test continued…
➢ Repeat the procedure with the
remaining samples and plot the
evaluated 𝜌𝑑 against w to give the
proctor compaction curve shown
adjacent.
➢ The optimum w is determined
graphically; It is the w at which 𝜌𝑑
has the highest value (maximum).

➢ The 0% air voids line (Sr = 100%)

represents the dry densities that
would be obtained if all the air in
the soil could be expelled so that
after compaction the sample is fully
saturated. Typically not achieveable
by compaction either in the
laboratory or field.
 30/06/2020 7

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Procedure for the Standard Laboratory Proctor Compaction Test continued…
➢ For a given point in the 𝜌𝑑 against w graph, the corresponding Sr can
be calculated from the equation;
𝑤
𝑆𝑟 = 𝜌 𝜌𝑤 (%)
𝑤
−
𝜌𝑑 𝜌𝑠
The compaction energy in a Standard Laboratory Proctor Compaction Test
➢ The compaction energy in a standard proctor compaction test is the
kinetic energy supplied per unit volume of compacted soil.

➢ In compaction of a soil of volume V, a drop hammer of weight Q falls N

times from a height H. The kinetic energy of a free falling body is equal
to the change in its potential energy, therefore the compaction energy
per unit volume of soil is
𝑄𝐻𝑁
𝐸=
𝑉
➢ Thus the compaction energy in the Standard Proctor Compaction test is
0.59MJ/m3
 30/06/2020 8

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Laboratory Modified Proctor (AASHO) Test
➢ Developed to give higher standard of
compaction for airfield construction

➢ Apparatus is the same as that used in

the standard compaction except the
mass of the hammer is 4.5kg (cf.
2.5kg in standard) and the falling
height is 450mm (cf. 305mm for
standard).

➢ The soil is compacted into the mould

in five equal layers (cf. 3 in the
standard proctor compaction)

➢ The compaction energy is 2.70MJ/m3

 30/06/2020 9

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Effect of compaction energy on the Proctor compaction curves
 30/06/2020 10

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Effect of compaction energy on ⍴d of a soil at particular constant w
 30/06/2020 11

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Effect of fine content on proctor compaction curves
➢ Proctor curves become flatter (as the optimum w increases and the
maximum ⍴d decreases) with increase in fines.
➢ For cohesive soils the optimum w is slightly below the wp (i.e. wopt ≈ wp –
2%)
 30/06/2020 12

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Effect of initial water content on compaction

➢ The initial w is of some influence on the compaction characteristics of

lateritic soils (red tropical soils) and volcanic clays

➢ Higher values of ⍴d are obtained from oven-dried samples than from

samples at natural state

➢ It is recommended that no oven-dried material should be used for

compaction tests

➢ In the field compaction is done either from the wet or the dry or vice versa
depending on the field conditions
 30/06/2020 13

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Effect of re-used sample on compaction
➢ Re-use of laboratory samples for compaction has the advantage of
reducing the total mass of soil required, however for soils with brittle
particles it changes the soils gradation.
➢ The recommended procedure is to take a new sample for every
compaction test particularly for most tropical soils.
 30/06/2020 14

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction
➢ Various types of compaction plants are used in the field and they apply
compaction energy to the soil in different manners;
 30/06/2020 15

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction
 30/06/2020 16

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction
Various types of compaction plants used in the field for compaction of soils
 30/06/2020 17

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction
Various types of compaction plants used in the field for compaction of soils
 30/06/2020 18

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction
Field compaction procedures;
➢ Placement of fill or construction of embankments involves two activities;
preparation of soil prior to compaction and actual compaction

➢ Ideally field compaction should be done at optimum w determined in the

lab so to achieve the max. ⍴d for a particular compaction energy in use

➢ In case of fill with lower w (dry of optimum), the soil can be wetted or
heavier compaction plant used. Wetting can be done in-situ, prior
excavation, or during loading and transportation.

➢ If the soil has a higher w (wet of optimum), then the water content can be
reduce by spreading it out and allowing it to dry prior to compaction.
 30/06/2020 19

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction of soils
Field compaction control;
Essential records to be kept for field compaction control include;
1. Type of material used
2. Thickness of layers compacted
3. Type of compaction plant
4. Number of passes and,
5. The results of compaction tests

This enables;
a) Selection of proper fill materials and improving compaction by increasing
or decreasing their water contents

b) Selection of economic methods of compaction which utilize the

construction traffic and special compaction plant
 30/06/2020 20

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction control

The extent of compaction in the field is quantified using;

1. In-situ unit weight measurements
2. Nuclear Control Tests
In-situ unit weight measurements
a) The core – cutter (drive cylinder test) method (ASTM D2937)
➢ Involves extraction of samples of compacted soils and determination of w,
⍴d, and Sr.

➢ Extraction of soil is done using a core cutter of known

volume which is rammed into the soil via a protective
dolly.

➢ The cutter is dug–out, soil is trimmed-off, and its mass

and moisture content are determined
 30/06/2020 21

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction control
In-situ unit weight measurements continued…
b) The sand–replacement (sand–cone) method
Level a fill’s surface and dig a cylindrical hole about
125mm dia and depth. Save all soil from the hole and
determine its weight, W

Fill the sand cone with free-flowing poorly graded sand

(SP). Determine the weight of the cone and the sand,
W1

Place the sand cone over the hole, then open the valve
and allow the sand to fill the hole and the cone

Close the valve, remove the sand cone from the hole,
determine its new weight, W2
𝑊1 −𝑊2
The volume of the hole is then; 𝑉 = − 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑊
The natural density of the soil is then; 𝛾 =
𝑉
 30/06/2020 22

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction control
In-situ unit weight measurements
c) The rubber–balloon method (ASTM D2167)
➢ Level a fill’s surface and dig a cylindrical hole about
125mm dia and depth. Save all soil from the hole and
determine its weight, W.

➢ Place the rubber balloon apparatus over the hole pump air
into the top of cylinder above the water level to force the
balloon and water down into the hole completely filling it.

➢ The volume of water required to fill the hole (V) is

determined by reading the water level in the cylinder
before and after forcing the water into the hole.

𝑊
➢ The natural density of the soil is then; 𝛾 =
𝑉

The w in these in-situ unit weight tests can subsequently be

determined by placing the soil in an oven overnight and
hence ⍴d, and Sr calculated.
 30/06/2020 23

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction control
Nuclear control test
➢ The in-situ unit weight measurement methods are both ‘destructive’
methods as they involve digging a sizeable hole, and time consuming
when numerous tests must be performed as quickly as possible at a
construction site.
➢ Nuclear density test (ASTM D2922) is a ‘non-destructive’ method using a
nuclear moisture–density gauge which can be undertaken relatively
quicker.
➢ The equipment emits radiations into the soil and detects how these travel
through the soil such that both the unit weight and the moisture content
can be interpreted through an empirical correlation programmed in to the
device which allows it to directly display both parameters on digital
electronic readouts.
➢ The equipment needs to be frequently calibrated.
➢ As it contains a source of radiation. Personnel must have special training
before using it.
 30/06/2020 24

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction control
Nuclear control test
 30/06/2020 25

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Field compaction control
Requirements for field compaction
(i) Minimum density, ⍴d(field) ≥ 0.95 ⍴d(max)
(ii) Compaction water content, w(field) = wopt ± 2%
 30/06/2020 26

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Strength of compacted material
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
➢ The strength of compacted soils is typically expressed in terms of its
California Bearing Ratio value (CBR).

➢ The CBR is measured by an empirical test device (California State

Highway Association) and is simply the resistance to a penetration of
2.54mm of a standard cylindrical plunger of cross-sectional area of
19.35cm2 expressed as a percentage of the known resistance of the
plunger to various penetrations in crushed aggregate.

➢ The sample to be tested must be compacted at the w and ⍴d(field) likely to

apply after the road has been constructed.

➢ When a sub-grade or sub-base material is to be tested the increase in

strength due to the road construction material placed above can be
allowed for by means of surcharge weights in the form of annular discs
with a mass of 2kgs placed on top of the soil test sample.
 30/06/2020 27

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Strength of compacted material
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test continued…
➢ If soaking is likely to occur in the field then soaked samples should be
tested. The soaking is achieved by submerging the samples in water for 4
days (96 hours).

➢ In CBR test the plunger is first seated at the top of the sample and is then
made to penetrate into the soil at a rate of 1.0mm/minute and the plunger
load is recorded for each 0.25mm penetration up to a maximum of 7.5mm.

➢ Test results are plotted in the form of a load/ penetration diagram. Usually
the curve will be convex upwards but sometimes the initial part of the curve
is concave upwards and over this section a correction becomes necessary.

➢ The correction consists of drawing a tangent to the curve at its steepest

slope and producing it back to cut the penetration axis. The point is
regarded as the origin of the penetration scale for the corrected curve.
 30/06/2020 28

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Strength of compacted material
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test – General arrangement

➢ The plunger resistance at

2.54mm is expressed as a
percentage of 13.34kN and
the plunger resistance at
5.08mm is expressed as a
percentage of 20.01kN.

➢ The higher of these two

percentages is taken as the
CBR value of the soil tested.
 30/06/2020 29

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Strength of compacted material
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test – measuring swelling effect of soaking
 30/06/2020 30

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Strength of compacted material - California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
 30/06/2020 31

Chapter 4: Compaction Properties of Soils

Strength of compacted material
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test – Effect of soaking on CBR