ECE 322/322.

1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

FLEXIBLE DOMINICAN EDUCATION MODULE

COURSE: ECE 322/322.1
MODULE NO: 8
MODULE TITLE: Signals, Spectra and Processing
TOPIC 1: Introduction to Signal Processing
WRITER: Engr. Filomeno E. Plaza III

To do well in this module, you need to remember the following:

1. Pause and pray before starting this module
2. Recorded Video Lectures are uploaded at Youtube and the link will be provided at the FB Messenger Group
Chat ECE 322/322.1 USTL 2022.
3. When Recorded Video Lectures are less than 16 MB, these will be uploaded directly to the FB Messenger Group
Chat ECE 322/322.1 USTL 2022.
4. Please upload answers to Exercises, Activities and Exams will to ECE 322/322.1 USTL 2022 Google
Classroom. Uploaded photographs of papers must be written with NAME and Exercise/Activity/Exam no. #.

OPENING PRAYER
May God the Father bless us.
May God the Son heal us.
May God the Holy Spirit enlighten us,
and give us
eyes to see with,
ears to hear with, hands to do the work of God with,
feet to walk with,
a mouth to preach the word of salvation with,
and the angel of peace to watch over us and lead us at last,
by our Lord's gift, to the Kingdom.
Amen.
 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

Learning Outcomes
Topic Title Estimated
time
“I SHOULD BE ABLE TO”…

1 Introduction to Signal Define signal, system and spectra 3 hours

Processing Describe properties of a linear system
Enumerate the advantages of digital over analog
processing

MODULE INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTION(S):

The idea of signals and systems arises in different disciplines such as science, engineering, economics, politics,
and medicine. Scientists, mathematicians, financial analysts, cardiologists, and engineers all use the concepts
of systems and signals because they are the foundation on which we build many things in our daily lives.
Typical examples of systems include radio and television, telephone networks, radar systems, computer
networks, wireless communication, military surveillance systems, and satellite communication systems.
How do we represent these signals and systems? The theory of signals and systems provides a solid
foundation for control systems, communication systems, power systems, and networking, to name a few.

PRETEST

To further gauge your level of understanding and where you currently stand in this topic, please answer the following
pre-test questions honestly. Take note of the items that you were not able to correctly answer and look for the right
answer as you go through this module.

1. In your own understanding, define

a. signal
b. system
c. spectrum

2. What are the properties of a linear systems? Explain in brief.

3. What are the advantages of digital over analog processing?

HOOK UP ACTIVITY
 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

STUDY!
BASIC DEFINITIONS

A signal x(t) is a set of data or function of time that represents a variable of interest. A signal typically contains
information about the nature of a phenomenon.

Examples of signals include the atmospheric temperature, humidity, human voice, television images, a dog’s bark,
and birdsongs. More generally, a signal may be a function of more than one independent variable (time).
For example, pictures are signals that depend on two independent variables (horizontal and vertical positions) and
may be regarded as two-dimensional signals.

A system is a collection of devices that operate on input signal x(t) (or excitation) to produce an output signal y(t)
(or response).

A system may also be regarded as a mathematical model of a physical process that relates the input signal to the
output signal.

Examples of systems include electric circuits, computer programs, the stock market, weather, and the human body.

A system may have several mathematical models or representations. The variables in the mathematical model
are described as signals, which may be current, voltage, or displacement. In electrical systems, signals are often
represented as currents and voltages.

In mechanical systems, they are often represented as temperatures, forces, and velocities.

In hydraulic systems, signals may be displacements and pressures.

Figure 1.1 illustrates the block diagram of a single-input single-output system. We classify the signals that enter the
system as input signals, while the signals produced by the system as outputs. For example, we may regard voltages
and currents as functions of time in an electric circuit as signals, while the circuit itself is regarded as a system. In
engineering systems, signals may carry energy or information.

Fig. 1.1. A simple system.

 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

A spectrum (plural spectra or spectrums) is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary,
without steps, across a continuum. The word was first used scientifically in optics to describe the rainbow of colors in
visible light after passing through a prism. As scientific understanding of light advanced, it came to apply to the entire
electromagnetic spectrum.
According to Fourier analysis, any physical signal can be decomposed into a number of discrete frequencies, or a
spectrum of frequencies over a continuous range. The statistical average of a certain signal or sort of signal
(including noise) as analyzed in terms of its frequency content, is called its spectrum.

Linear Systems

Requirements for Linearity

A system is called linear if it has two mathematical properties:
 homogeneity
 additivity.
If you can show that a system has both properties, then you have proven that the system is linear. Likewise, if you
can show that a system doesn't have one or both properties, you have proven that it isn't linear. A third property,
shift invariance, is not a strict requirement for linearity, but it is a mandatory property for most DSP
techniques. When you see the term linear system used in DSP, you should assume it includes shift invariance
unless you have reason to believe otherwise. These three properties form the mathematics of how linear system
theory is defined and used. Later in this chapter we will look at more intuitive ways of understanding linearity. For
now, let's go through these formal mathematical properties.

As illustrated in Fig. 1.2, homogeneity means that a change in the input signal's amplitude results in a
corresponding change in the output signal's amplitude. In mathematical terms, if an input signal of x[n] results in an
output signal of y[n], an input of kx[n] results in an output of ky[n], for any input signal and constant, k.

Fig. 1.2. Definition of homogeneity

A simple resistor provides a good example of both homogenous and non-homogeneous systems. If the input to the
system is the voltage across the resistor, v(t), and the output from the system is the current through the resistor, i(t) ,
the system is homogeneous. Ohm's law guarantees this; if the voltage is increased or decreased, there will be a
corresponding increase or decrease in the current. Now, consider another system where the input signal is the
voltage across the resistor, v(t), but the output signal is the power being dissipated in the resistor, p(t). Since power is
 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

proportional to the square of the voltage, if the input signal is increased by a factor of two, the output signal is
increase by a factor of four. This system is not homogeneous and therefore cannot be linear.

The property of additivity is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. Consider a system where an input of x1[n] produces an output of
y1[n]. Further suppose that a different input, x2[n], produces another output, y2[n]. The system is said to be additive, if
an input of x1[n] + x2[n] results in an output of y1[n] + y2[n], for all possible input signals. In words, signals added at the
input produce signals that are added at the output.

Fig. 1.3. Definition of Additivity

The important point is that added signals pass through the system without interacting. As an example, think about a
telephone conversation with your Aunt Edna and Uncle Bernie. Aunt Edna begins a rather lengthy story about how
well her radishes are doing this year. In the background, Uncle Bernie is yelling at the dog for having an accident in
his favorite chair. The two voice signals are added and electronically transmitted through the telephone network.
Since this system is additive, the sound you hear is the sum of the two voices as they would sound if transmitted
individually. You hear Edna and Bernie, not the creature, Ednabernie.

A good example of a non-additive circuit is the mixer stage in a radio transmitter. Two signals are present: an audio
signal that contains the voice or music, and a carrier wave that can propagate through space when applied to an
antenna. The two signals are added and applied to a nonlinear device, such as a pn junction diode. This results in
the signals merging to form a third signal, a modulated radio wave capable of carrying the information over great
distances.

As shown in Fig. 1.4, shift invariance means that a shift in the input signal will result in nothing more than an
identical shift in the output signal. In more formal terms, if an input signal of x[n] results in an output of y[n], an input
signal of x[n + s] results in an output of y[n + s], for any input signal and any constant, s. Pay particular notice to how
the mathematics of this shift is written, it will be used in upcoming chapters. By adding a constant, s, to the
 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

independent variable, n, the waveform can be advanced or retarded in the horizontal direction. For example, when s
= 2, the signal is shifted left by two samples; when s = -2, the signal is shifted right by two samples.

Fig. 1.4. Definition of Shift Invariance

The Necessity of Digitization

The conventional methods of communication used analog signals for long distance communications, which suffer
from many losses such as distortion, interference, and other losses including security breach.

In order to overcome these problems, the signals are digitized using different techniques. The digitized signals allow
the communication to be more clear and accurate without losses.

The following figure indicates the difference between analog and digital signals. The digital signals consist of 1’s and
0’s which indicate High and Low values respectively.

Fig. 1.5. Representation of Signals

Advantages of Digital Communication

As the signals are digitized, there are many advantages of digital communication over analog communication, such
as −

1. The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less affected.
2. Digital circuits are more reliable.

3. Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
4. The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
5. The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
6. The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties, which is very difficult.
 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

7. Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital circuits to maintain the
secrecy of the information.
8. The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error correcting codes.
9. Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.
10. Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing TDM is easier than combining analog signals using
Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM.
11. The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.
12. Digital signals can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signals.
13. Many of the digital circuits have almost common encoding techniques and hence similar devices can be used for
a number of purposes.
14. The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.

Elements of Digital Communication

The elements which form a digital communication system is represented by the following block diagram for the ease
of understanding.

Fig. 1.6. Basic Elements of a Digital Communication System

Following are the sections of the digital communication system.

Source
The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal

Input Transducer
This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it to an electrical signal (Example: microphone). This
block also consists of an analog to digital converter where a digital signal is needed for further processes.

A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.

Source Encoder
The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number of bits. This process helps in effective utilization of
the bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits unnecessaryexcessbits,i.e.,zeroes.
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Channel Encoder
The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction. During the transmission of the signal, due to the noise in
the channel, the signal may get altered and hence to avoid this, the channel encoder adds some redundant bits to
the transmitted data. These are the error correcting bits.

Digital Modulator
The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The signal is also converted to analog from the digital
sequence, in order to make it travel through the channel or medium.

Channel
The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit from the transmitter end to the receiver end.

Digital Demodulator
This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is demodulated as well as converted again from analog
to digital. The signal gets reconstructed here.

Channel Decoder
The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error corrections. The distortions which might occur
during the transmission, are corrected by adding some redundant bits. This addition of bits helps in the complete
recovery of the original signal.

Source Decoder
The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing so that the pure digital output is obtained
without the loss of information. The source decoder recreates the source output.

Output Transducer
This is the last block which converts the signal into the original physical form, which was at the input of the
transmitter. It converts the electrical signal into physical output (Example: loud speaker).

Output Signal
This is the output which is produced after the whole process. Example − The sound signal received.

RESEARCH
List four analog and four digital audio/video players.
 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

ANALYSIS
Compare these analog and digital audio/video players in terms of actual size and data capacity. What
have you observed?

ACTION
POST TEST
Answer the following.
1. In your own understanding, define
a. signal
b. system
c. spectrum

2. What are the properties of a linear systems? Explain in brief.

3. What are the advantages of digital over analog processing?

RUBRICS
Category 4 3 2 1
Neatness and The work is presented in The work is presented The work is presented The work appears sloppy and
organization a neat, clear, organized in a neat and in an organized unorganized. It is hard to know
fashion that is easy to organized fashion that fashion but may be what information goes
read. is usually easy to read. hard to read at times. together.
Understanding I got it!! I did it in new I got it. I understood I understood parts of I did not understand the
ways and showed you the problem and have the problem. I got problem.
how it worked. I can tell an appropriate started, but I couldn’t
you what math concepts solution. All parts of finish.
are used. the problem are
addressed.
Strategy & Procedures Typically, uses an Typically, uses an Sometimes uses an Rarely uses an effective
efficient and effective effective strategy to effective strategy to strategy to solve problems.
strategy to solve the solve the problem(s). solve problems, but
problem(s).
 ECE 322/322.1 – SIGNALS,
SPECTRA AND PROCESSING

does not do it
consistently.
Mathematical Errors 90-100% of the steps Almost all (85-89%) of Most (75-84%) of the More than 75% of the steps
and solutions have no the steps and steps and solutions and solutions have
mathematical errors. solutions have no have no mathematical mathematical errors.
mathematical errors. errors.
Completion All problems are All but one of the All but two of the Several of the problems are
completed. problems are problems are not completed.
completed. completed.
SELF ASSESSMENT
I CAN: I can do it on my own I can do it with the help of a I still can’t understand
reference material

Define signal, system and spectra

Describe properties of a linear system
Enumerate the advantages of digital
over analog processing

CLOSING PRAYER
May God the Father bless us.
May God the Son heal us.
May God the Holy Spirit enlighten us,
and give us
eyes to see with,
ears to hear with, hands to do the work of God with,
feet to walk with,
a mouth to preach the word of salvation with,
and the angel of peace to watch over us and lead us at last,
by our Lord's gift, to the Kingdom.
Amen

This module was developed based on the following references

1. Sadiko, M N. O. Signals and Systems: A Primer with Matlab. CRC Press. 2016.
2. Tan, L.. Digital Signal Processing: Fundamentals and Applications. Academic Press. 2008.
3. Oppenheim, A. V., Wilsky, A. Signals and Systems. 2nd edition. Prentice Hall. 1996.
4. Orfanidis, S. J. Introduction to Signal Processing, Prentice Hall. 2010.
5. Proakis, J. G., Manolakis, D. G. Digital Signal Processing. 4th edition. Pearson. 2006.