Module 1: DEFINITIONS AND GEOMETRY

Basic definitions;

Structure
It is a system of connected parts used to support a load or set of loads, examples include;
bridges, buildings and towers
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer must
account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration
economic and environmental constraints.

Often this requires several independent studies of different solutions before final
judgment can be made as to which structural form is most appropriate.
This design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge
of material properties and the laws of mechanics which govern material response.
Once a preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the structure must then be analysed
to ensure that it has its required stiffness and strength.

To analyse a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the

members are supported and connected together. The loadings are determined from
codes and local specifications, and the forces in the members and their displacements
are found using the theory of structural analysis, which is the subject matter of this text

Structural system
This refers to the combination of structural elements and the materials from which they
are composed.
Structures are constituted from structural elements such as; brazing struts, beams and
columns.

These elements are defined as below;

i. Ties or brazing struts are structural elements subjected to tensile forces.
ii. Beams are usually straight horizontal members used mainly to carry vertical loads.
They are classified as cantilevered beams, simply supported beams, fixed
supported beams and continuous beams; that is according to the way they are
supported.
iii. Columns are vertical structural elements or members which resist axial
compressive loads.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES

Structural systems are constituted of one or more of the following four types of
structures;

Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important
criterion for design, a truss may be selected.
Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular fashion.
Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause the entire truss to
bend are converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members.
Because of this, one of the primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that
it uses less material to support a given load,
Trusses majorly consist of relatively slender members often formed in a triangular
configuration. They are ideal for longer spans due to the geometric arrangement of the
members.
This arrangement tends to translate the bending and shear forces due to loads into tensile
and compressive forces within the truss members. Trusses are further classified into;
planer and space trusses.
 Planer trusses are those whose members lie in the same plane and mostly used in
roof and bridge structures.
 Space trusses are those whose members lie in three dimensions and are ideal for
supporting mega structures like towers.

Cables and arches

These are also used for supporting loads and they span a longer distance.
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. The main difference between
cables and tie members is that; cables take a form defined by sagging unlike tie members
whose loads are tensile along the central axis.
This state of cables has an advantage over beams and trusses in that they don’t become
unstable and collapse since they are always in tension.
Another advantage is that the cost requirement for cables is lesser compared to beams
and trusses. The use of cables is however limited by their sag, weight and the method of
anchorage.
Arches however, are always rigid solely to maintain their shapes and this kind of shape
results into development of shear forces and moments within the arch structure. They
are commonly used in bridges and openings of masonry walls.
Frames
Frames basically consist of beams and columns that are either pinned or rigidly fixed at
the connections. They are also categorised into planer and space frames depending on
their configuration.
Planer frames are those that lie on one plane while space frames lie in three dimensions.
Note that the strength of frames is achieved by the interaction of the internal loadings in
the beams and frames constituting the framed structure.

Surface structures;
A surface structure is made from a material having a very smaller thickness compared to
its other dimensions. These materials can be very flexible such as for tents or air inflated
structures. They can also be made from rigid materials such as concrete or steel plates.

LOADS ON A STRUCTURE
Structures are primarily designed to carry loads and hence once the dimensional
requirements of a structure are defined, it is very vital to determine the loads it is exposed
to. The type of structure is also decided basing on the loads it is to carry.
A structural Engineer always has to refer to building codes and design codes loads in
order to execute his work correctly. These codes basically provide for the minimum
requirements for loads on a structure and technical standards used in the design of
structures. Structures should be designed to safely withstand all the loads they are
subjected to. The major actions /loads a structure carries are; characteristic dead loads,
characteristic imposed loads and wind loads.
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer must
account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration
economic and environmental constraints.
Often this requires several independent studies of different solutions before final
judgment can be made as to which structural form is most appropriate.

This design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge
of material properties and the laws of mechanics which govern material response. Once
a preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the structure must then be analysed to
ensure that it has its required stiffness and strength.

To analyse a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the

members are supported and connected together.
The loadings are determined from codes and local specifications, and the forces in the
members and their displacements are found using the theory of structural analysis, which
is the subject matter of this text.
Dead loads

These consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any
objects that are permanently attached to the structure. Hence, for a building, the dead
loads include the weights of the columns, beams, and girders, the floor slab, roofing,
walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and other miscellaneous attachments

Live loads
Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the
weights of objects temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces.
The minimum live loads specified in codes are determined from studying the history of
their effects on existing structures. Usually, these loads include additional protection
against excessive deflection or sudden overload

EXTERNAL EQUILIBRIUM AND INTERNAL FORCES IN MEMBERS

For an object to be in equilibrium, the summation of all the actions on its members; that
is forces and moments must balance.

Therefore, considering a single plane, the equilibrium condition equations reduce to;
∑𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 and ∑𝑀𝑜 = 0.

It should also be noted that when a structure is in equilibrium, then all its constituent
parts are in equilibrium, this principle is used in determination of bending moments and
shear forces along a beam and frames.
For a truss member, it is in equilibrium when the two forces of the same magnitude act
along the axis in either tension or compression.

Compression member Tension member

In such a case, the internal force acting on any chosen section of the member is the same
throughout the entire member. When a small section is cut from the member such as
below,

The force in this small section is the same throughout the entire member.
Due to the force, each segment of the member will elongate or shorten, if the material is
elastic as is the case for most structures, the force in the members is directly proportional
to the elongation.
Assuming that the material is linearly elastic with Young's Modulus E, cross sectional area
A and length L, then the force developed in the member is given by;
F = 𝑘∆.
Where
k = 𝐸𝐴/𝐿. (Constant)

STABILITY AND DETERMINACY

Prior to the analysis of a structure for the forces, it is important to establish its stability
and determinacy. All structures to be analysed should logically be stable for safety
reasons which design of structural aims at.

DETERMINACY

The determinacy of a structure is compared in relation to the static equations of

equilibrium for coplanar structural systems.

As seen earlier on, the three equations of static equilibrium provide both the necessary
and sufficient conditions of equilibrium, hence if all the forces/reactions in a structure can
be determined completely using the equations of static equilibrium; it is referred to as;
statically determinate,

However, if the structure has more unknown forces than the available equations of static
equilibrium, it is referred to as; statically indeterminate

When determining the determinacy of a structure, the structure should first be isolated
show all the unknown forces and moments (free body diagram) and then comparing it
with the equations of equilibrium.
Note that for coplanar structures, each part has at most 3 equations of equilibrium for
complete analysis, therefore, its determinacy can be determined from the relation
∑𝑅 = 3𝑚 + 𝑐 ,
Where;
𝑅 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟

If
i. ∑𝑹 = 𝟑𝒎 + 𝒄, The structure is statically determinate
ii. ∑𝑹 > 𝟑𝒎 + 𝒄 The structure is statically indeterminate.
The extra number of equilibrium conditions or equations required to analyse a statically
indeterminate structure is called degree of indeterminacy;

That is the difference between the unknowns and the number of parts; that is

{∑𝑅 − (3𝑚 + 𝑐)}.

These equations are generated by relating the applied loads and reactions to the
displacements at different points on the structure, the equations are also referred to as
Compatibility equations.

DETERMINACY OF BEAMS

A beam is statically determinate if it satisfies the condition; ∑𝑅 = 3𝑚 + 𝑐, where R is all

the reactive forces and moments, m is the total number of members of the beam which
in this case is 1 and c is any condition such as internal hinge.
Hence the determinacy of a beam can be found using the relation; ∑𝑅 = 3 + 𝑐

Example;
Discuss the determinacy of the beam below;

Statically Determinate Statically Determinate

 Statically Indeterminate to the 1st Degree

Statically indeterminate to the 2nd Degree

Free Body Diagram;

∑𝑅 = 4 𝑚=1 𝑐=1
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ∑𝑅 = 3 + 𝑐,
4 = 3 + 1, 4 = 4,
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒.

DETERMINACY OF FRAMES
Considering a coplanar frame, it should be noted that the nodal equilibrium has 3
equations for it to be in static equilibrium. Therefore, if the frame has 𝑁 nodes, the total
number of equations is 3𝑁 and the total number of unknowns is given as 3𝑚 + ∑𝑅.

General approach
This approach is based on the same principle; that is comparing the unknowns with the
available equations for its complete analysis. The total number of unknowns is the sum
of member unknowns and the reactions, while the total number of equations is the sum
of all the equations at the nodes with any internal condition.
That is; 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠 = 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 and 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶

Where;
R represents the unknowns, M represents the number of members, N represents the
number of nodes and C represents the internal condition.
The above relation is applicable to both beams and frames.
In this approach, the determinacy is found by relating 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 with 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶.
When
3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶, the structure is statically determinate but
If 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 > 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶, it is statically indeterminate

The number of conditions for construction C at a particular point is got from the
relation 𝐶 = 𝑀 − 1,

Where M represents all the number of members sharing the condition C

EXAMPLES

Discuss the determinacy of the frames below;

Free body diagram

Using the expression 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶,

Where total 𝑅 = 6 ,𝑀 = 2 C= 2-1 =1

Therefore, 3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = (3 𝑋 2) + 6 = 12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 = (3 𝑋 3) + 1 = 10
3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 > 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 12 > 10
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

Alternative approach
Compare
∑𝑅 = 3𝑀 ; Where R= Number of reactive forces and M is the number of parts of the
isolated frame. The number of parts is considered from one joint to the next
∑𝑅 = 8 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑀 = 3𝑋 2 = 6, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 8 > 6,
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒
Example 2
3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = (3 𝑋 2) + 3 = 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 = (3 𝑋 3) = 9
3𝑀 + ∑𝑅 = 3𝑁 + ∑𝐶 𝑇ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 9 = 9
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒

Alternatively;
From ∑𝑅 = 3𝑀 , R= 3, M= 1
3 = 3, Hence it is statically determinate
Example

From ∑𝑅 = 3𝑀
∑𝑅 = 6 3𝑀 = 3 × 2 = 6, Since 6 = 6, the beam it is statically determinate

STABILITY
Structures have to be stable and also satisfy the equations of equilibrium in order to
ensure its full equilibrium. Structures encounter instability mainly due to two conditions;
that is; instability due to improper supports or partial constraints and instability due to
improper constraints or connections.
1. Instability due to partial constraints;

This results from a state where the structure has fewer reactive forces than the
equations of equilibrium that must be satisfied. Examples of insufficient supports
are shown below;
2. Instability due to improper constraints;
In some cases there may be as many unknown forces as there are equations of
equilibrium; however, instability or movement of a structure or its members can
develop because of improper constraining by the supports.

This can occur if all the support reactions are concurrent at a point.
From the free-body diagram of the beam it is seen that the summation of moments
about point O will not be equal to zero thus rotation about point O will take place.

Another way in which improper constraining leads to instability occurs when the
reactive forces are all parallel.
Here when an inclined force P is applied, the summation of forces in the horizontal
direction will not equal zero. Examples of such cases are as below;

Parallel reactions

Concurrent reactions
 3. Instability due to improper internal connection

Note; a structure is geometrically unstable;

i. If there are fewer reactive forces than the available equation of equilibrium
ii. If the reactions are concurrent (intersect at a common point) or parallel.

We can hence generalise stability of a structure from the relations

𝑹 < 3𝒎, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹 ≥ 𝟑𝒎

Where;
𝑹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

FURTHER READING AREAS

1. Differentiate between the following terms;
i. Statically determinate and statically indeterminate structures
ii. Geometrically unstable structures and statically unstable structures
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Statically determinate and statically
indeterminate structures
3. Discuss the stability and determinacy of the following structures

Reading assignment
Read about principle of virtual work and superposition.