NAME…………………………………………………………………..

NUTRITION IN HUMANS
WORKBOOK

The need for food.

All living organisms need food. An important difference between plants and
animals is that green plants can make food in their leaves but animals have to
take it in ‘ready-made’ by eating plants or the bodies of other animals.

In all plants and animals, food is used as follows:

❖ For growth

It provides the substances needed for making new cells and tissues.

❖ As a source of energy

Energy is required for the chemical reactions that take place in living
organisms to keep them alive.

When food is broken down during ………………………………………………… the energy

from the food is used for chemical reactions such as building complex
molecules.

In animals the energy is also used for activities such as

movement,
the heart beat and
nerve impulses.
Mammals and birds use energy to maintain their body temperature.

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 ❖ For replacement of worn and damaged tissues

The substances provided by food are needed to replace the millions of

our red blood cells that break down each day, to replace the skin that is
worn away and to repair wounds.

Diet
The food an animal eat everyday is called diet.
Most animals need 7 types of nutrients in their
diet:

carbohydrates, proteins, fats + water, fibre,

vitamins, minerals.

❖ Define a balanced diet.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

It must also contain enough protein of the right kind to provide the essential
amino acids to make new cells and tissues for growth or repair.

The diet must also contain vitamins and mineral salts, plant fibre and water.
The composition of four food samples is shown in Figure 7.1.

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The amount of energy needed is provided mainly by our carbohydrate and
fat intake. Your dietary requirements depend on:

age, sex and activity

1. Age:
The energy demand increases until we stop growing. While
children are growing they need more protein per kilogram of body
weight than adults do.

2. Sex/Gender:
Generally, males use up more energy than females.

3. Activity

Some job (Manual work) require more energy than working in office
work.

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From the data given on graph above, explain the differences on energy
requirements.

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Special needs

i) Pregnancy

A pregnant woman who is already receiving an adequate diet needs

no extra food. Her body’s metabolism will adapt to the demands of the
growing baby as well as the demand for energy and protein also increase.

If, however, her diet is deficient in protein, calcium, iron, vitamin D or

folic acid, she will need to increase her intake of these substances to meet
the needs of the baby.

The baby needs

➢ protein for making its tissues,

➢ calcium and vitamin D are needed for bone development, and
➢ Iron is used to make the haemoglobin in its blood.

ii) Lactation

‘Lactation’ means the production of breast milk for feeding the baby. The
production of milk, rich in proteins and minerals, makes a large demand on
the mother’s resources.

If her diet is already adequate, her metabolism will adjust to these

demands.

Otherwise, she may need to increase her intake of proteins, vitamins and
calcium to produce milk of adequate quality and quantity.

iii) Growing children

Most children up to the age of about 12 years need less food than adults,
but they need more in proportion to their body weight.

For example, an adult may need 0.57 g protein per kg body weight, but a 6–
11-month baby needs 1.85 g per kg and a 10-year-old child needs 1.0 g per kg
for growth.

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In addition, children need extra calcium for growing bones, iron for their
red blood cells, vitamin D to help calcify their bones and vitamin A for
disease resistance.

A balanced diet is a diet that contains all the main nutrients in the
correct amounts and proportions to maintain good health.

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 ❖ Malnutrition
- is the result of not eating a balanced diet. There may be:
wrong amount of food: too little or too much
incorrect proportion of main nutrients
lacking in one or more key nutrients

N.B. Malnutrition is often taken to mean simply not getting enough food, but
it has a much wider meaning than this, including getting too much food or the
wrong sort of food.

Effects of malnutrition

1. Obesity - Too much food (carbohydrate, fat or protein)

Is the opposite of starvation.

It is eating too much of every nutrient, especially carbohydrates and fats.

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Obesity doesn’t strike alone, it brings with it several other diseases such as
high blood pressure, cardiac diseases, diabetes, stress on joints and bones
as well as other psychological issues like low self-esteem and lack of
confidence.

To prevent obesity, you have to control your carbohydrates and fats intake
and exercise regularly.

2. Coronary heart disease

Too much saturated/animal fat in the diet results in high cholesterol
levels.
Cholesterol can stick to the walls of arteries, gradually blocking them.
If coronary arteries become blocked, the results can be angina and
coronary heart disease.

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3. Starvation
Too little food can result in starvation.
Extreme slimming diets, such as those that avoid carbohydrate foods,
can result in the disease anorexia nervosa.
Starvation is a severe reduction in vitamin, nutrient and energy intake.

It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged

starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, death.

The term inanition refers to the symptoms and effects of starvation. In

case of starvation the body tends to feed on its own self.

When the glucose level is decreased in the body, the liver breaks down fats
to respire for energy, when the body is out of fats, it starts respiring
proteins from the muscles to release energy.

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 Starvation

4. Childhood protein-energy malnutrition (Kwashiakor)

Wrong proportion of nutrients e.g. too much carbohydrates (starchy foods)

and a lack of protein can lead to Kwashiakor in young children.

Kwashiakor characterized by edema,

anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses.

• Kwashiorkor affects children whose diets are lacking in protein. It

causes weakness and tiredness.

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 • Marasmus

The term ‘marasmus’ is derived from a Greek word, meaning decay. It is

an acute form of malnutrition. The condition is due to a very poor diet
with inadequate carbohydrate intake as well as a lack of protein.

Sufferers are extremely emaciated with reduced fat and muscle tissue.
Their skin is thin and hangs in folds.

Marasmus is distinguished from kwashiorkor because kwashiorkor is due

to lack of protein intake, while energy intake is adequate.

Treatment involves provision of an energy-rich, balanced diet, but the

complications of the disorder, which may include infections and
dehydration, also need attention to increase chances of survival and
recovery.

5. Vitamin, mineral and fiber deficiency diseases - Lacking key nutrients.

Symptoms of scurvy A child with rickets

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Classes of food

There are three classes of food: carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

In addition to proteins, carbohydrates and fats, the diet must include salts,
vitamins, water and vegetable fibre (roughage). These substances are
present in a balanced diet and do not normally have to be taken in separately.

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 ❖ Carbohydrates

Discuss the importance of carbohydrates in the body.

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State the principal sources of carbohydrates.

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 ❖ Fats

Discuss the importance of fats in the body.

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State the principal sources of fats.

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……………………………… …………………………………………… ………………………………………

❖ Proteins

Discuss the importance of proteins in the body.

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State the principal sources of proteins.

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Challenge: Discuss what happens when we take excess proteins in our diets.

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 ❖ Vitamins

Vitamins, are a group of organic substances quite unrelated to each other in

their chemical structure.

The features shared by all vitamins are:

They are not digested or broken down for energy.

Mostly, they are not built into the body structures.
They are essential in small quantities for health.
They are needed for chemical reactions in the cells, working in
association with enzymes.

Vitamin D is the only vitamin that the body can manufacture, when the
skin is exposed to sunlight.

Foods that provide vitamin D include oily fish such as sardines and mackerel,
fish liver oil, butter, milk, cheese and egg-yolk.

Vitamin D helps in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus

through the gut wall. Bone is made of the mineral calcium
phosphate. A lack of the vitamin therefore results in poor
calcium and phosphorus deposition in bones, leading to
softening. The weight of the body can deform bones in the
legs, causing the condition called rickets in children.

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Adults deficient in vitamin D can suffer from osteo-malacia; they are very
vulnerable to fracturing bones if they fall.

❖ Salts

These are sometimes called ‘mineral salts’ or just ‘minerals’.

➢ Iron

Red blood cells contain the pigment haemoglobin. Part of the haemoglobin
molecule contains iron and this plays an important role in carrying oxygen
around the body.

Sources

Red meat, especially liver and kidney, is the richest source of iron in the
diet, but eggs, groundnuts, wholegrains such as brown rice, spinach and other
green vegetables are also important sources.

Deficiency

If the diet is deficient in iron, a person may suffer from some form of
anaemia. Insufficient haemoglobin is made and the oxygen-carrying capacity
of the blood is reduced.

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 ➢ Calcium

Calcium, in the form of calcium phosphate, is deposited in the bones and the
teeth and makes them hard.

It is present in blood plasma and plays an essential part in normal blood

clotting.

Calcium is also needed for the chemical changes that make muscles contract
and for the transmission of nerve impulses.

Sources

The richest sources of calcium are milk (liquid, skimmed or dried) and
cheese, but calcium is present in most foods in small quantities and also in
‘hard’ water

❖ Dietary fibre (roughage)

When we eat vegetables and other fresh plant material, we take in a large
quantity of plant cells.

The cell walls of plants consist mainly of cellulose, but we do not have
enzymes for digesting this substance. The result is that the plant cell walls
reach the large intestine (colon) without being digested.

This undigested part of the diet is called fibre or roughage. The colon
contains many bacteria that can digest some of the substances in the plant
cell walls to form fatty acids.

The fibre itself and the bacteria, which multiply from feeding on it, add bulk
to the contents of the colon and help it to retain water.

This softens the faeces and reduces the time needed for the undigested
residues to pass out of the body. Both effects help to prevent constipation
and keep the colon healthy.

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Sources

Most vegetables and whole cereal grains contain fibre, but white flour and
white bread do not contain much. Good sources of dietary fibre are
vegetables, fruit and whole meal bread.

❖ Water

About 70% of most tissue consists of water; it is an essential part of

cytoplasm. The body fluids, blood, lymph and tissue fluid are composed
mainly of water.

Digested food, salts and vitamins are carried around the body as a watery
solution in the blood and excretory products such as excess salt and urea
are removed from the body in solution by the kidneys

Water thus acts as a solvent and as a transport medium for these

substances

In all cells there are many reactions in which water plays an essential
part as a reactant and a solvent.

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W03p3

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Human alimentary canal
Overview.

Definition of key terms.

1. Ingestion.

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2. Egestion

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3. Digestion.
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 4. Mechanical digestion

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5. Chemical digestion

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6. Absorption
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7. Assimilation

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Challenge.

Differentiate Excretion from Egestion.

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The alimentary canal is a long tube which stars at the mouth, runs through the
stomach and intestines and finishes at the anus. It is part of the digestive system.
The digestive system also includes the accessory organs (teeth, tongue,
gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, the pancreas).

Main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs are:

Mouth, salivary glands

Oesophagus
Stomach
Pancreas, liver, gall bladder
Small intestine (duodenum + ileum)
Large intestine (colon +rectum)
Anus.

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Food is broken down with the help of digestive juices, which contain special
chemicals called enzymes.

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 The figure alongside shows
where each process occurs along
the alimentary canal.

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What happens in each of the parts.

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TASK

Label the following diagram of the Alimentary Canal

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M16P32

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Functions of the regions of the digestive system:

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Common misconceptions

The liver does not make digestive enzymes- bile is not an enzyme. It breaks fat
down into smaller droplets, but does not change them chemically.

The fat molecules stay the same size, it is just the droplet size that changes from
large to small due to the action of bile.

Additional resource: classes.midlandstech.com

1. MOUTH
In the Mouth, both Chemical and Physical digestion occurs.

❖ Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without

chemical change to the food molecules.

Done by the teeth in the mouth.

The cutting and crushing action of the teeth as feeding takes place achieves physical

digestion as well as the rhythmical contractions of the gut and stomach.

Mechanical digestion is the physical process of preparing the food for chemical

digestion.

• It involves chewing (in the mouth), mixing, churning (in the stomach and

intestine) and segmentation (in the intestine).

• Large pieces of food are breaking down into smaller pieces à increases the

surface area of the food.

Mechanical digestion, performed by the teeth à pieces of food are mixed with saliva

and become smaller à easier to swallow and have a larger surface area.

❖ Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small

soluble molecules

It is carried out by Enzymes in the mouth (Salivary Amylase)

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 The Position of Human Teeth
The following diagram shows half the lower and upper jaw of a human:

Using different coloured pencils for each tooth type colour the diagram.

Using the mirror, count the number of each type of tooth that you posses and record

your results in the following table.

Type of tooth Number

Incisor

Canine

Pre-molar

Molar (including wisdom teeth)

Total number of adult human teeth:

Reasons that this number may not be actually present:

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There are four types of teeth in human (incisors, canines, premolars and molars),
each specialised for different funtions.

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 The Types of Human Teeth
Complete the following table:

Diagram Appearance (shape) Function

INCISOR

CANINE

PRE-MOLAR

MOLAR

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 • The process of
mechanical digestion
mainly occurs in the
mouth by means of the
teeth, through a
process called
mastication.

• Our top incisors

pass in front of our
bottom incisors and cut
pieces off the food,
such as when biting
into an apple or taking
a bite out of a piece of
toast.
• Our canines are
more pointed than the
incisors but are not
much larger. They
function like extra
incisors.
• Our premolars and molars are similar in shape and function.
Their knobbly surfaces, called cusps, meet when the jaws are closed, and
crush the food into small pieces. Small particles of food are easier to digest
than large chunks.

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Tooth structure
The part of a tooth that is visible above the gum line is called the crown.

The gum is tissue that overlays the jaws. The rest, embedded in the jaw bone, is
called the root

The surface of the crown is covered by a very hard layer of enamel.This layer is
replaced by cement in the root, which enables the tooth to grip to its bony socket
in the jaw.

Below the enamel is a layer of dentine. Dentine is softer than enamel.

Inside the dentine is a pulp cavity, containing nerves and blood vessels. These
enter the tooth through a small hole at the base of the root.

STRUCTURE OF MOLARS AND PREMOLARS

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STURCTURE OF INCISSORS AND CANINES.

Using the table provided, label the following diagram

Number Structure Function

Pulp Cavity Central space containing nerves and blood supply

Fibres Combine with cement to anchor root to jaw

Crown Part of tooth above the gum

Nerve Sensory endings that respond to join and hot and cold

Enamel Extremely hard material forming sharp points and

edges – dead material

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 Cement Helps attach root to jaw and acts as a shock absorber

Root Part of tooth that lies below the gum

Blood vessels Supply food and oxygen to the living cells of the tooth

Gum Soft tissue surrounding the bone

Jaw Bone that provides the support for the root of the
tooth

Dentine Hard, bone-like material containing living cells

Complete the following paragraph below using the words provided. Each word may
be used more than once or not at all.

Food Molars Snipping Oxygen Cells

Points Enamel Swallowing Nerve Edges
32 Non-living Hard Pulp Front
Canines Diet Bone Fibres

Teeth are designed for breaking down _______________. An adult human has

_______________ teeth. Teeth are covered in _______________ which is

extremely _______________ and _______________ - _______________. It

forms sharp _______________ and _______________. Beneath it lies the

dentine which is hard and _______________ -like and contains living

_______________. These are supplied with _______________ and

_______________ by blood vessels in the _______________ cavity. Incisor

teeth are found at the _______________ of the mouth and are used for cropping

and _______________ at food. The 3 other kinds of teeth found in mammals are

_______________, premolars and _______________.

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Causes of dental decay
Activity

Take a portion of tablet and let it dissolve in your mouth for a few minutes. Using
the mirrors provided, look at your teeth.

What has happened?

What is tooth decay caused by?

What is the substance formed on the surface of teeth called?

How is this substance formed?

What would happen if you did not clean your teeth?

What type of foods are bad for your teeth and why?

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Decay begins when small holes (cavities) appear in the enamel. The cavities
are caused by bacteria on the tooth surface.

The bacteria feed on the sugars deposited on the teeth, respiring them and
producing acid, which dissolves the calcium salts in the tooth enamel. The
enamel is dissolved away in patches, exposing the dentine to the acids.

Dentine is softer than enamel and dissolves more quickly so cavities are
formed. The cavities reduce the distance between the outside of the tooth
and the nerve endings.

The acids produced by the bacteria irritate the nerve endings and cause
toothache. If the cavity is not cleaned and filled by a dentist, the bacteria
will get into the pulp cavity and cause a painful abscess at the root.

Often, the only way to treat this is to have the tooth pulled out.

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Bacteria are present on the surface of our teeth. Food deposits and
bacteria form a layer called plaque.

Bacteria on the plaque feed on sugars, producing acid. This acid dissolves
enamel, forming a hole.

- Dentine underneath the enamel is softer – it dissolves more rapidly.

- If the hole reaches the pulp cavity, bacterial infection can get to the
nerve. This results in toothache and possibly, an abscess (an infection in the
jaw).

Common misconceptions:

Do not say that sugar causes decay. It only causes problems because of the
activity of bacteria feeding on it and producing acids.

Try this

The outer layer of the crown of a tooth is resistant to attack by bacteria

1. Name this outer layer. (1 mark)

……………………………………………………………………………………….
2. State the mineral and the vitamin needed in the diet for the healthy
development of this layer. (2 mark)
…………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………..

3. Explain how bacteria can gain entry through this layer into the tooth and
cause dental decay. (3 mark)

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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DENTAL HYGIENE.

Proper care of teeth

Adding fluoride to public water supplies

Fluoride helps prevent destruction of the tooth surface caused by acids

produced by bacteria.

It forms a reservoir on the teeth from which fluoride is released during

attack.

It reduces the loss of minerals from the tooth and promotes repair of
early tooth decay.

Growing children can absorb fluoride in their diet (from toothpaste of

fluoridated water). It becomes part of the enamel of their developing teeth,
and the enamel; is then more resistant to tooth decay.

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Arguments for and against the addition of fluoride to public water
supplies

For:

• Tooth decay in the local population of children decreases.

• There is no need to buy fluoridated toothpaste.

Against:

• It is form of mass medication – people have no choice about whether

or not they want the treatment.
• Fluoride is a benefit only to growing children – adults do not benefit.
• If people take proper care of their teeth, fluoridation is unnecessary.
• Fluoride may have side effects, such as an increase in risk of bone
cancer (but this is unlikely).

Proper care of teeth

 Avoid sugary food, especially between meals, so bacteria cannot make

acid and clean teeth regularly to remove plaque.
 Use dental floss or a toothpick to remove pieces of food and plaque
trapped between them.

 Use fluoride toothpaste (or drink fluoridated water) – fluoride

hardens tooth enamel.

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  Visit a dentist regularly to make sure and tooth decay is reacted early
and any stubborn plaque (called calculus) is removed.

Common misconceptions
There is a big difference between fluoride and fluorine. Fluorine is a very toxic
gas, while fluoride is a mineral that helps to strengthen teeth. Make sure do not
use the term fluorine in an exam answer about teeth.

M16p42

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CHEMICAL DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH.

Chemical Digestion: beneath the tongue lies a salivary gland which secrets
saliva into the mouth.

This saliva contains water and mucus to lubricate the food bolus and
amylase enzyme that breaks down starch in the food into maltose.

After this the tongue pushes the food bolus into the oesophagus.

NB: Only starch is chemically digested in the mouth because Amylase Enzyme is the only
enzyme produced in the mouth.

2. The Oesophagus
This is a tube that transports the food from the mouth deep into the body to the
stomach.
The food is pushed downwards by the muscles
in the walls of the oesophagus,in wave motion
this process is called Peristalsis.

Muscles contract and relax creating a wavy

motion to push the food down

Peristalsis
 The walls of the alimentary canal have an
inner, circular muscle fibre coat and an
outer, longitudinal muscle fibre coat.

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  As the ball of food (bolus) formed in the mouth enters the pharynx, a reflex
action is initiated.
 This produces slow, wave-like contractions in the walls of the esophagus and
later along the whole length of the tract (peristalsis).
 Peristaltic waves involve the contraction of the circular muscle fibres
behind the bolus (A) and their relaxation in front of the bolus.
 Longitudinal muscles provide the wave-like action. The two functions
together push the ball down the tract.

Misconceptions: Chewing food does not involve breaking down large molecules into
small molecules; it only breaks down large pieces into smaller pieces, giving a larger
surface area for enzymes to work on.

Peristalsis – Moving food through the gut

The gut wall is made up of muscle layers that contract and relax thus enabling food

to move through the gut. This muscular action is called Peristalsis.

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How does fibre in the diet help peristalsis to happen?

Why can humans not digest fibre?

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3. The Stomach:
Here the food stays for a while.

The stomach is a flexible bag that performs both mechanical and chemical
digestion.

Mechanical Digestion: The walls of the stomach contain muscles that

contract and relax together mixing the food with the content of the
stomach and turning it into liquid chyme, this process is called churning.

Chemical Digestion: The walls of the stomach also secretes a liquid called
“Gastric Juice” which contains Hydrochloric acid, Mucus, and pepsin enzyme.

The pepsin enzyme digests proteins into simpler polypeptides, while the
hydrochloric acid is to provide optimum pH for the enzyme and the mucus is
to lubricate the food and protect the walls of the stomach from the acid.

The stomach has elastic walls, which stretch as the food collects in it. The pyloric
sphincter is a circular band of muscle at the lower end of the stomach that stops
solid pieces of food from passing through.

The main function of the stomach is to store the food from a meal, turn it into a
liquid and release it in small quantities at a time to the rest of the alimentary
canal.

Glands in the lining of the stomach produce gastric juice containing the protease
enzyme.

It helps in the process of breaking down large protein molecules into small, soluble
amino acids. The stomach lining also produces hydrochloric acid, which makes a
weak solution in the gastric juice. This acid provides the best degree of acidity for
stomach protease to work in and kills many of the bacteria taken in with the food.

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Which food substrate is digested in the stomach?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

State two functions of Hydrochloric Acid produced in the stomach.

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What special property does the Enzymes produced in the stomach have different
from other enzymes.

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

After a few hours, the sphincter which is a muscular valve opens allowing the food
into the small intestine.

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4. The Small Intestine:
The small intestine is where most digestion and absorption takes place.

It is divided into two sections,

❖ Duodenum and

❖ Ileum.

The walls of the small intestine contain several types of liquids that help in
providing suitable conditions and digest the food.

The small intestines starts from

Duodenum (after the food leaves
stomach) and ends in Ileum (as it
enters the colon).

It’s within the small intestines

where digestion is completed and
absorption takes place.

❖ DUODENUM.
After food leaving the stomach, it is acidic due to Hydrochloric acid
produced in the stomach.

Several secretions join the food at duodenum include:

These liquids are:

 Bile Juice: it comes from the liver, stored in the gall bladder.

It is squirted along the bile duct in the duodenum.

The bile works on fats only. Break fats into small fat droplets (Emulsification)

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Emulsification of fats increase surface area for Enzyme Lipase to break Lipids into
Fatty acids and Glycerol

Fats are very difficult to digest because they are very insoluble, the bile
contains bile salts that breaks fats into tiny droplets that float in the
content of the small intestine, making it easier for the Enzyme lipase to
digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol, this process is called
emulsification.
 Pancreatic Juice: it comes from the pancreas and secreted along the
pancreatic duct.

It contains enzymes and sodium hydrogen

carbonate, which neutralises the
hydrochloric acid that was added to the food
in the stomach, creating better conditions
for the enzymes to work.

The pancreatic juice contains the following

enzymes:

• Amylase to digest starch into Maltose

• Trypsin to digest proteins to polypeptides

• Lipase to digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

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 ❖ILEUM
In the Ileum, there are two processes
which occur.

 The completion of Digestion

 The absorption of digested

materials into the blood.

DIGESTION IN THE ILEUM.

The Ileum itself also secretes a liquid that consists of lots of enzymes to make sure
carbohydrates, fats and proteins are digested to their simplest form, these enzymes are:

For carbohydrates:

• Maltase to digest maltose into glucose + glucose

• Sucrase to digest sucrose into glucose + fructose

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 • Lactase to digest lactose into glucose + galactose

For Fats:

• Lipase to digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol

For proteins:

• Protease for further digestion of polypeptides to amino acids.

All the digestible material is thus changed to soluble compounds, which can pass through
the lining of the intestine and into the bloodstream.

The final products of digestion are:

ABSORPTION IN ILEUM

Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules through the wall of

the intestine into the blood or lymph.

Digestion is completed in the small intestine.

By now, most carbohydrates have been broken down to simple sugar, proteins
to amino acids, and fats to fatty acids and glycerol.

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These molecules are small enough to pass through the wall of the small
intestine and into the blood. This is called absorption. The small intestine is
especially adapted to allow absorption to take place very efficiently.

Absorption in the small intestine takes place in the second section, the
ileum.

The walls of the ileum are fully adapted for absorption. The interior walls of
the ileum is covered with a layer of villi, each villus is covered with another
layer of micro villi.

Each villi has a branch of blood capillaries in it as well as a lacteal which is a

lymph vessel, the lacteal absorbs fats and lipids with vitamins dissolved in
them into the lymphatic system.

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Adaptation of the Ileum to
absorption.

The ileum is efficient in the

absorption of digested food
for the following reasons:

• It is fairly long and presents

a large absorbing surface to
the digested food.

• Its internal surface is greatly

increased by circular folds
bearing thousands of tiny
projections called villi (singular
= villus)

These villi are about 0.5 mm

long and may be finger-like or
flattened in shape.

• The lining epithelium is very

thin and the fluids can pass
rapidly through it. The outer
membrane of each epithelial
cell has microvilli, which
increase by 20 times the
exposed surface of the cell.

• There is a dense network of

blood capillaries (tiny blood
vessels, see ‘Blood and
lymphatic vessels’ in each villus

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Villi and microvilli are adapted to absorption by:

• They give a very large surface area for faster diffusion of food
molecules

• Each villus contains a large network of blood capillaries

transporting more blood, thus faster diffusion

• Each villus is one cell thick, reducing the diffusion distance and
making it faster

Each villi contains a lacteal which absorbs fats.

It has a very rich blood supply.

Digested food molecules are small
enough to pass through the wall of
the intestine into the bloodstream.
Water, mineral salts and vitamins
are also absorbed in the small
instestine.

The small intestine absorbs 5-10

dm3 of water each day.

However, the colon absorbs much

less water and salt than the small
intestine, generally around 0,3–0,5
dm3 per day.

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Significance of Villi

Villi are finger like projections that increase the surface area for
absorption.

If a section of small intestine was turned inside out, its surface would be
like a carpet. Inside each villus are:

- Blood capillaries: absorb amino acids and glucose.

- Lacteals: absorb fatty acids and glycerol.

Food molecules are absorbed:

- mainly by diffusion.

- or by active transport.

Epithelial cells contain mitochondria to provide energy for absorption against

the concentration gradient.

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69
Cholera as a disease of the ileum.
When the Vibrio cholera bacteria are ingested, they multiply in the small
intestine and invade its epithelial cells. As the bacteria become embedded,

They release toxins (poisons) which irritate the intestinal lining and lead to
the secretion of large amounts of water and salts, including chloride ions.

The salts decrease the osmotic potential of the gut contents, drawing more
water from surrounding tissues and blood by osmosis.

This makes the undigested food much more watery, leading to acute
diarrhoea, and the loss of body fluids and salt leads to dehydration and
kidney failure.

Diarrhoea as the loss of watery faeces, can be treated using oral

rehydration therapy (Clean water with salt and sugar)

It involves drinking water with modest amounts of sugar and salts,

specifically sodium and potassium.

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SP4

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 5. The Large Intestine:
By the time the food reaches the large intestine, there is not much left of
it, only some water, minerals, and fibers.

The water and the minerals are absorbed into the blood, while the fibers
and dead cells of the alimentary canal are stored in the rectum then
excreted through the anus (egestion).

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 Assimilation of the Absorbed Food
Molecules
Role of the hepatic portal vein
The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small intestine to
the liver. After a meal, the blood in this vein contains very high
concentrations of glucose and amino acids, as well as vitamins and minerals.

The liver reduces levels backs to normal.

After the food molecules are absorbed from the alimentary canal, it is
transported to the liver by a special blood vessel called The Hepatic Portal
Vein.

The liver is an organ that is considered a gland too. It carries out several
jobs to “sort out” the food molecules it receives. Each type of nutrient has
its own fate in the liver.

Glucose:

✓ When the absorbed glucose reaches the liver, the liver allows as much
as needed by the body to pass to the circulatory system to be used
for respiration or other processes.
✓ The excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver
cells, when the blood is short in glucose, glycogen will be converted
back into glucose and secreted to the blood.
✓ Some glucose will also be converted to fats as an energy reserve.
These functions are controlled by the Insulin and Glucagon hormones
which are made in the pancreas.

Amino Acids:

✓ Some amino acids will be used by the liver cells to make proteins,
the rest will be allowed into the blood stream to be absorbed by
the body cells which also convert it to proteins.

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 ✓ If the body contains enough amino acids, the excess will undergo a
process called Deamination, this involves the breakdown of amino
acids into carbohydrates and amino group, which is then converted
to ammonia then converted into urea, which is part of the waste
product of the body, urine.
 Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the
cells of the body where they are used, becoming part of the cells.

Role of liver in the metabolism of glucose and amino acids

▪ Excess glucose in the blood arriving at the liver is converted into
glycogen (animal starch) for storage, or broken down through
respiration, producing energy for other purposes.

▪ Amino acids cannot be stored in our body, so any that is excess has to
be dealt with in the liver.

- Some amino acids are transaminated to produce a different amino acid.

- The rest are deaminated to produce ammonia (NH3) and a keto acid.

+ NH3 is converted into urea, which is transported to the kidneys and

excreted.

+ The keto acid is used primarily as energy for liver cells

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So Deamination is the removing of nitrogen-containing part of amino acids
to form urea and using of the remainder of amino acid to provide energy to
the liver cells.

Role of liver in the breaking down of alcohol and other toxins

Breaking down any toxins absorbed from the alimentary canal, including
drugs such as alcohol. Cells in the liver are able to convert many toxins to
harmless substances that can be transported in the blood and excreted
from the body.

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Role of fat as an energy storage substance

Fatty acids and glycerol pass into the lymphatic system and then the
bloodstream. Once in the blood nutrients are carried to all cells of the body.
Some are oxidised to produce energy and others are used to repair the cell,
build new cells.

Fat is a good storage compound – it releases twice as much energy as

carbohydrates when respired, and act as insulation in the skin.

Some nerve cells form a myelin sheath from fat, to prevent electrical
impulses from leaking out.

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M17P4

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W17P41

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