ECOSYSTEMS

 Ecology is the study of how (1) living organisms relate

to;(2) the lithosphere(crust and upper mantle ),notably the
parent rock and soil,(3) the biosphere(the parts of the earth
and atmosphere where life exists, notably climatic aspects.
 Collectively,(Ecology,Lithosphere,Biosphere and
Atmosphere) may be called the Ecosphere.
 Climate and soils are inter-related.
 Ecosystem is the study of an area which stresses the
interactions between the organisms and the environment .
 Ecosystems vary in scale from the Sahara Desert to a
hedgerow.
FEATURES OF ECOSYSTEMS
 A. There are four basic components :
 1) abiotic (non-living),e.g. water ,soil
 2)producers (autotrophs),i.e. green plants which can
photosynthesize –use the sun’s energy to make food
from atmospheric carbon dioxide(Co2).
 3)Consumers (heterotrophs),i.e. animals which eat
plants or other animals .
 4)Decomposers-agents of decay like bacteria and
fungi.
 B. Energy from the sun flows through the ecosystem
via food chains and more complex food webs.
 Oak leaf(producer) Hairstreak
Caterpillar(herbivore) Thrush(carnivore)
 Hawk (Carnivore)
 This is a food web.
Part of an Illinois food web
 bear

 wolf
 deer red fox

Bees skunk birds

mice rabbit toad

insect

Blossoms nuts bark leaves blossoms

Oak
 Each step from the plants in a food chain is a trophic
level.
 Usually ,the weight of living material (biomass) in any
ecosystem decreases at each trophic level: the trophic
pyramid.
 This is a result of energy losses between each level, as
mass is converted, and within each level, via heat loss.
C.Nutrients ‘flow 'through
ecosystems in cycles.
 Nitrogen ,oxygen ,water
,phosphorus,calcium,magnesium and carbon dioxide
are conserved in an ecosystem.
 Input and loss are small compared with the volume
which circulates within the system.
 Here is a model of nutrient flow in a forest:
 Tree
 leaf fall herbivores carnivores

 death death

 Mineralisation by
 Soil organisms

 Soil

 Mineral in parent rock

 Jackson and Jackson (1996)referred to the cycling of matter
as bio –element whilst Tivy and O’Hare (1981 )coined the
process bio-geochemical cycling.
 Botkin and Keller (1995) defined the process as 'the
movement or cycling of a chemical element or elements
through the earth’s atmosphere ,hydrosphere, lithosphere
and biosphere’.
 Nutrient cycle is vital in an ecosystem since it is in a
 sine- quanon in any ecological set up.
 It is powered by energy flow and it also guarantees a pool of
resources upon which the ecological balance of any area is
sustained .
 Negative impact occurs when the cycle is disturbed.
a)Nitrogen cycle
 Nitrogen is a very essential element in the constituents of proteins .
 Nitrogen –containing molecules are also found in nucleic acids ,amino
acids ,peptides and vitamins which are essential in building tissues of
several organisms ,including human beings .
 It can also be used in the production of fertilizer such as ammonium
nitrate .
 Nitrogen constitutes approximately 79% of the total atmospheric
gaseous mass.
 However ,in its gaseous state ,it cannot be directly by organisms.
 It has to be fixed so that it can be useful to plants and animals .
 The major flows in the world’s nitrogen cycle were modelled by
Delwichc (1970) who highlighted that the atmosphere is the major
reservoir and any loss of nitrogen to sediments is balanced by grain
from volcanic action and ,indeed ,the nitrogen content of the air may
probably have increased during a pluvial geological time.
The simplified nitrogen cycle
.
Herbivores
eat nitrates
in plants

Plant roots
Animals excrete
build up
nitrogen as
nitrates to
ammonia broken
produce
down by bacteria
protein
into nitrates

Nitrates in the
soil
Nitrogen has to combine with
hydrogen and oxygen before it is
absorbed by plants.
 The main processes involved in the cycle are nitrogen
fixation,ammonification,nitrification,leaching and
denitrification. See diagram above.
 These processes are continuous and very much linked
to each other such that they can never be fully
appreciated in isolation.
Nitrogen fixation
 The main storage pool for nitrogen is the atmosphere.
 The atmospheric nitrogen is transformed to nitrates by
nitrogen –fixing bacteria .
 These bacteria which transform nitrogen compounds are
found in the nodules of leguminous plants such as ground
nuts ,alfalfa, clover ,and beans.
 Blue –green algae can also fix atmospheric nitrogen .
 Some small amounts of nitrogen gas are also fixed through
lighting .
 Free –living bacteria such as clostridium are essential keys
to the cycling of nitrogen.
Ammonification
 This stage involves the decomposition of biological
waste by specialised bacteria and saprophytes .
 The decomposition process results in the release of
ammonium ions and ammonia into the atmosphere
where they are either altered to molecular nitrogen or
dissolved in rain.
 Ammonia can also be emitted from metabolic
activities such as animal excretion and urinary wastes.
Nitrification
 This is a two –stage process which involves the change of
ammonia into nitrates which can be absorbed by plants.
 Below is the chemical equation for the two stages;
 Stage 1: NH3 NO2
 (N3-N3)
 (Ammonia ) (Nitrogen dioxide)
 (N3 +NO2) N2 H2D2

 Stage2: 2NO2 NO2

 2NO3 N2)
 (Nitrite+Oxygen) (Nitrate)
 The first stage involves the oxidation of ammonia to nitrates .
 This is mainly done by the bacteria of the genera nitrosomonas.
 The second stage involves the oxidation of nitrites to nitrates
which are soluble in water and can easily be absorbed by plants
to form organic nitrogen molecules necessary for plant life .
 This is facilitated by aerobic bacteria called nitrobacter .
 Some of these nitrogen –containing molecules are transferred to
plant –eating animals and eventually to the animals that feed on
them ,whilst some of the soluble nitrates are leached and
subsequently end up in water reservoirs where they may be taken
up by aquatic plants.
 Nitrogen fixation is an aerobic process which requires a ready
supply of oxygen.
Detrification
 This is the reverse of nitrification whereby nitrates are
reduced to molecular nitrogen and nitrous oxide under the
influence of denitrifying bacteria which operate under
anaerobic conditions.
 These bacteria help in the return of nitrogen to the
atmospheric pool to restart the cycle again.

 Basically the cycle is characterised by the entering of

nitrogen into the ecosystem by way of processes such as
precipitation and nitrogen fixation whilst detrification
transforms and transfers nitrogen in gaseous form to the
atmospheric pool.
Carbon Cycle
 Carbon cycle is generally regarded as the basic
building of material of the large organic molecules
necessary for life.
 Even if it constitutes about 1% of the planet ,carbon
plays a fundamental role in the sustenance of plants
,animals and micro-organisms .
 In the atmosphere ,carbon dioxide only constitutes
0,03% yet its role in regulating atmospheric
temperature is highly important.
 The carbon cycle involves the alternating of carbon
elements between the organic and inorganic components.
 The organic components comprise living matter such as
plants and their remains (fossils) whilst the inorganic
matter is mainly lithospheric materials such as soils and
carbon containing rocks such as carbonates.
 The cycle is powered by energy flow and has reservoirs
from which carbon compounds are taken ,transformed,
circulated and re-channelled back to the reservoirs to
complete the cycle.
 The cycle is continuous and takes two forms ,that is ,the
gaseous cycle and the sedimentary cycle.
CARBON CYCLE (Gaseous)
.
Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide

Respiration ,burning etc produce carbon

dioxide
 The gaseous cycle is characterised by the direct process of
photosynthesis and respiration .
 During photosynthesis ,plants make use of carbon dioxide which
will be rechanneled back to the atmospheric pool through
respiration.
 Carbon dioxide gas can also be released in gaseous form through
the process of volcanic eruptions, industrial emissions as well as
vehicle emissions.
 Under anaerobic conditions ,some bacteria can transform carbon
dioxide and organic carbon into methane during the process of
methanogenesis as highlighted by Audesirk and Audesirk(1966).
 When methane is then burnt ,it releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere to complete the cycle.
 In the sedimentary cycle ,carbon is locked up in organic compounds
such as coal and other carbon containing rocks.
 This carbon will be released during the process of weathering or when
the organic components such as fossil fuel are burnt .
 Geo-tectonic movements are also very essential in the carbon cycle .
 During these movements ,calcareous rocks are crushed and in the
process carbon dioxide escapes into the atmospheric carbon pool.
 Closely linked to the carbon cycle is the OXYGEN CYCLE which
assumes the same parthway but on a reverse situation .
 Basically the cycle revolves around three pools ,that is the 1)Biological
pool(organisms ),2)Soil carbon pool which is relatively stable and the
3)Geochemical pool comprising rocks and fossil fuels.
Gerschmel Compartment Model
 The model propounded by Gerschmel in 1976.
 It illustrates the transfer of nutrients between the biomass
store ,litter store and the soil store .
 Gerschmel used circles and arrows to show the transfers
from the stores .
 The sizes of circles correspond to the quantity of nutrients
store ,such that the bigger the cycle the quantity .
 Arrow thickness shows the amount being transferred to
and from the nutrient store.
 The diagram shows a simplified form of the compartment
model.
Gerschmel compartment model
INPUT from rains input from the sun& air
leaf fall
BIOMASS
LITTER

Loss by run-off decomposing litter

SOIL

Loss by leaching input from weathering

 The storage compartments have inputs and outputs
in-between which are processes that link the
compartments.
 All the ‘biomes’ nutrient cycling can be illustrated
through this model
D.Controls on ecosystems
 (i)Climatic
 (a) Light is an energy source ,but too much light can
damage plant tissues .
 Intensity and quality (wavelength) help to determine
the type of plants which grow ,e.g. .heliophtes(light –
lovers) or sciophtes(shade-lovers).
 Light intensity can vary greatly within an ecosystem
b) Temperature:
 Tropical plants cannot stand temperatures below
15˚C;temperate plants usually fail below -2˚C.
 Warm-blooded animals can be more independent of
temperatures(using insulating fur, shivering and
sweating ,for example) than can cold blooded species.
c)WATER is vital to life. In plants:
 Xerophytes are adapted to arid conditions.
 Halophytes tolerate saline conditions.
 Hydrophytes live entirely underwater.
 *Trees require more rainfall than grasses.
 (ii)Topographic(relief) influences include:
 -temperature fall with altitude
 -relative humidity and altitude
 -aspect and insolation
(iii) Edaphic factors are those to do
with soil. The major control is the
pH-acidity or alkalinity –of the soil
 (iv)Biotic factors
 Man is the most important biotic factor .
 Among his activities ,farming ,the burning of
vegetation,hunting,industrialisation and urbanization
are the major causes of obliterated or polluted habitats
Large ecosystems
 *Climax vegetation is the final stage of the natural
process of succession in a plant community.
 It is in equilibrium and consumption in its ecology.
 Sub-climax vegetation occurs when a plant
community has been prevented from reaching true
climax by natural or man-made factors .
 Unless you are specialising in world ecosystems, you
should find that a knowledge of the following
ecosystems is sufficient:
a)Coniferous forest
 B)tropical rain forest
 C)temperate grasslands
 D)tropical savanna
 E)semi-deserts
A)Coniferous(boreal)forest
 (i)Winter ,-15˚C;short summer ,18˚C;precipitation
mainly snow ,600mm.
 (ii)Few species dominate ;
 -Europe :pine and spruce varieties.
 -Asia :fir and ,spruce ,pine ,tamarack.
 Pure stands (vegetational areas of single species ) are
common .
 Little undergrowth.
(iii)Trees are evergreen.
 Leaves are needle –shaped, restricting surface area and
preventing moisture loss by transpiration .
 Soils lack nutrients because of leaching ,and are acid
:only the conifers can stand these conditions.
 (iV) Conifers alone can tolerate acid podzols.
 Seeds can withstand forest fires .
 Evergreen cover restricts light and therefore
undergrowth.
(v) (a) Lumbering .Overcutting
prevalent in U.S.S.R. 10million
hectares(ha) of the cutting
between 1950 and 1960 has not
regrown

 (b)Fire (U.S.S.R.:18 million ha of taiga now flooded).

 high latitude

 Low insolation slow turnover times

 of nutrient cycles(42
 years ,U.S.S.R)

 Low primary productivity

 Small amount of animal biomass ,lacking

diversity(carnivores scarce)
B)Tropical rain forest
 (i)Over 25˚C throughout the year ,rainfall>1,500mm,evenly
distributed,r,h.high .
 Seasonal contracts minimal ,but microclimates very diverse ,light
intensity varies greatly above and below capacity, therefore sciophtes at
ground level.
 (ii) Three layers:
 A-50m plus ,scattered.
 B-30m continuos canopy
 C-8m understorey layer .
 Broad –leaved ,evergreen trees ,thin barked .
 Epiphytes (living on, but not parasites of, trees),parasitic (vines).
 Little undergrowth.
 Profusion of flora and fauna .
 African forests poorer than Indo-Malayan and Latin American
(iii) ’A’ layer gains light from extra
height .
 Leathery leaves protect leaf structure from fierce insolation ,reduce
transpiration losses.
 Drip-tips enable speedier leaf drying –wet leaves cannot
photosynthesize .
 Lianas gain height and light by climbing .
 Epiphytes trap leaf litter and re-use nutrients therein.
 Mammals tend to be tree-dwellers.
 Birds and insects very numerous ,ground –dwellers less frequent.
 (iv)Saplings can grow extremely slowly for years until a tree falls ,then
growth is meteoric.
 Nutrients held in roots –leaching proof.
 (v)Lumbering or agricultural clearances .
 Lack of nutrient cycle can be broken and soils become infertile .
 Less demanding ,xerophytic species dominate secondary jungle.
 carnivores

 herbivores death

 Plant growth

 photosynthesis leaf fall epiphytes

 A.B.C Layers

 Decomposers :insects,bacteria,fungi
 Nutrient uptake
 From soil
 (vii) Laterization ,but only on non-acid parent rock .
 Desalination widespread.
 (viii)Shifting cultivation .
 Lumbering –all Indonesian rain forest now cleared and
cold .
 Agricultural clearance .
 Brazilian rain-forest clearances for pastoralism.Result of
clearances: lack of cover soil erosion silting up of rivers
,irrigation canals flooding destruction of short
–stemmed, high –yield crops of the ‘Green Revolution”.
C.Temperate grasslands
 (i) Precipitation varies :250-1,000mm,summer
maximum; winter -5˚C,summer 25˚C.
 (ii)The grass type and height vary with rainfall,e.g.U.S
.prairies ,wetter areas :bluestem grass 1m high ;drier
areas :buffalo grass , bunch grass 20cm high .
 Rare trees –willows ,poplars –occur along
watercourses.
 Small mammals (gophers ,shrews)have few predators .
 Birds abundant.
(iii)Grasses can remain dormant in
cold winter, resist fire (below),need
less rain.
(iv)Temperate grasslands probably do not represent a
climatic climax since they have everywhere been
altered by man .
(v)Fires have encouraged the growth of fire –resistant
species( grass, with the majority of roots below ground
,can withstand fire well).
Grazing has modified rather than replaced vegetation.
 Few carnivores,eg.coyote

DEATH
 Small mammals(herbivores) birds DEATH

 insects

 Grassland

 humus
decomposers

 Calcium in soil
(vii)The intensive root-networks
decay into humus implanted into
the soil by the vegetation.
 Soils are deeply fertile ,with a fine crumb structure
between the roots ,and are pervious-thus well-
draining.
 The two soil types associated with temperate
grasslands are chernozems and prairie soils: they are
not the same.
Contrasts between chernozem
and prairie soils
CHERNOZEM PRAIRE SOIL
Dominant process calcification Leaching of
calcium(wetter climate)
Humus content Very high Very high
colour Dark brown-black brown
pH basic Slightly acid
Other Calcium nodules No calcium deposits
(viii)Perhaps 40%of temperature
grasslands are not natural, but
occur by clearances and /or fire
 The boundaries of this ecosystem do not correlate with
climate ,suggesting another casual factor :man .Major
changes have been destruction of bison; over-cropping
leading to soil erosion ,gullying ,dust bowls
D.Tropical savanna
 (i)Temperatures usually above 25˚C,but there is no climatic type linked
closely with savannas.
 (ii)Grasses (elephant grass),sedges (marsh grass),thorny or drought –resistant
trees ,e.g. Acacia.
 Varieties of savanna include :
 (a)high grass (4m)-low trees (Africa)
 (b)acacia –tall grass (Africa ,Australia=eucalyptus)
 (c)Wet savanna associated with water logging ,e.g.. Brazilian Ilanos.
 Herbivores abundant and varied ,therefore wide variety of carnivores.
 (iii)Thorny trees resist excess transpiration and grazing animals.
 Grass-land can be dormant during drought .
 (iv)Savanna is probably not a climatic climax type ,so great have been the
modification by man .
 Fire –resistant trees dominate.
 (v)Burning and grazing.
(vi)LOW BIOMASS
 Carnivores(e .g. lion)

 birds
DEATH

 Herbivores(e .g. zebra, gazelle)

 insects

 Grass ,sedges, woody shrubs

 decomposers
(vii)No dominant soil type
associated with savanna.
 (viii)Savanna thought to be man-made
E.Semi -deserts
 (i)Rainfall 360 mm.Temperatures vary ;we will consider hot (25˚C plus)areas.
 (ii) Succulents,e.g.cacti;low shrub, ephemeral(short-lived)grasses.
 (iii)Succulents store water ,spring leaves cut down transpiration losses.
 Ephemerals have short life cycles which will be initiated by rare precipitation.
 Gourds have extensive dry root systems .
 Creosote bush can withstand extreme aridity and high temperatures.
 Insects ,reptiles (rattlesnake),mammals(pigmy rabbit),birds(road runner) are
all adapted to drought
 (iv)The types above are the only vegetation which can stand the heat and
aridity ,i.e. Xerophytic vegetation.
 (v) Irrigation: provides food sources without predators –locust plagues are one
result.
 (vi)This is an extremely fragile ecosystem ,and links are not so close between
plants because they are so scattered.
 (viii) Irrigation: Radioactive testing in American deserts 1945-60.
SMALL SCALE ECOSYSTEMS
 Plant Succession is the idea of a climax vegetation that
shows a succession, or ordely sequence ,of
communities, from earlies colonization to the climax.
 There is ;(a( floristic (plant)succession; and (b)
faunistic succession( a sequence of animal
communities ),but the second is very much controlled
by the first.
The succession on a bare rock
surface in middle latitudes.
 1)(a) Pioneer flora(plants) are lichens.
 (b)Pioneer fauna(animal) only ants ,mites and spiders can live
here.
 2)(a)Acids from lichens break down rock .
 Small accumulations of dust moss patches.
 (b)Small spiders, spring –tails.
 3)(a)Soil accumulates in moss mats. Isolated grasses spread.
 B)Worms ,grubs (larval insects).
 4)(a)Small tree seedlings appear.
 (b)Small mammals ,birds, reptiles.
 5)(a) Trees emerge .
 (b) Food web now complex and complete.
Plant Succession
 This is the sequential change in a plant community
as it moves towards a seral climax(.Nagle & Spencer
2000)
 The stages in a plant community is know as seres or
seral stages.
 Plant succession is grouped into two stages 1)primary
and 2) secondary succession.
Primary succession ( Prisere)
 Primary succession takes various forms ,some of
which are:

 1.LITHOSERE.
 2.PSAMMOSERE.
 3.HALOSERE.
 4.HYDROSERE.
1) Lithosere
 This takes place on bare rocks which could be a result of
volcanic eruption.
 Pioneer species are 1)Blue-green algae,2)Bacteria and
3)Single-celled photosythesisers .
 These pioneer species do not have their own root systems.
 .Lichens and mosses form the pioneer community
because they can survive in harsh environments without
deeply –weathered soils(bare rocks).
 These pioneer species create substrate conditions for the
invasion by more-developed communities which will
eliminate the procedings species.
-First seral(sere) Seral Succession Climax
Vegetation is attained.
2) Psammosere
 It takes place on sand surfaces e.g.1)Beaches
and2)Sand dunes.
 First colonisers are 1)sea couch,2) hyme grass and
3)sand –tolerant fugitive species.
 First seral Succeeding seral communities
 Climax vegetation stage.
 It is basic to note that most preceding plant
communities are suicidal since they create
conditions which will lead to their elimination.
3.Halosere
 It takes place in 1) saline water and 2) salty marshes.
 Pioneer plants/First colonisers are green algae.
 Green algae survives under submerged and saline
conditions.
 Pioneer plants are typically halophytes which accept
saline conditions.
 It is essential to accentuate that in all forms of
primary succession, the initial plant communities will
create and modify the environment for the
upcoming seral stages until climax level is achieved.
4) Hydrosere
 Plant succession occurs in fresh water.
 The pioneer communities are 1)algae and 2)mosses .
 They transferred to water surfaces by wind.
 Pioneer/First seral communities will also modify the
environment to take room for more advanced species
such as reeds and bulrush which are naturally
water-loving.
 The continued succession by more complex species
will finally lead to shrinking and subsequent
dying of the water body to give room for the
final seral climax stage which is usually OAK
vegetation.

Secondary succession (Sub sere)
 It occurs on areas formerly established by plant
communities which have been disturbed or destroyed by
1)Natural Disasters and 2)Human beings.
 Abandoned farmlands are quite vulnerable to fast plant
recolonisation until climax vegetation.

 *Plant succession occurs over a long period of time e.g.

Krakatau(50 years).
 Usually ,it takes 500years for a deforested area to
regenerate to its climax vegetation.
 Read case studies in D Waugh .
A woodland ecosystem.
 Nutrient cycles similar to those in the following diagram
occur for iron,copper,sodium ,phosphorus and zinc.
 Calcium is stored at some points in the cycle((S) =storage).
 Most Oakwood soils are in the brown forest zone: dark
humus-rich .
 The A Layer is freely draining but not strongly leached .
 The B horizon is not distinct .
 Soils are neutral or slightly acid .
 Soil variation-more acid on sandstones, with some
podzolisation on grit stones ,sands and gravels.
The calcium cycle in an oak forest
(after Simmons)
 precipitation(2%)
 insects(1%)

 (S)Leaf litter(11%)
 Fruit(0,004%)
 Flowers(0,004%) Shrub Litter(7%)(s)

(37%)Root uptake (21%)Decomposition (0,6%)Leaching loss

(S)

Soil(s)

Weathering(17%) Ground-water loss(6%)


Heathland and dune colonisation
and ecology are also sometimes
examined.
 A major clash of interests occured in the Cooloola Dune
area of the Queensland Coast.
 This area is the home of many rare species ,in a complex
ecosystem ,and there are majestic cliffs of coloured sand .
 These sands contain rutile ,zinc ,ilmenite and monazite
,which mining companies wished to extract .
 It took 11years of action by conservationist groups to ensure
the safety of Cooloola Dunes by having the area zoned as
wilderness ,with legal constraints upon mining and
forestry.
CONCEPT OF CLIMAX VEGETATION
 This is a mature stage in plant succession when plant species are in a
state of dynamic equilibrium with the environment.
 A balance between the biotic and abiotic components will have been
attained .
 No major changes will be taking place other than the death of senile
plants and their sudden replacement by the next generation of the
same community.
 Pryde(1972) referred to it as the steady state between the plant cover
and the physical environment .
 At times ,the term ‘climatic climax vegetation’ is used to suggest the
predominant role of climate in determining the nature of plant
communities .
 However, the term ‘Climatic climax’ has been criticised as it negates the
influence of other factors such as soil in plant development.
Plagioclimax Vegetation.
 Plagioclimax vegetation is also another feature of the ecosystem.
 It refers to a state where plant communities are permanently affected by man
such that they will be hindered from attaining natural climax state .
 The main reason for plagioclimax vegetation is agricultural activities and other
economic activities such as lumbering .
 This implies that most of agro-ecosystems are characterised by plagioclimax
communities which do not have opportunities to fully develop to climax levels.
 The savanna grasslands clearly exhibit plagioclimax state ,since grazing and
cultivation have disturbed the progression towards climax vegetation.
 Stability of climax several stages can also be disturbed by changes in climatic
and physical conditions .
 Once these changes have taken place ,plant communities will have to adjust
to the new state .
 Generally ,most of the forests which are called natural today could have at
one stage been disrupted by humans or natural activities.
CHURCHILL HIGH SCHOOL
KELVIN TREVOR MAKOMEKE
GEOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT
2016