Introduction to Operating System, Definition

Types, Functions
Abstract view of OS , System Structures
System Calls, Virtual Machines
Process Concepts
Threads , Multithreading

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer

hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like
file management, memory management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
  Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory.
Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its
own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For
a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does
the following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when
and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.

Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the
processor when and for how much time. This function is called process
scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for processor
management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible
for this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It
does the following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
  Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities
are often known as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
 Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for
a service and response from the system.
 Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs
and users.
 Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and
other debugging and error detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep
evolving with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of
operating systems which are most commonly used.

Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to
the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are
batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with
the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into
batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than
the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing operating systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or
multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is
shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing
Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to
maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to
minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches
occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For
example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in
a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each
user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response
time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each
user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily
as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.

Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication
lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely
coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may
vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers,
and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.
 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the
capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to
allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network,
typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and
BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the
environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of
required updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method,
the response time is very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a
control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have
well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example,
Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-
time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in
ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over
other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality,
Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

 It provides programs an environment to execute.

 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient
manner.
Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

 Program execution
 I/O operations
 File System manipulation
 Communication
 Error Detection
 Resource Allocation
 Protection

Program execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system
programs like printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities
is encapsulated as a process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to
manipulate, registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to program management −

 Loads a program into memory.

 Executes the program.
 Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
  Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.

I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software.
Drivers hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.
An Operating System manages the communication between user and device
drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O
device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when
required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the
disk (secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage
media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD.
Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate
and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage.
These directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major
activities of an operating system with respect to file management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on
file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete
directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share
memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages
communications between all the processes. Multiple processes communicate with
one another through communication lines in the network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention
and security. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect
to communication −
  Two processes often require data to be transferred between them
 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but
are connected through a computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared
Memory or by Message Passing.

Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices
or in the memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to error handling −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent
computing.

Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory,
CPU cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are
the major activities of an operating system with respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of
multiple processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's
activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs,
processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are
the major activities of an operating system with respect to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access
attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of
passwords.

Batch processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the
programs and data together in a batch before processing starts. An operating
system does the following activities related to batch processing −
  The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands,
programs and data as a single unit.
 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any
manual information.
 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served
fashion.
 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for
the job gets copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.

Advantages
 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
 Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job
is finished, without any manual intervention.
Disadvantages

 Difficult to debug program.

 A job could enter an infinite loop.
 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.

Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by
switching between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact
with each program while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to
multitasking −
 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly,
and receives an immediate response.
 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple
operations/executes multiple programs at a time.
 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
  These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a
computer system at a reasonable cost.
 A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and
multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared
CPU.
 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred

to as a process.
 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time
before it either finishes or needs to perform I/O.
 Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time
to complete. During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
 The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously.
Since each action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short,
only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
 As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each
user is given the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas
actually one CPU is being shared among many users.

Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same
time, is referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single
shared processor. Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs
so that the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the
memory.
 Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs
and system resources using memory management programs to ensures that
the CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantages

 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

Disadvantages

 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An
Operating system does the following activities related to interactivity −

 Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

 Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
 Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.
The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits
for the result.

Real Time System

Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system
does the following activities related to real-time system activity.

 In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
 The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of
time to ensure correct performance.

Distributed Environment
A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a
computer system. An operating system does the following activities related to
distributed environment −
 The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.
 The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has
its own local memory.
 The OS manages the communications between the processors. They
communicate with each other through various communication lines.

Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling
refers to putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in
memory or hard disk which is accessible to I/O devices.
An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment
−
 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access
rates.
 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can
rest while the slower device catches up.
 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer
can perform I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer
read data from a tape, write data to disk and to write out to a tape printer
while it is doing its computing task.
Advantages

 The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

 Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor
operations for another job.

Process
A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must
progress in a sequential fashion.
A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented
in the system.

To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we
execute this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned
in the program.
When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be
divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a
simplified layout of a process inside main memory −
S.N. Component & Description

1
Stack
The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function
parameters, return address and local variables.

2
Heap
This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.

3
Text
This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter and
the contents of the processor's registers.

4
Data
This section contains the global and static variables.

Program
A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or millions of lines. A
computer program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming
language. For example, here is a simple program written in C programming
language −
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}
A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task
when executed by a computer. When we compare a program with a process, we
can conclude that a process is a dynamic instance of a computer program.
A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as
an algorithm. A collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are
referred to as a software.

Process Life Cycle

When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may
differ in different operating systems, and the names of these states are also not
standardized.
In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a time.

S.N. State & Description

1
Start
This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.

2
Ready
The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting
to have the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can
run. Process may come into this state after Start state or while running it by but
interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.

3
Running
Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the
process state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.

4
Waiting
Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as
waiting for user input, or waiting for a file to become available.
5
Terminated or Exit
Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating system,
it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.

Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for
every process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps
all the information needed to keep track of a process as listed below in the table −

S.N. Information & Description

1
Process State
The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or
whatever.

2
Process privileges
This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.

3
Process ID
Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.

4
Pointer
A pointer to parent process.

5
Program Counter
Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be executed
 for this process.

6
CPU registers
Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for running
state.

7
CPU Scheduling Information
Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule the
process.

8
Memory management information
This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table
depending on memory used by the operating system.

9
Accounting information
This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits, execution
ID etc.

10
IO status information
This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.

The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may

contain different information in different operating systems. Here is a simplified
diagram of a PCB −
The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is deleted once the
process terminates.