Data and Digital Communication

Information Theory

History of Data Communication

Digital Communication – Information Theory

Information is the source of a communication system, whether is analog or digital.

Information Theory is a mathematical approach to the study of coding of information along woth the quantification,
storage, and communication of information.

Conditions of Occurrence of Events.

If we consider an event, there are three conditions of occurrence.

• If the event has not occurred, there is a condition of uncertainty.

• If the event has just occurred, there is a condition of surprise.
• If the event has occurred, a time back, there is a condition of having some information.

These three events occur at different times. The difference in these conditions help us gain knowledge on the
probabilities of the occurrence of events.

Classical Information Theory

Shannon’s Communication Model

As the underpinning of his theory, Shannon developed a very simple, abstract model of communication, as shown in the
figure. Because his model abstract, it applies in many situations, which contributes to its broad scope and power.

Shannon’s communication model

Consider a simple telephone conversation: A person

(message source) speaks into a telephone receiver
(encoder), which converts the sound of the spoken work
into an electrical signal. This electrical signal is the
transmitted over telephone lines(channel) subject to
interference (noise). When the signal reaches the telephone
receiver (decoder) at the other end of the line it is
converted back into vocal sounds. Finally, the recipient
(message receiver) hears the original message.

The first component of the model, the message source, is simply the entity that originally creates the message. often the
message sourcce is a human, but in Shannon’s model it could also be an animal, a computer, or some other inanimate
object.

The encoder is the object that connects the message to the actual physical signals that are being sent.

For example, there are several ways to apply this model to two people having a telephone conversation. On one level,
the actual speech produced by one person can be considered the message, and telephone, mouthpiece and its
associated electronics can be considered the encoder, which converts the speech into electrical signals that along the
telephone network.

Alternately, one can consider the speaker’s mind as the message source and the combination of the speaker’s brain,
vocal system, and telephone mouthpiece as the encoder. However, the inclusion of “mind” introduces complex semantic
problems to any analysis and is generally avoided except for the application of information theory to physiology.

The channel is the medium that carries the message. the channel might be wires, the air or space in the case of radio
and television transmissions, or fiber-optic cable. In the case of a signal produced simply by banging on the plumbing,
the channel might be the pipe that receives the blow. The beauty of habing an abstract model is that it permits the
inclusion of a wide variety of channels.

Noise is anything that interferes with the transmission of a signal. In telephone conversations interference might be
caused by static in the line, cross talk from another line, or background sounds. Signals transmitted optically through the
air might suffer interference from clouds or excessice humidity. Clearly, sources of noise depend upon the particular
communication system. A single system may have several sources of noise, but, if all of these separate sources are
understood, it will sometimes be possible to treat them as a single source.

The decoder is the object that converts the signal, as received, into a form that the message receiver can comprehend. In
the case of the telephone, the decoder could be the earpiece and its electronic circuits. Depending upon perspective, the
decoder could also include the listener’s entire hearing system.

The message receiver is the object that gets the message. it could be a person, an animal, or a computer or some other
inanimate object.

Shannon’s theory deals primarily with the encoder, channel noise source, and decoder. As noted above, the focus of
the theory is on signals and how they can be transmitted accurately and efficiently; questions of meaning are avoided
as much as possible.

There are two fundamentally different ways to transmit messages:

Via discrete signals and via continuous signals.

Discrete signals can represent only a finite a number of different, recognizable states. For example, the letters of the
English alphabet are commonly thought of a discrete signals.

Continuous signals, also known as analog signals, are commonly used to transmit quantities that can vary over an infinite
set of values-sound is a typical example.

However, such continuous quantities can be approximated by discrete signals- for instance, on a digital compact disc or
through a digital telecommunication system-by increasing the number of distinct discrete values available until any
inaccuracy in the description falls below the level of perception or interest.

All told, there are four cases to consider:

• discrete, noiseless communication;

• discrete, noisy communication;
• continuous, noiseless communication; and
• continuous, noisy communication.

It is easier to analyze the discrete cases than the continuous cases; likewise, the noiseless cases are simpler than the
noisy cases. Therefore, the discrete, noiseless case will be considered first in some detail, followed by an indication of
how the other cases differ.

DATA CABLING SERVICES

Data Communications - History to present

Data communication, the transmission of information across distances, has undergone a remarkable evolution over the
years.

From ancient civilizations using smoke signals to the modern era of lightning-fast internet connections, the journey of
data communication is a testament to human innovation.

This lecture explores the key milestones in the history of data communication up until 2023, tracing the development of
technologies and protocols that have revolutionized the way we exchange information.

1. Early Forms Of Communication

The history of data communication dates back to ancient times when humans devised various means to convey
information. Early civilizations used smoke signals, drumbeats, and visual symbols to communicate over long distances.
The invention of writing systems, such as cuneiform and hieroglyphics, enabled the transmission of data through written
records.

2. The Telegraph

The 19th century marked a significant breakthrough with the invention of the electric telegraph by Samuel Morse and
Alfred Vail. The telegraph revolutionized communication by enabling the transmission of coded messages over long
distances through electrical signals. Morse code, a system of dots and dashes, represented letters and numbers,
facilitating rapid communication.
 3. The Telephone

The late 19th century witnessed the birth of the telephone, a device that transformed data communication by allowing
voice transmission. Alexander Graham Bell's invention ushered in a new era of real-time communication, enabling
people to converse over long distances. Initially, telephones relied on analog signals carried over copper wires.

4. The Rise Of Radio

The early 20th century saw the emergence of wireless communication with the invention of radio. Pioneers like
Guglielmo Marconi developed methods to transmit and receive radio waves, enabling long-distance communication
without physical wires. Radio broadcasting gained popularity, becoming a primary medium for disseminating information
and entertainment.

5. The Internet And Packet Switching

The birth of the internet in the late 20th century revolutionized data communication on a global scale. The concept of
packet switching, developed by Paul Baran and Leonard Kleinrock, allowed data to be broken into small packets and
routed independently across a network. This decentralized approach increased the efficiency and robustness of data
transmission.

6. ARPANET And The Birth Of The Internet

In the 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was established by the U.S. Department of
Defense, connecting computers at various research institutions. ARPANET laid the foundation for the internet by
implementing key protocols like TCP/IP, ensuring reliable data transfer between different networks.

7. Commercialization And The World Wide Web

The 1990s witnessed the commercialization of the internet and the advent of the World Wide Web (WWW) by Sir Tim
Berners-Lee. The WWW introduced a user-friendly interface for accessing and sharing information globally. Web
browsers like Mosaic and later Netscape Navigator made the internet more accessible to the general public.

8. Broadband And Mobile Communication

The early 21st century witnessed the proliferation of broadband internet connections, offering higher speeds and
increased data capacity. This enabled seamless streaming, file sharing, and online collaboration. Mobile communication
also advanced rapidly, with the introduction of smartphones and wireless networks like 3G, 4G, and eventually 5G,
providing ubiquitous access to data services.

9. Cloud Computing and Big Data

The development of cloud computing technologies in the 2000s revolutionized data storage and processing. Cloud
platforms like Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure offered scalable and on-demand computing resources,
enabling businesses and individuals to store and access vast amounts of data remotely.

10. The Internet Of Things (IoT) and Data Security

The proliferation of internet-connected devices in the 21st century gave rise to the Internet of Things (IoT), where
everyday objects could communicate and exchange data. However, this connectivity also brought new challenges, such
as data security and privacy concerns. The development of encryption algorithms and security protocols aimed to
safeguard sensitive information.

The history of data communication is a testament to human ingenuity and the constant quest for efficient and reliable
information exchange.

From ancient smoke signals to the modern internet, each technological advancement has shaped the way we
communicate and interact globally.

As we move forward, emerging technologies like 5G, artificial intelligence, and blockchain hold the potential to further
transform data communication, ushering in a new era of connectivity and innovation.