anatomy and physiology lab transes

BLOOD
THE ONLY FLUID TISSUE IN THE HUMAN
BODY

 Classified as a connective tissue

 Components of blood
Living cells
Formed elements
 Non-living matrix
- Plasma PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
BLOOD
IF BLOOD IS CENTRIFUGED:
COLOR RANGE
Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45 percent of blood,
a percentage known as the hematocrit)
Oxygen-rich blood Oxygen-poor blood
Buffy coat contains leukocytes and platelets (less than
scarlet red dull red
1 percent of blood)
 pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
- Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer between
 Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
the erythrocytes and plasma
temperature at 100.4°F
Plasma rises to the top (55 percent of blood)  In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5–6 liters or
about 6 quarts
 Blood makes up 8 percent of body weight

BLOOD PLASMA
 Composed of approximately 90 percent water

Includes many dissolved substances:

- Nutrients
Sugar, amino acids, lipids, vitamins
- Salts (electrolytes)
- Respiratory gases
- Hormones
- Plasma proteins
- Waste products

PLASMA PROTEINS

 Most abundant solutes in plasma

 Most plasma proteins are made by liver
 Various plasma proteins include:
 Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
 Clotting proteins – help stem blood loss when
a blood vessel is injured
 Anti-bodies – help protect the body from
pathogens
 Acidosis – blood becomes to acidic
 Alkalosis – blood becomes too basic

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 In each scenario, the respiratory system and
kidneys help restore blood pH to normal

FORMED ELEMENTS

ERYTHROCYTES Red blood cells (RBCs)

LEUKOCYTES White blood cells (WBCs)
PLATELETS Cell fragments

 Polycythemia is an excessive or abnormal increase

in the number of erythrocytes
- May be caused by bone marrow cancer
(polycythemia vera)
- May be a response to life at higher altitudes
(secondary polycythemia)
- Increased RBC slows blood flow and increases
blood viscosity

ERYTHROCYTES
 Main function is to carry oxygen LEUKOCYTES
 Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
 Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
- Biconcave disks  These are complete cells, with a nucleus and
- Essentially bags of hemoglobin organelles
- Anucleate (no nucleus)  Able to move into and out of blood vessels
- Contain very few organelles (diapedesis)
 5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood  Can move by ameboid motion
 Can respond to chemicals released by damaged
HEMOGLOBIN tissues
 4,800 to 10,800 WBC per cubic millimeter of
 Iron-containing protein
blood
 Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
 Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE OF WBCS
binding sites
 Leukocytosis - WBC count above 11,000
 Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin
leukocytes/mm3. Generally indicates an infection
molecules
 Leukopenia - Abnormally low leukocyte level.
 Normal blood contains 12–18 g of hemoglobin per
Commonly caused by certain drugs such as
100 mL blood
corticosteroids and anticancer agents
 Leukemia - Bone marrow becomes cancerous,
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE OF RBCS
turns out excess WBC
 Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying
ability of the blood
 Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results from abnormally TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
shaped haemoglobin
Granulocytes Granules in their
cytoplasm can be
stained
Possess lobed nuclei
Include neutrophils,
eosinophils, and
basophils

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Agranulocytes Lack visible WBCs)

cytoplasmic granules
Basophils Sparse but large blue-purple
Nuclei are spherical, granules
oval, or kidney-shaped
U- or S-shaped nucleus stains
Include lymphocytes dark blue
and monocytes
Release histamine (vasodilator)
LIST OF THE WBCS FROM MOST TO LEAST at sites of inflammation
ABUNDANT: Contain heparin (anticoagulant)

1. NEUTROPHILS Never 20–50 basophils in a cubic

millimeter of blood (0–1% of
2. LYMPHOCYTES Let WBCs)
3. MONOCYTES Monkeys TYPES OF AGRANULOCYTES
4. EOSINOPHILS Eat
Lymphocytes Cytoplasm is pale blue
5. BASOPHILS Bananas
Dark purple-blue nucleus
Functions as part of the immune
response
- B lymphocytes produce
antibodies
- T lymphocytes are
involved in graft
rejection, fighting
tumors and viruses
1,500–3,000 lymphocytes in a
cubic millimeter of blood (20–
45% of WBCs)
Monocytes Largest of the white blood cells
Gray-blue cytoplasm
Dark blue-purple nucleus is often
kidney shaped
TYPES OF GRANULOCYTES Function as macrophages
Important in fighting chronic
Neutrophils Cytoplasm stains pale pink and infection
contains fine granules
100–700 monocytes per cubic
Deep purple nucleus contains millimeter of blood (4–8% of
three to seven lobes WBCs)
Function as phagocytes at active
sites of infection
PLATELETS
Numbers increase during  Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells
infection (megakaryocytes)
3,000–7,000 neutrophils in a  Needed for the clotting process
cubic millimeter of blood (40–  Platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 400,000 per
70% of WBCs) cubic millimeter of blood
Eosinophils Red, coarse cytoplasmic  300,000 is considered a normal number of platelets
granules per cubic millimeter of blood
Figure-8 or bilobed nucleus
stains blue-red HEMATOPOIESIS
Function to kill parasitic worms
and play a role in allergy attacks  Blood cell formation
 Occurs in red bone marrow
100–400 eosinophils in a cubic
millimeter of blood (1–4% of

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 All blood cells are derived from a common stem 1. VASCULAR SPASMS
cell (hemocytoblast) - Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm
 Hemocytoblast differentiation - Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing
 Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes blood loss
 Myeloid stem cell produces all other formed
elements

FORMATION OF ERYTHROCYTES
1. Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
2. Wear out in 100 to 120 days 2. PLATELET PLUG FORMATION
3. When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by - Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood
phagocytes in the spleen or liver vessel
4. Lost cells are replaced by division of - Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow - Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract
more platelets
- Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

CONTROL OF ERYTHROCYTE
PRODUCTION

 Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin)

 Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood
 Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback
from blood oxygen levels
3. COAGULATION (BLOOD CLOTTING)
- Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)
- PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood
protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger
a clotting cascade
- Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to
thrombin (an enzyme)
- Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like
molecules of insoluble fibrin
- Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)

FORMATION OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS

AND PLATELETS
Controlled by hormones

 Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) and

interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate
leukocytes
 Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets

HEMOSTASIS

 Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a

blood vessel

Hemostasis involves three phases:

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HEMOSTASIS ABO BLOOD GROUPS

 Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes  Based on the presence or absence of two antigens:
 The clot remains as endothelium regenerates - Type A
 The clot is broken down after tissue repair - Type B
 The lack of these antigens is called type O
UNDESIRABLE CLOTTING  The presence of both antigens A and B is called
type AB
Thrombus A clot in an unbroken blood
 The presence of antigen A is called type A
vessel
 The presence of antigen B is called type B
Can be deadly in areas like the
 The lack of both antigens A and B is called type O
heart
 Blood type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O blood
Embolus A thrombus that breaks away and - Universal recipient
floats freely in the bloodstream
 Blood type B can receive B and O blood
Can later clog vessels in critical  Blood type A can receive A and O blood
areas such as the brain
 Blood type O can receive O blood
BLEEDING DISORDERS - Universal donor

Thrombocytopenia Platelet deficiency

Even normal
movements can cause
bleeding from small
blood vessels that
require platelets for
clotting
Hemophilia Hereditary bleeding
disorder
Normal clotting factors
are missing

BLOOD GROUPS AND TRANSFUSIONS

Large losses of blood have serious consequences RH BLOOD GROUPS

- Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness  Named because of the presence or absence of one
- Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which can be of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) that was
fatal originally defined in Rhesus monkeys
 Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh positive)
Transfusions are the only way to replace blood quickly  Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a
body with Rh– (Rh negative) blood
Transfused blood must be of the same blood group
RH DANGERS DURING PREGNANCY
HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS
Danger occurs only when the mother is Rh– and the father is
 Blood contains genetically determined proteins Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+ factor
 Antigens (a substance the body recognizes as
foreign) may be attacked by the immune system RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of
 Antibodies are the “recognizers” anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood
 Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will
The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can
cause blood with certain proteins to clump
cause problems for the unborn child
(agglutination)
 There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens - The first pregnancy usually proceeds without
 The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused problems
by ABO and Rh blood group antigens
The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy

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- In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune
system produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood
(hemolytic disease of the newborn)

BLOOD TYPING

 Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B

serum
 Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining
blood type
 Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same
manner
 Cross matching—testing for agglutination of
donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice
versa

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF BLOOD

Sites of blood cell formation

- The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood

cell formation
- Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the
seventh month

Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after

birth

Physiologic jaundice results in infants in which the liver

cannot rid the body of hemoglobin breakdown products fast
enough
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CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM
A CLOSED SYSTEM OF THE HEART AND BLOOD
VESSELS

 The heart pumps blood

 Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts
of the body

The functions of the cardiovascular system:

 To deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and tissues

 To remove carbon dioxide and other waste
products from cells and tissues

HEART
LOCATION Thorax between the lungs in
the inferior mediastinum
ORIENTATION Pointed apex directed toward
left hip
Base points toward right
shoulder
SIZE About the size of your fist

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THE HEART: COVERINGS

PERICARDIUM—a double-walled sac

- Fibrous pericardium is loose and superficial
- Serous membrane is deep to the fibrous
pericardium and composed of two layers

VISCERAL PERICARDIUM

- Next to heart; also known as the epicardium

PARIETAL PERICARDIUM

- Outside layer that lines the inner surface of

the fibrous pericardium

Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of

pericardium

THE HEART: CHAMBERS

Right and left side act as separate pumps

Atria Receiving chambers

- Right atrium
THE HEART: HEART WALL - Left atrium

THREE LAYERS

EPICARDIUM Outside layer

Ventricles Discharging chambers
This layer is the visceral
- Right ventricle
pericardium
- Left ventricle
Connective tissue layer
MYOCARDIUM Middle layer
THE HEART: SEPTA
Mostly cardiac muscle
ENDOCARDIUM Inner layer Interventricular Separates the two
septum ventricles
Endothelium
Interatrial septum Separates the two atria

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- Anchored in place by chordae tendineae

(“heart strings”)
- Open during heart relaxation and closed
during ventricular contraction
Bicuspid (mitral) valve left side of heart
Tricuspid valve right side of heart
SEMILUNAR VALVES
—between ventricle and artery
THE HEART’S ROLE IN BLOOD - Closed during heart relaxation but open
CIRCULATION during ventricular contraction
Pulmonary semilunar Aortic semilunar valve
SYSTEMIC Blood flows from the left side valve
CIRCULATION of the heart through the body
tissues and back to the right Notice these valves operate opposite of one another
side of the heart to force a one-way path of blood through the heart
PULMONARY Blood flows from the right
CIRCULATION side of the heart to the lungs
and back to the left side of the
heart

CARDIAC CIRCULATION
THE HEART: VALVES Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the
myocardium
Allow blood to flow in only one direction to prevent
backflow The heart has its own nourishing circulatory system
consisting of:
ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) VALVES
—between atria and ventricles

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- Coronary arteries—branch from the aorta

to supply the heart muscle with oxygenated
blood
- Cardiac veins—drain the myocardium of
blood
- Coronary sinus—a large vein on the
posterior of the heart, receives blood from
cardiac veins

Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary

sinus

THE HEART: ASSOCIATED GREAT

VESSELS

ARTERIES
Aorta Leaves left ventricle
Pulmonary arteries Leave right ventricle
VEINS
THE HEART: CONDUCTION SYSTEM
Superior and inferior Enter right atrium
venae cavae Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system)
Pulmonary veins Enter left atrium
(four) - Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve
impulses, in a regular, continuous way
BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART
Special tissue sets the pace
1. Superior and inferior venae cavae dump
blood into the right atrium - Sinoatrial node = SA node (“pacemaker”),
2. From right atrium, through the tricuspid is in the right atrium
valve, blood travels to the right ventricle - Atrioventricular node = AV node, is at the
3. From the right ventricle, blood leaves the junction of the atria and ventricles
heart as it passes through the pulmonary - Atrioventricular bundle = AV bundle
semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk (bundle of His), is in the interventricular
4. Pulmonary trunk splits into right and left septum
pulmonary arteries that carry blood to the - Bundle branches are in the interventricular
lungs septum
5. Oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is - Purkinje fibers spread within the ventricle
dropped off by blood in the lungs wall muscles
6. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart
through the four pulmonary veins
7. Blood enters the left atrium and travels
through the bicuspid valve into the left
ventricle
8. From the left ventricle, blood leaves the
heart via the aortic semilunar valve and
aorta

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THE HEART: CARDIAC CYCLE &

HEART SOUNDS

 Atria contract simultaneously

 Atria relax, then ventricles contract
 Systole = contraction
 Diastole = relaxation

CARDIAC CYCLE —events of one complete heart

beat

Mid-to-late diastole

- Pressure in heart is low

HEART CONTRACTIONS - Blood flows from passively into the atria
and into ventricles
 Contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial
- Semilunar valves are closed
node (SA node)
- Atrioventricular valves are open
 Sequential stimulation occurs at other
- Atria contract and force blood into ventricles
autorhythmic cells
 Force cardiac muscle depolarization in one Ventricular systole
direction—from atria to ventricles
 Once SA node starts the heartbeat - Blood pressure builds before ventricle
o Impulse spreads to the AV node contracts
o Then the atria contract - Atrioventricular valves close causes
first heart sound, “lub”
 At the AV node, the impulse passes through
- Semilunar valves open as blood pushes
the AV bundle, bundle branches, and
against them
Purkinje fibers
- Blood travels out of the ventricles
 Blood is ejected from the ventricles to the
through pulmonary trunk and aorta
aorta and pulmonary trunk as the ventricles
- Atria are relaxed
contract
Early diastole
HEMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
- At the end of systole, all four valves are
Heart block—damaged AV node releases them from
briefly closed at the same time
control of the SA node; result is in a slower heart rate
o Second heart sound is heard as
as ventricles contract at their own rate
semilunar valves close, causing
Ischemia—lack of adequate oxygen supply to heart “dup” sound
muscle - Atria finish refilling as pressure in the heart
drops
Fibrillation—a rapid, uncoordinated shuddering of - Ventricular pressure is low
the heart muscle - Atrioventricular valves open

Tachycardia—rapid heart rate over 100 beats per

minute

Bradycardia—slow heart rate less than 60 beats per

minutes

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Exercise

Decreased blood volume

Decreased heart rate

- Parasympathetic nervous system

- High blood pressure or blood volume
- Decreased venous return
THE HEART: CARDIAC OUTPUT

Cardiac output (CO)

- Amount of blood pumped by each side

(ventricle) of the heart in one minute

Stroke volume (SV)

- Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle

in one contraction (each heartbeat)
- Usually remains relatively constant
- About 70 mL of blood is pumped out of the
left ventricle with each heartbeat

Heart rate (HR)

- Typically 75 beats per minute

CO = HR * SV

CO = HR (75 beats/min) * SV (70 mL/beat)

CO = 5250 mL/min

Starling’s law of the heart—the more the cardiac

muscle is stretched, the stronger the contraction

Changing heart rate is the most common way to

change cardiac output

THE HEART: REGULATION OF HEART

RATE

Increased heart rate

Sympathetic nervous system

- Crisis
- Low blood pressure

Hormones

- Epinephrine
- Thyroxine

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