Heliyon 8 (2022) e10261

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Soil organic carbon and its' stock potential in different land-use types along
slope position in Coka watershed, Southern Ethiopia
Tadele Buraka a, *, Eyasu Elias a, Alemu Lelago b
a
Center for Environmental Science, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
b
Natural and Computational Sciences, Wolita Sodo University, Sodo, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Understanding organic carbon accumulations in soils is crucially essential concerning carbon sequestration,
Coka watershed fighting climate change, increasing land productivity, improving soil properties, providing energy to the microbial
Land-use-cover change community, enhancing ecological restoration, and reversing global environmental damage. This study was aimed
Soil organic carbon stock
at assessing the effects of land-use-cover change (LULC) on soil organic carbon (SOC), its' stock potential, and
Slope position
bulk-density (BD) along slope position in the Coka watershed. Replicated soil samples had been collected and
composited from 30 cm depth topsoil of five major land use types and three slope positions. This result showed
that significantly (P < 0.001) lowest and highest mean of soil organic carbon stock (SOCS) was observed under
bare lands (37.835 Mg ha
1) and bushlands (144.582 Mg ha
1), respectively which was the same for SOC
concentration. Barelands lose 3.82 times (3.82x) higher SOCS than bushland and 2.68x more SOCS than forest-
land. Both SOC-stock and SOC showed significant (P < 0.001) differences among slope positions, which were the
highest in lower-slope followed by middle-slope, which had 1.8 and 2.6x higher than in middle-slope and upper-
slope positions, respectively. Thus, the multivariate-test result divulges that LULC along slope positions has a
strongly significant (P < 0.05) main and interaction effect on SOCS in the area. Therefore, the potential
contribution of bushland and forestland uses should be improved for SOC sequestration, soil productivity
improvement, and environmental protection.

1. Introduction altitude and climate [8], land-use-cover changes (LULC) [9], topographic
factor [10], and loss of topsoil by erosion [11, 12, 13], and fire [14].
Soil organic carbon (SOC) stock is considered to be among the largest The land-use type is a vital element in controlling carbon stock in the
carbon reservoirs of the earthly ecosystems and also plays an essential soil. Numerous studies have revealed significant variation in SOC con-
role in the worldwide carbon cycle [1] and [2]. The effect of land-use cerning LULC [11]. As reported by [15], LULC type influences the
changes on organic matter has impacted soil fertility, agricultural pro- quantity of residue input and decomposition rate in soil. Similarly, both
ductivity, food security, terrestrial and global carbon cycle, and climate SOCS and Carbon content was decreased by cultivation [16]. LULC
change [3]. Soils store higher organic carbon than the aboveground changes may support soil property degradation and deterioration [17].
vegetation and the atmosphere together [4]. As reported by [5], soils Organic carbon depletion could reduce soil and land productivity fertility
play a vigorous role in regulating global climate and store two-thirds of by influencing soil nutrient retention, physical structure, and water
carbon storage. As argued by [6] that soil organic carbon is threefold storage [18]. Thus, SOC depletion might affect the livelihoods of
more than in plants and twofold than in the atmosphere. Soils might be households. Commonly, forest-cover changes to cultivated-land
among the largest carbon sinks to lead to atmospheric CO2 concentra- decreased soil fertility by increasing erosion rates [19].
tions. Thus, changes in SOCS might have significant influences on the LULC dynamics are affected by human actions, which decline avail-
global carbon cycle. SOC improves soil properties by retaining a vital soil able water, vegetation, animal feed, and soil fertility at the landscape
nutrient for the growth of plants and providing energy to the microbial level. Land-use changes have remarkable effects on soil properties,
community. It could be affected by various factors such as vegetation [7], including soil-organic-carbon-stock. The soil carbon accumulation is
composed of decaying fungal, bacterial matter, plant and animal stored,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tesfi[email protected] (T. Buraka).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10261
Received 24 April 2022; Received in revised form 29 June 2022; Accepted 8 August 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
T. Buraka et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10261

and soil organic matter. Vegetation removal and soil erosion due to land- ha, and the altitude ranges between 771m in plains to 2524 m.a.s.l. in the
use changes can accelerate SOCS loss [20]. Moreover, addressing the plateaus (Figure 1). The district slope gradient ranges from gently (2–5%)
LULC in diverse land utilization types may give a clue on carbon to very steep (above 30%) (Figure 1).
sequestration in soil [21]. Conversion and modifying one land use for Coka watershed has bimodal rainfall distribution small (belg) and
another may result in the loss of natural resources and agro-biodiversity major (Kiremt). The long-term mean average rainfall is 1267.13 mm, and
[22]. Forest clearing and continuous cultivation caused a high risk of SOC the mean max and min temperature are 30.0  C and 9.9  C, respectively
depletion for nearly half of the total landmass in Ethiopia [23]. LULC is [40] and (Figure 2). The trend rainfall showed unsystematically
the leading anthropogenic carbon source in the atmosphere [24]. decreasing from 198 to 2021 years periods (Figure 2). The trend of
Topographic factors (e.g. slope and altitude) positively or negatively temperature in the area revealed an unsystematic increment for max.
influence soil properties by varying vegetation cover, rainfall, and tem- temperature and decrement for min. temperature (Figure 2). Rains in
perature. Typically precipitation rises, and temperature becomes colder kiremt season are intensive, which is used for economic and food crop
with increasing altitude, resulting in changes in vegetation distribution, production and causes soil erosion during this time at different parts of
affecting SOC stock [25]. Slope position is a main topographic factor this watershed. According to [41] the agro-climatic classification of the
affecting the pattern of SOC along the topo-sequences [26]. Similarly, study watershed can be kola or warm semiarid (500–1500/1800 m),
slope position contributes to the spatial unevenness of SOC [27]. It can woinadega, or cool sub-humid (1500/1800–2300/2400 m), and dega or
alter both the hydrological processes and the solar radiation intensity cool-humid (2300/2400–3200 m).
[28], which is a significant factor governing the residue decomposition The study watershed drains to the Coka stream, forming a tributary of
rate and organic matter. the Omo River that flows into L. Turkana, bordering with Kenya.
Moreover, a foot slope tends to receive less solar radiation and more Geologically, the area is covered by trap series volcanics of the tertiary
water, which can create more favorable conditions for vegetation growth period that are characterized by acidic rocks such as rhyolites, ignim-
[29]. Climatic, hydrological, and ecological conditions can be reshaped brites and tracheitis covering the basemen complex of the Precambrian
by this topographic factor which can modify the spatial arrangements of rocks [42]. Moderate to deeper and shallower soils are found on plains
SOC at both a regional and a hill-slope scale [30] and [31]. In regions, slopes and steeper slopes, respectively. The total population of the study
slope position varies SOC fate through the rate of decomposition and soil watershed was 12,493 in 1994, 14,303 in 1998, 17,486 in 2008, and 22,
erosion [32]. As reported by [33] SOCS on the foot slope were 2.5 times 194 in 2021 [39] showing a population increase of 56.3% in the last 30
greater than other slope classes along an eroding hill slope located on years. The reason why Coka watershed was selected for this study is the
cultivated land in Belgium, and that of [34] found similar outcomes in a food insecurity problem that existed in the area and the dramatic
quiet environment in Australia. The slope gradient is the key factor increment in population growth.
affecting SOC dynamics and soil quality [11, 12, 13], while topsoil losses
and soil erosion are highly correlated with slope steepness [14]. SOC 2.2. Analysis of land-use-cover
concentrations at the 0–60 cm soil depth in terraces were the highest
when compared to forestland, grassland, and sloping cropland [35]. Soil The people within the Coka watershed are involved in mixed agri-
erosion and cropping contributed to variations in SOC and TN losses culture and crop-livestock farming. The land-use-cover (LULC) within
along the sloping terrace [36]. The most serious problems for the farmer area was classified into seven classes which includes forestland (23%),
in tropical highlands are land degradation due to misuse of land re- bush-land (18.3%), cultivated-settlement-land (38.5%), grassland
sources and land cover changes which result in decreasing soil fertility (16.9%), bare-land (1.8%), built-up-area (0.6%) and water-body (0.9%)
and crop yield losses [37]. [43]. LULC current data were assessed by using remote-sensing data from
Thus, the Coka watershed faced food insecurity problems, climate satellite images (Landsat-8 OLI-TIRS) with 30 m*30 m spatial resolution
change (uncommon rainfall, hotness, and coldness), the occurrence of and path/row of 169/55. LULC change is the largest anthropogenic
drought, lack of crop productivity, and population growth from the last carbon source in the atmosphere [44].
30 years to the present [38, 39], which is a 56.3% increment of popu-
lation growth with the requirement of construction, crops for food se- 2.3. Soil-sample-collection and laboratory-test
curity, firewood and charcoal for fuel or income, and grazing. These all
anthropogenic activities have significant impacts on the environment Soil samples were composed using offseason, which was appropriate
and ecology of natural resource management and assurance of food se- for sampling in Coka watershed. Slope and climate variability and land-
curity. Food security depends on soil productivity whereas soil fertility use type and its adjacent area were considered to minimize differences in
and productivity depend on soil organic matter, which is a reservoir of soil sampling; because of this, the method used was purposive sampling.
essential nutrients and plays an important role in cycling essential nu- Soil data for soil carbon content and bulk density were collected from five
trients. The investigation in and surrounding the study area is limited to LULC types (forestland, cultivated-land, grassland, bushland, and bare-
soil organic carbon content and stock, but the study area faced uncom- land) and three slope positions (lower-slope (0–10%), middle-slope
mon weather conditions and extended food insecurity periods. The (10–30%), and upper-slope (>30%)) within 30 cm soil depth. The soil
findings from the study may provide scientific information for the sci- sample was collected from 0-30 cm soil depth because this soil depth
entific community, government and non-government organizations, and might be the most biologically active portion of the soil profile and root
local area people to fill the gap and effective decision-making to mitigate ability zone for most plants. The reason for the classification of LULC
environmental and ecological problems in the area. This study was aimed change types and slope classes is their existence in the area. Soil samples
to assess the effects of LULC along with slope positions on SOC stock's from each slope position and land-use types were collected from
potential and provide information for effective land use planning, and to randomly selected points with 5–8 replications based on a sampling plot
mitigate the change in climate in the Coka watershed. size and replicated soils mixed together to form a composite for organic
carbon-content analysis. Samples were gathered by using the core ring
2. Material and method method (100 cm3 core volume) for soil bulk density (BD) analysis. Totally
60 soil samples (5 LULC types x 3 slope positions x 4 plots) were collected
2.1. Study area for analysis of SOC and BD in the Coka watershed. Soil bulk densities and
carbon contents had been analyzed in Hawassa University soil test
Coka watershed is located in geographical boundaries 7 120 1000 N - laboratory.
7 180 2000 N and 37 310 000 E - 37 340 2500 E in Tembaro woreda, Kembata BD was taken from undisturbed samples with a known volume of core
Tembaro Zone, Southern Ethiopia (Figure 1). The watershed area is 3731 ring samplers and measured. The BD samples were dried for 12 h at 105

2
T. Buraka et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10261


C and weighed. The bulk density (BD) (g cm
3) was calculated as the dry
2000 Mean rainfall and Temperature in Coka watershed 30
soil weight divided by the volume of the soil as shown in Eq. (1).
1800
BD ¼ Dry weight of soil/volume of soil (1)
25
1600
where BD-bulk density.
Sixty composite samples of soil were brought to the laboratory for 1400
20

Mean Rainfall (mm)

organic-carbon estimation. The soils were dried, ground, and sieved (<2

Temperature (C°)
1200
mm) for SOC analysis before occurring the laboratory process to remove
the debris and roots. The total carbon concentrations were analyzed at 1000 15

1100  C by dry combustion. Organic carbon (OC) in soil was estimated 800
using the [45] wet digestion method, which is a widely used procedure 10
[46] for soil organic carbon estimation. In Walkley and Black methods, 600

about 60–86% of SOC is oxidized; therefore, a common correction factor 400

(1.32) was used to get the corrected SOC values [47]. This analysis was 5

executed for original samples and those treated with 6 MHCl to remove 200

carbonate carbon. The results presented in this document represent 0 0

1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2017
2019
2021
carbon contained in organic matter, remaining in the soil after the HCl
treatment. Carbon stocks (Mg ha
1) were primarily calculated by Year
Mean rainfall Max.temp Min.Temp
multiplying the concentrations (%) of organic carbon in soil by the bulk
density (g cm
3) and depth of sampled soil (30 cm) (Eq. (2)). Soil organic
carbon stocks (SOCS) were calculated using [46], which is:- Figure 2. Mean Rainfall and Temperature in the Coka watershed.

SOCS ¼ BD*D*% C (2) 3. Result and discussion

1
3
where, SOCS(Mg ha ) is Soil organic carbon stock, BD (g cm ), D (cm)
3.1. Main and interaction effects of LULC types along with slope positions
is soil depth, and %C is soil organic carbon concentration in percent.

All multivariate tests (Wilks' Lambda) showed that the multivariate

2.4. Data analysis
main effects of LULC types were statistically significant (P < 0.001),
indicating SOC stocks were significantly affected by LULC types
Soil data on SOCS were subjected to Factorial design following the
(Table 2). The main effects of slope positions showed a significant (P <
general linear model (GLM) procedure using IBM-SPSS statistics 26
0.01) difference between the subject's effects on BD (g/cm3), SOC (%),
version statistical software. Multivariate-test was conducted to identify
and SOCS (Mg ha
1) (Table 1). The main effects of all multivariate tests
the statistical significance of main effects and interaction effects between
for slope classes have revealed statistically significant (P < 0.001) dif-
LULC-types and slope positions. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
ferences even in the same selected soil properties in the LULC types in
showed significant differences (p  0.05) among the various land-use and
different slope positions (Table 2). Interaction effects of LULC types along
slope position for each parameter.

Figure 1. Map of the study watershed, Southern Ethiopia.

3
T. Buraka et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10261

Table 1. Multivariate tests between-subjects effects on soil organic carbon stock Table 3. Mean effects of LULC types on soil organic carbon stock.
in Coka watershed.
LULC Type BD (g/cm3) SOC (%) SOCS(Mg ha
1)
Variables Soil properties Mean Square F Sig.
Forestland 1.048 3.329 101.521
LULC-Type BD (g/cm3) 0.485 79.074 0.000
Cultivated-land 1.244 1.384 49.347
SOC (%) 20.549 54.073 0.000
Grassland 1.251 2.224 75.883
SOCS(Mg ha
1) 22,054.801 44.663 0.000
Bare-land 1.606 0.808 37.835
Slope-position BD (g/cm3) 0.379 61.677 0.000
Bush-land 1.278 3.952 144.582
SOC (%) 39.261 103.314 0.000
Mean Square 0.485 20.549 22,054.801
SOCS(Mg ha
1) 31,970.478 64.744 0.000
F 22.923 9.533 11.576
LULC Type * slope position BD (g/cm3) 0.016 2.671 0.017
Sig. 0.000 0.000 0.000
SOC (%) 2.867 7.545 0.000
SOCS(Mg ha
1) 2327.993 4.714 0.000

(2x) the amount of C in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and threefold

that in aboveground vegetation globally in the 30 cm surface layer [51].
slope positions for analysis of all multivariate tests were statistically This result showed lower SOC stock than the same soil depth at a global
significant (P < 0.05), and tests' between-subjects effects on SOCS were level. This finding agrees with those studied by [52], the SOC global
statistically substantial (P¼ 0.000) (Tables 1 and 2). A statistically sig- stock of soil has been calculated to be in the range of 684–724 Pg to the
nificant correlation (R ¼ 0.981) has occurred between (SOC (%)) and soil depths of 30 cm. This critical severity indicates that ecological and
(SOCS (Mg ha
1)) but negative correlation with BD. This divulges that environmental restoration is required in the study watershed. Moreover,
SOCS at 0–30 cm depth varied significantly (P < 0.001) in LULC changes this discovery is within the range of earlier findings by [53] who reported
and slope position in this specified area which is in agreement with the that SOC stock ranging (42.9–234.6 Mg ha
1) for different soil types for
study conducted by [48]. 0–60cm depth, Southern Ethiopia.
LULC changes have considerable contributions toward the SOC-
3.2. Effects LULC types storage and/or CO2 emission. Observably, LULC changes can influence
soil properties, including SOC stock and SOC content, because of
Soil bulk density (BD) varied statistically significantly (P < 0.001) anthropogenic activities (agricultural intensifications, overgrazing, fer-
from highest in bare land and lowest in forestland (Table 3). According to tilizer application, harvesting, planting, etc.). This result, approved by
Hillel (1980), more OM content in the topsoil makes soils loose, porous, [47] reported that organic carbon was lowest in cultivated than forest-
and well aggregated, thereby reducing BD, a good range for agricultural land, bushland, and grassland. This finding is maintained by [54] who
soils from 1g cm
3 to 1.7 g cm
3. This implies that the soils of the study argued that a significant difference in SOCS is due to LULC changes in
area have no excessive compaction, no restriction to root development, Western and Central Ethiopia. Similarly, the study by [55] cropland
and are within the average range for good agricultural productivity, expansion typically reduces SOC stocks. The highest area was covered by
which is in line with the study [49]. cultivation with low organic carbon stock which is directly connected
SOC stock at 0–30 cm depth showed a statistically significant differ- with low soil agricultural productivity. As reported by [56] that
ence (P < 0.001) in LULC changes in the Coka watershed. According to SOC-stocks are sensitive to land-use-cover change. Soil-carbon can
ANOVA test analysis (Table 3, Figure 3) indicated that LULC types had improve the soil's physical and chemical properties. Cultivated land and
statistically significant (P < 0.001) effects on soil organic carbon content bare land have lower organic carbon stocks and contents than other
(SOC (%)) and soil organic carbon stock and (SOCS (Mg ha
1)). The land-uses ecosystems since cultivated-land increases the soil's aeration,
overall mean of SOC and SOCS in the bushland (3.95%) and 144.58 (Mg microbial-mobility, enhances decomposition, removal with crop resi-
ha
1) followed by forest land (3.33% and 101.52 Mg ha
1) was signifi- dues, and bare land might be exposed to removal of organic carbon with
cantly (P ¼ 0.000) higher than in bare land (0.81% and 37.84 Mg ha
1), topsoil by erosion and evaporation from soil surface due to lack of land
respectively (Table 3, Figure 3). The increasing trend of SOCS was shown cover.
at a depth of 30 cm in the following order: bushland > forestland > The lowest SOCS and SOC content in the study area were recorded in
grassland > cultivated-land > bare-land. A significant correlation (R ¼ bare land followed by cultivated land which may cause land degradation
0.98) was detected between SOC content and SOC stock. SOCS in bush- and environmental pollution. Besides, LULC and widespread poor agri-
land was 2.93 and 3.82 folds greater than in cultivated land and bare cultural practice might be among the reason for soil quality deterioration
land, respectively. The result showed that the presence of the highest and low crop productivity. This finding is in line with the study by [57],
SOCS in bushland could be because the types of bushes presented in the the human factors of poverty, insecure land tenure, and high population
study area were large in amount and faster for decomposition. Forestland pressure as driving forces for land degradation. Similarly [58], investi-
contained 2.01 and 2.68 times more SOCS than cultivated land and bare gated the impact of LULC on concentrations of SOC sequestration. The
land in 30 cm soil depth. This indicates that the identified soil depth is land conversion from natural forests to plantations, croplands, and un-
appropriate for SOCS evaluation, primarily for cropland productivity and sustainable land uses negatively influenced the SOC pool in soils across
improvement of carbon sequestration. The finding is confirmed by [50]; Ethiopia [59]. In contrast [60], found no significant differences in soil
SOCS observed in the topsoil (0–10 cm) was 60% of the total. As reported chemical properties among land uses, including SOCS, but found a sig-
by [9] soils converted to cropland lost 13–18% of their SOC for the top nificant difference in physical properties of Andosol in Ethiopia's
layer of 20 cm. Similarly, the amount of SOC is approximately double Southern part.

Table 2. Main effects and interaction effects of LULC types and Slope position in Coka watershed.

Variables Multivariate Tests Value F Df Error df Sig.

LULC-Type Wilks' Lambda 0.020 31.892 12.000 114.059 0.000
Slope-position Wilks' Lambda 0.108 29.283b 6.000 86.000 0.000
LULC-Type * slope position Wilks' Lambda 0.180 4.203 24.000 125.314 0.000

4
T. Buraka et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10261

4.5 160.0
Table 4. Mean effects of slope position on soil organic carbon stock in the Coka
4.0 140.0 watershed.
3.5 Slope position BD (g/cm3) SOC (%) SOCS(Mg ha
1)
120.0
Upper slope 1.420 1.202 48.714
3.0
100.0 Middle slope 1.292 1.911 70.540
2.5
SOC (%)
Lower slope 1.145 3.904 126.247
80.0
2.0 SOCS(Mgha-1) Mean Square 0.379 39.261 31,970.478
60.0 F 9.187 18.308 14.119
1.5
Sig. 0.000 0.000 0.000
40.0
1.0

0.5 20.0

Middle, and lower slopes) (Table 3, Figure 4). The significantly highest
0.0 0.0
Forestland Culvated-land Grassland Bare-land Bush-land mean difference between SOCS and SOC was observed in the lower slope
position (mean ¼ 126.247 Mg ha
1 and 3.904%) followed by the middle
Figure 3. Effect of land-use-cover change on soil organic carbon stock slope position (70.540 Mg ha
1 and 1.911%), respectively (Table 4,
and content. Figure 4). The lowest significant (P < 0.001) mean difference for SOCS
and SOC was recorded in the upper slope (48.714 Mg ha
1 and 1.202%),
This study revealed that the transformation of natural vegetation to respectively (Table 4, Figure 4). In the overall mean, the increasing trend
anthropogenic land uses (grassland, cultivated land, and bare land) could of SOCS in slope position was observed within the depth of 30 cm in the
cause a deterioration effect on SOC stock. This result is in line with a order: lower slope > middle slope > upper slope. This is the same trend
study by [61] that reported that alteration of natural forests into for soil organic carbon content in the study area. SOCS in lower-slope
human-managed land uses (cropland, grazing land, and eucalyptus positions had 1.8 and 2.6 times higher than in middle-slope and upper-
plantation) had more harmful effects on SOC in Northwestern Ethiopia. slope positions, respectively. The result revealed that SOCS was higher
Another study by [62] also found a comparable higher SOC under on the lower slope than in other slope classes in the study area due to
grassland than in cereal farms in Southern Ethiopia. might be the removal of topsoil from upper and middle slope classes and
The SOCS increment showed from bare land to bushland by 3.82 deposited in the lower slope position, the presence of more vegetation on
times, indicating the need for improving and restoring SOCS by con- the lower slope, and less exposed for sunlight. This result is verified by
verting bare land and farm-land to forestland and bushland. The findings [33] that the foot slope was 2.5 times higher SOCS than other slope
agree with studies conducted by [63] that reported that improvements in positions in Belgium. Similarly, organic carbon content decreased from
SOCS have been documented with the change of cultivated-land and the lower slope to the upper slope position in the Kabe watershed,
grazing-land to the forest in different parts of Ethiopia. As reported by Southern Ethiopia [47]. This study demonstrated that the SOCS varied
[44], revegetation and afforestation have been suggested as effective significantly (P ¼ 0.000) in slope positions (lower, middle, and upper
approaches to ensure SOCS in soils [2]. Converted that the trans- classes) at 30 cm depth in the Coka watershed.
formation of degraded grazing land into protected areas significantly In most land uses, middle-slope and upper-slope classes have lower
increased SOCS in the topsoil layer (0–10 cm) by 42%. The increment of SOCS and SOC content than lower slope positions in the Coka watershed.
SOC and ecosystem improvement have been achieved by converting This could be caused by a decrease in upper and middle slope position
degraded lands to protected areas across different agro-ecological zones due to the removal of topsoil by accelerated erosion. This finding is
in Ethiopia [48]. Correspondingly [64], confirmed that SOCS increased confirmed by [65] that the SOCS of the grassland and forestland were
by community-based water and soil conservation practices. This in- higher on the lower slope than on the upper hill slope. This might be the
dicates that enhancing SOC-stock is possible in the area by converting occurrence of increased evaporation and removal of topsoil due to upper
degraded land to forest or protected land. Thus, approaches that enhance and middle slope land uses exposed to temperature and water erosion.
SOC increment in farming ecosystems systematically improve atmo- This result is in agreement with conducted [66], that SOC content and
spheric CO2 sequestration and organic-matter pools restoration, which is SOCS might be affected by topographic factors. Correspondingly, the
critical to soil quality and health. slope positions are supported to force distribution patterns of plant types
and aboveground biomass [67]. According to [68], afforestation on
3.3. Effect of slope position on soil organic carbon stock sloping cultivated lands increases SOCS. As argued by [66] in Ethiopia's
northern highlands, an impact of different land uses along slope positions
The result revealed that statistically significant (P < 0.001) differ- showed the apparent changes in soil properties, including SOC content.
ence in SOC (%) and SOCS (Mg ha
1) in all slope positions (Upper, This reveals that the slope position has shown a statistically significant (P
¼ 0.000) difference in SOC stock.

4.5 140
4. Conclusion
4
120
3.5 Exploring the effects of land-use-cover changes (LULC) along slope-
100
3 position on carbon stock under global warming is fundamental to
2.5 80 global climate change and land-productivity investigation. The LULC-
SOC (%) change showed significant (P < 0.001) variation in SOC content and
2 60 SOCS(Mgha-1) SOCS (soil organic carbon stock) with the range of bushland (144.582 Mg
1.5
40
ha
1) to bare land (37.835 Mg ha
1) and with slope position range of
1 upper-slope (48.714 Mg ha
1) to lower-slope (126.247 Mg ha
1) in the
0.5
20
Coka watershed, Southern Ethiopia. These findings revealed massive
0 0
losses of SOCS and SOC content due to the transformation of forestland
Upper slope Middle slope Lower slope and bushland to grassland, cultivated land, bare land, and lower slope to
upper slope positions. This loss indicates that it might be caused by the
Figure 4. Effect of slope position on soil organic carbon stock and content. decrement in agricultural productivity in the study area. ANOVA and a

5
T. Buraka et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e10261

multivariate test showed that all LULC-changes and slope positions [4] P. Ciais, et al., Carbon and other biogeochemical-cycles, in: Climate-Change: The
Physical-Science-Basis. Contribution of Working-Group I to the Fifth Assessment-
revealed a significant (P < 0.001) effect on SOC and SOCS, and the
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate-Change, Cambridge Univ. Press,
interaction effect of LULC-types with topographic position also showed a Cambridge, U. K, 2014, pp. 465–570.
statistically significant (P < 0.001) difference. The SOC and SOCS are [5] W.H. Schlesinger, Biogeochemistry. An Analysis of Global Change, Academic Press,
varied in the shift of LULC types within 0–30 cm soil depth because this San Diego, 1997, p. 588.
[6] Y. Wang, B. Fu, Y. Lü, C. Song, Y. Luan, Local-scale spatial variability of soil organic
soil depth might be the most biologically active portion of the soil profile carbon and its stock in the hilly area of the Loess Plateau, China, Quat. Res. 73
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