Tissue • Epithelial tissues are classified primarily according

• A tissue is a group of cells with similar to the number of cell layers and the shape of the

structure and function, plus the superficial cells.

extracellular substance surrounding • The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or

them. pseudostratified.

• Histology is the study of tissues. • The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,
columnar, or a special transitional shape, that
Types of Tissues varies with the degree of stretch.
There are four tissue types in the human body: • Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue cells, with each cell extending from the
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that basement membrane to the free surface.
makes up part of every organ in the body • Stratified epithelium consists of more than
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens, making one layer of cells, but only the basal layer
movement possible attaches the deepest layer to the basement
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and membrane.
controlling many body activities Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a special
type of simple epithelium, that appears to be falsely
Epithelial Tissues
stratified.
• Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and
oIt consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells
protects surfaces, both outside and inside
attached to the basement membrane.
the body.
o Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the
• Included under the classification of epithelial
epithelia appear stratified.
tissue are the exocrine and endocrine
There are three types of epithelium based on
glands.
idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:
1.Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.
Epithelial Tissue Characteristics
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about as wide as
1. Mostly composed of cells
they are tall.
2. Covers body surfaces
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are wide.
3. Distinct cell surfaces
4. Cell and matrix connections Simple Squamous Epithelium1

5. Nonvascular • Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of thin,

flat cells.
6. Capable of regeneration
• Some substances easily pass through this thin layer of
Functions of Epithelial Tissues cells, but other substances do not.
1.Protects underlying structures
• The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows for gas
2.Acts as a barrier
exchange.
3.Permits passage of substances
• The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps filter
4.Secretes substances
wastes from the blood while keeping blood cells inside
5.Absorption of substances
the blood vessels.

Classification of Epithelia1 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

• Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer • Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is a
of cube-like cells that carry out active moist nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
transport, facilitated diffusion, or secretion. • This nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
• They have a greater secretory capacity than provides protection against abrasion and acts as a
simple squamous epithelial cells. mechanical barrier.
• Water, however, can move across it more readily
Simple Columnar Epithelium than across the skin (keratinized stratified
• Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of tall, squamous).
thin cells.
• The large size of these cells enables them to Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
perform complex functions, such as secretion. • Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of more
• The simple columnar epithelium of the small than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
intestine produces and secretes mucus and • This epithelial type is relatively rare and is
digestive enzymes. found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular
cells, and the salivary glands.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium • It functions in absorption, secretion, and
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium protection.
secretes mucus, which covers its free
surface. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
• Cilia in the airways move the mucus and • Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than
one layer of epithelial cells; the surface cells are
accumulated debris toward the throat,
columnar, but the deeper cells are irregular or cuboidal
where it is swallowed. in shape.
• Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar
Stratified Squamous Epithelium epithelium is relatively rare, found in the mammary
• Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick gland ducts, the larynx, and a portion of the male
epithelium
urethra.
because it consists of several layers of cells.
• This epithelium carries out secretion, protection, and
• Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or columnar and
some absorption.
are capable of dividing and producing new cells, the
naming is based on the shape of the surface cells.
Transitional Epithelium
• There are two types of stratified squamous epithelia:
• Transitional epithelium is a special type of stratified
keratinized stratified squamous and nonkeratinized
epithelium that can be greatly stretched.
stratified squamous epithelia.
• The shape of the cells change as the epithelium is
stretched.
Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can
• The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a
expand greatly, such as the urinary bladder.
keratinized squamous epithelium.
• It also protects underlying structures, like the
• The keratin reduces the loss of water from
urinary bladder, from the caustic effects of urine.
the body.

Free Cell Surfaces

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in contact • Glands are secretory organs that secrete substances
with other cells and faces away from underlying onto a surface, into a cavity, or into the bloodstream.
tissues. • Glands are composed primarily of epithelium, with a
• The characteristics of the free surface reflect its supporting network of connective tissue.
functions. • Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
• The free surface can be smooth or lined with microvilli • Both the gland and its ducts is lined with epithelium.
or cilia. • Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they secrete
• Cilia move materials over the top of the cell. their products (termed hormones) into the bloodstream.
• Microvilli increase surface area.
• Most exocrine glands are multicellular, comprised of
Cell Connections 1 many cells.
• Cells have several structures that hold one cell to one • Some exocrine glands are composed of a single cell,
another or to the basement membrane. like goblet cells, that secrete mucus.
• These structures do three things: mechanically bind the • Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified
cells together, help form a permeability barrier, and according to the structure of their ducts and secretory
provide a mechanism for intercellular communication. regions.
• Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind cells • Simple glands have a single, non-branched duct, some
together. have branched ducts.
• Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes that anchor
cells to the basement membrane. • Compound exocrine glands have multiple,
branched ducts.
• Tight junctions prevent the passage of materials • Glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules
between epithelial cells because they completely (small tubes) are called tubular, whereas those
surround each cell, similar to the way a belt shaped in saclike structures are called acinar or
surrounds the waist. alveolar.
• Materials that pass through the epithelial layer • Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
must pass through the cells, so those cells • Glands with a combination of the two are called
regulate what materials can cross. tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.
• Tight junctions are found in the lining of the
intestines. Exocrine glands can also be classified according to how
products leave the cell.
• Gap junctions are small channels that allow small • Merocrine secretion involves the release of secretory
molecules and ions to pass from one epithelial cell to products by exocytosis.
an adjacent one. • Apocrine secretion involves the release of secretory
• Most epithelial cells are connected to one another by products as pinched-off fragments of the gland cells.
gap junctions, and researchers believe that • Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of entire
molecules or ions moving through the gap junctions cells.
act as communication signals to coordinate the
activities of the cells. Connective Tissue

Glands • Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue type that

makes up part of every organ in the body.
Extracellular Matrix
• Connective tissue differs from the other three tissue
• The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has three
types in that it consists of cells separated from each
major components: protein fibers, ground substance,
other by abundant extracellular matrix.
and fluid.
• Connective tissue is diverse in both structure and
• Ground substance consists of non-fibrous protein and
function.
other molecules.
• Connective tissue is comprised of cells, protein fibers,
• The structure of the matrix is responsible for the
and an extracellular matrix.
functional characteristics of connective tissues—for
example, they enable bones and cartilage to bear
Functions of Connective Tissue
weight.
1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
Matrix Protein Fibers
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
• Three types of protein fibers—collagen, reticular,
4. Storing compounds
and elastic—help form most connective tissues.
5. Cushioning and insulating
• Collagen fibers, which resemble microscopic ropes,
6. Transporting
are very flexible but resist stretching.
7. Protecting
• Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen fibers
that branch to form a supporting network.
Connective Tissue Cells 1
• Elastic fibers have the ability to return to their
The specialized cells of the various connective
original shape after being stretched or compressed,
tissues produce the extracellular matrix.
giving tissue an elastic quality.
The name of the cell identifies the cell functions.
Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it, and
Matrix Ground Substance
osteoclasts break it down.
• The ground substance consists of non-fibrous
Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective
molecules and is shapeless. .
tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it.
• It consists of proteoglycans, which are large
Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes
molecules that consist of a protein core attached to
maintain it.
many long polysaccharides.
• Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water
• Found in connective tissue are cells associated
between the polysaccharides, which allows them to
with the immune system, such as white blood
return to their original shape when compressed or
cells.
deformed.
• Macrophages are large cells that are capable of
moving about and ingesting foreign substances,
Types of Connective Tissues 1
including microorganisms in the connective
• The two main types of connective tissue are
tissue.
embryonic and adult connective tissue.
• Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release
• By eight weeks of development, most of the
chemicals, such as histamine, that promote
embryonic connective tissue has become
inflammation.
specialized to form the types of connective tissue
seen in adults. the collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions is termed dense irregular.
• Loose connective tissue consists of relatively few • Examples of dense irregular are in the dermis
protein fibers that form a lacy network, with of the skin and in organ capsules.
numerous spaces filled with ground substance
• Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant
and fluid.
elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
• Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue are
• The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch and
areolar, adipose, and reticular.
recoil.
• Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of
• Examples include the dense elastic connective tissue
collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers.
in the vocal cords.
• The most common cells in loose connective
• A genetic condition called Marfan syndrome results
tissue are the fibroblasts.
from, in part the inability to properly maintain and
• Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat cells, form elastic fibers.
which contain large amounts of lipid for energy
storage. Cartilage
• Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the body • Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes, located in
and acts as a thermal insulator. spaces called lacunae within an extensive matrix.
• Reticular tissue forms the framework of lymphatic • Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility and
tissue, such as in the spleen and lymph nodes, as strength.
well as in bone marrow and the liver. • Cartilage is resilient because the proteoglycans of
the matrix trap water.
• Dense connective tissue has a relatively large • Cartilage provides support, but if bent or slightly
number of protein fibers that form thick bundles and compressed, it resumes its original shape.
fill nearly all of the extracellular space.
• There are two major subcategories of dense • There are three types of cartilage: hyaline,
connective tissue: collagenous and elastic. fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.
• Dense collagenous connective tissue has an • Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of collagen cartilage and has many functions, such as covering the
fibers. ends of bones, where they form joints.
• Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does hyaline
Dense collagenous connective tissue has an cartilage and is able to withstand compression and
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of resist tearing or pulling.
collagen fibers. • Fibrocartilage is found in the intervertebral disks.
• Dense collagenous connective tissue having
the collagen fibers oriented in the same • Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does
direction is termed dense regular. hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
• Examples of dense regular are tendons and compression and resist tearing or pulling.
ligaments. • Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between the
vertebrae (bones of the back) and in some joints,
• Dense collagenous connective tissue having such as the knee and temporomandibular (jaw)
joints. possible.
• Muscle contraction results from contractile
• Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in addition to proteins located within the muscle cells.
collagen and proteoglycans. • The three types of muscle tissue are
• The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers among skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
bundles of collagen fibers.
• Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original shape • Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and
when bent. enables the body to move.
• The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube contain • Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded,
elastic cartilage. because of the arrangement of contractile
proteins within the cells.
Bone
• Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists of • Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it is
living cells and a mineralized matrix. Osteocytes are responsible for pumping blood.
located within lacunae. • Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical but much
• The strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix shorter than skeletal muscle cells.
enables bones to support and protect other tissues • Cardiac muscle cells are striated and usually
and organs. have one nucleus per cell.
• Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone and • They are often branched and connected to one
compact bone. another by intercalated disks.

• Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae or • Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow organs; it

plates, of bone and therefore resembles a is also found in the skin and the eyes.

sponge. • Smooth muscle is responsible for a number of

• Compact bone is more solid, with almost no functions, such as moving food through the digestive

space between many thin layers of mineralized tract and emptying the urinary bladder.

matrix. • Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, have

a single nucleus, and are not striated.
Blood
• Blood is a liquid connective tissue Nervous Tissue1

• It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma, • Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and

along with formed elements. nerves.

• The formed elements are erythrocytes, • It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many

leukocytes, and platelets. body activities.

• It functions in transport of food, oxygen, waste, • Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support cells,

hormones, and other substances. termed glial cells.

• The neuron is responsible for conducting action
Muscle potentials.
• The main function of muscle tissue is to • It is composed of three parts: a cell body, dendrites,
contract, or shorten, making movement and an axon.
 occurring when tissues are damaged.
Tissue Membranes
• When viruses infect epithelial cells of the upper
• A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer of tissue
respiratory tract, inflammation and the symptoms
that covers a structure or lines a cavity.
of the common cold are produced.
• Most membranes consist of epithelium and the
• The inflammatory process occurs in stages.
connective tissue on which the epithelium rests.
• There are four tissue membranes in the body:
• Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses
cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial.
and isolates and destroys microorganisms,
• The skin, termed the cutaneous membrane, is an
foreign materials, and damaged cells so that
external body surface membrane.
tissue repair can proceed.
• Inflammation produces five major symptoms:
• The mucous membranes line cavities that open to the
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance
outside of the body, such as the digestive, respiratory,
of function.
and
reproductive tracts.
Tissue Repair
• Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells, their
• Tissue repair involves substitution of dead cells for
basement membrane, and a thick layer of loose
viable cells.
connective tissue.
• Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or by fibrosis.
• Many, but not all, mucous membranes secrete mucus.
• In regeneration, the new cells are the same type as
• The functions of mucous membranes include
protection, absorption, and secretion. those that were destroyed, and normal function is
usually restored.
• Serous membranes line cavities that do not open to the • In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue
exterior of the body, such as the pericardial, pleural, and develops that eventually causes scar production and
peritoneal cavities. the loss of some tissue function.
• Serous membranes consist of three components: a layer
of simple squamous epithelium, its basement membrane, • Regeneration can completely repair some tissues,
and a delicate layer of loose connective tissue. such as the skin and the mucous membrane of the
• Serous membranes do not contain glands, but they intestine. In these cases, regeneration is
secrete a small amount of fluid called serous fluid, which accomplished primarily by stem cells.
lubricates the surface of the membranes. • Stem cells are self-renewing, undifferentiated cells
that continue to divide throughout life.
• Synovial membranes line the cavities of freely
• Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.
movable joints.
• They are made up of only connective tissue and
consist of modified connective tissue cells.
• Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid, which
makes the joint very slippery, thereby reducing friction
and allowing smooth movement within the joint.

Tissue Inflammation1
• Inflammation is usually a beneficial process