BIOLOGY 10

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce new living organisms similar to
them. It is one of the important characteristic of life

Purpose of Reproduction: Reproduction is aimed at multiplication and perpetuation

(stability) of the species. In other words it provides group immortality by replacing the
dead individuals with new ones.

Basic Features of Reproduction: The modes of reproduction vary in different

organisms. However all of these have certain common basic features. These are –

 replication of DNA
 cell division
 formation of reproductive bodies or units
 development of reproductive bodies into offsprings

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

There are two main types of Reproduction in living organisms :

 Asexual Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction

Differences between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

S.No. Asexual Sexual

1. It is uniparental uni / biparental

2. Gametes are not formed formed

3. Reproductive organs are not needed needed.

4. No fertilisation fertilisation occur

5. Offsprings are similar to parent different

6. New characters do not appear appear

7. No variation variation present

8. No evolution evolution takes place

9. Definite process Indefinite process

Modes of Reproduction Used by Single

Organisms
i. Fission

For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new
individuals.

Binary Fission Multiple Fission

i. One cell divides into many

i. One cell splits into two equal halves.
cells simultaneously.

ii. Nuclear division occurs sev

ii. Each nuclear division is followed by a cytoplasmic division. It can be irregular, times, they move toward the
longitudinal, or transverse. periphery followed by cytopl
division.

iii. Generally occurs in unfavo

iii. Generally seen during favorable conditions. Examples: many bacteria and conditions or in parasitic form
protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium, and Leishmania. Example Plasmodium (malar
parasite).
 iv.

iv.

ii. Fragmentation

In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organization, simple

reproductive methods can still work. Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into
smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces or fragments grow into new
individuals.
It is not possible to reconstruct the whole organism from a fragment in complex
multicellular organisms because many multi-cellular organisms are not simply a
random collection of cells. Specialized cells are organized as tissues and tissues are
organized into organs, which then have to be placed at definite positions in the
body. Therefore, the cell-by-cell division would be impractical.

iii. Regeneration

Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual
organisms from their body parts. That is, if the individual is somehow cut or broken
up into many pieces, many of these pieces grow into separate individuals. For
example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of
pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is known as
regeneration.
iv. Budding

In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one

specific site. These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach
from the parent body and become new independent individuals.

v. Vegetative Propagation

The method of producing new plants from vegetative parts like roots, stems, and
leaves are called vegetative propagation.

Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the soil
and develop into new plants.
The advantages of vegetative propagation are:
1. The plants bear flowers and fruits earlier than those propagated sexually.
2. Plants have lost the capacity to form seeds hence they are propagated
vegetatively.
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation are:
1. Such plants are genetically similar to parent plants and are vulnerable to
infections and diseases.
2. They do not have variations, therefore, do not adapt well to changing
environments, and the plant species do not evolve.
vi. Spore Formation

The thread-like structures that develop on bread are the hyphae of the bread mould
(Rhizopus). They are non-reproductive parts. The tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are
involved in reproduction. The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that
can eventually develop into new Rhizopus individuals.

Advantage of spore formation:

The spores are covered by a hard protective coat which enables them to survive in
unfavorable conditions such as lack of food, water, and extreme temperatures. When
the conditions are favorable the spores can grow to produce new individuals

EXAMPLE OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION.

Spore formation → eg. Bacteria, fungi

• Budding → eg. Fungi (yeast)
• Fragmentation → eg. Algae, fungi
• Vegetative propagation
(a) Natural method
• By roots → eg. Sweet potato
• By stems → eg. Ginger, potato
• By leaves → eg. Bryophyllum
(b) Artificial method
• Cutting → eg. Rose
• Layering → eg. Strawberry, lemon
• Grafting → eg. Mango, rose.
• Micropropagation → eg. Orchids, dahlia
Asexual Reproduction in Animals
• Fission
(a) Binary fission → eg. Amoeba
(b) Multiple fission → eg. Plasmodium
• Budding → eg. Hydra
• Regeneration → eg. Planaria , Hydra

Advantages of the asexual mode of

reproduction
 Only one individual is required.
 Progeny is identical to parents.
 Produced in large numbers.

Sexual Reproduction
It is a mode of reproduction that depends on the involvement of two individuals
before a new generation can be created.

Four steps in sexual reproduction:

1. Formation of gametes in the sex organs.
2. Transfer of male gamete to female gamete.
3. Fusion of gametes, either inside or outside the female parent's body.
4. Development of the zygote to embryo and then complete individual.
Advantages of sexual reproduction:
1. Variations are produced among the progeny.
2. Such populations are able to adapt well to changing environment and thus
evolves faster.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

i. Involves only one parent. i. It involves two parents.

 ii. Gametes are not produced. ii. Gametes are produced.

iii. No fertilization and zygote formation. iii. Fertilization and zygote formation is observed.

iv. Produces offspring less rapidly. iv. Produces offspring more rapidly.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Different parts of a flower are – sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. The stamens and
pistils are the reproductive parts of a flower that contain the germ cells.

The flower may be

 unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either stamens or pistils

 bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and pistils.
1. Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains that are
yellowish in colour.
2. Pistil is present in the center of a flower and is the female reproductive part. It
is made of three parts: stigma, style, and ovary.
3. The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
4. The male germ cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female gamete
present in the ovule.
5. This fusion of the germ cells or fertilization gives us the zygote which is
capable of growing into a new plant.
 Pollination Fertilization

i. It is the transfer of pollen grain from the anther

i. It is the fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete.
to the stigma of a flower.

ii. It is achieved by agents like wind, water, or ii. It is achieved by the growth of the pollen tube so that the mal
animals. gamete reaches the female germ cells.

iii. It leads to fertilization. iii. It leads to the formation of seeds.

iv. It is an external process. iv. It is an internal process.

Process of seed formation in a flowering plant:

1. The pollen from the stamen is transferred to the stigma.
2. The male germ cell and the female germ cells combine to form the zygote.
3. The zygote undergoes rapid division to form the embryo inside the ovule.
4. The ovule develops a seed coat and turns into a seed.

Germination

Self-pollination Cross-pollination
 i. It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the i. It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to th
stigma within the same flower. stigma in another flower.

ii. It occurs either in the same flower or another flower of ii. It occurs between two flowers that are on different
the same plant. plants but are of the same species.

iii. It occurs in flowers that are genetically the same. iii. It occurs between flowers that are genetically differe

Reproduction in Human Beings

 The ratio of number of chromosomes between an egg and its zygote is 1:2.
 Sperms contain either X or Y chromosomes whereas an egg will always have
an X chromosome.
General Growth Sexual Maturation

General growth refers to different types of developmental Sexual maturation is specific to changes reflected at
processes in the body like an increase in height, weight gain, puberty like the cracking of voice, new hair patterns
and changes in shape and size of the body. development of breasts in females, etc.

Sexual maturation of reproductive tissues is a necessary link for reproduction

because of the need for specialized cells called germ cells to participate in sexual
reproduction. The body of the individual organism has to grow to its adult size, the
rate of general body growth begins to slow down, and reproductive tissues begin to
mature.

A whole new set of changes in the appearance of the body takes place like changes
in body proportions, and new features appear. This period during adolescence is
called puberty.

There are also changes taking place that are different between boys and girls. In girls,
breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of
the breasts. Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time. Boys begin to have
new thick hair growth on their faces and their voices begin to crack.
Male Reproductive System

 The urethra serves as a common passage for both sperm and urine.
 The testosterone hormone is released by the testis. In addition to regulating
the formation of sperm, testosterone brings about changes in appearance
seen in boys at the time of puberty.
 The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles add their secretions so that the
sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier and this fluid also
provides nutrition.
Female Reproductive System

 Ovary (production of egg)

 Oviduct (site of fertilization)
 Uterus (site of implantation)
 Vagina (entry of the sperm)
Functions of the ovary:
1. Production of the female hormone estrogen.
2. Production of female gamete.
Functions of Oviduct/Fallopian tube:
1. Transfer of female gamete from the ovary.
2. Site of fertilization.
Functions of the uterus:
1. Implantation of the zygote.
2. Nourishment of developing embryo.
Placenta: A placenta is a special tissue connection between the embryo and the
uterine wall.
Role of the Uterus and Placenta in the Growth and Development of the Embryo:
1. The lining of the uterus thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish
the growing embryo.
2. The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of the
placenta. It is embedded in the uterine wall.
3. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue. On the mother’s side are
blood spaces, which surround the villi.
 4. This provides a large surface area for nutrition and oxygen to pass from the
mother to the embryo.
5. Waste substances produced by the embryo are removed through the placenta
into the mother’s blood.
6. The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the
uterus.
When the egg is not fertilized:
1. The egg survives for a day in the reproductive system.
2. In case the egg is not fertilized, it is shed along with the lining of the uterus
out of the vagina as blood and mucus.
Child marriages are a hazard to women's reproductive health because:
1. Females will not have reached full sexual maturity at the time of marriage.
2. There are possibilities of pregnancy in the teenage years that may cause
adverse effects on the female’s body.
Contraceptive methods are used such as:
1. Mechanical barriers (condoms)
2. Drugs (as pills)
3. Loop or copper T
4. Surgical method.
Pills change the hormonal balance and thus prevent the release of the egg, hence
fertilization is prevented. But this method can have some side effects as it interferes
with the hormonal balance of the body.

Advantages of using a mechanical barrier over other contraceptive measures:

1. Contraceptive pills can cause hormonal imbalances.
2. Copper T and IUD can cause irritation to the uterine lining if not placed
correctly.
3. Surgical methods, if not performed properly, can lead to infections and
complications.