INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE : INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY
Topic – 2: Research Methods in Psychology

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
(Psychiatry & Psychology)
CREDIT HOURS 3(3-0)
Instructor : Miss Hina Mirza
Clinical psychologist ,Counselor , Educationist
MINHAJ UNIVERSITY LAHORE
 Topic 2: Research Methods in Psychology

Objectives
 1- Why Are Research Methods Important?
 2-What Are The Goals of Scientific Method?
 3-What can we measure ?
 4-What Are Methods of Psychology?
a. Introspection method
b. Observation method
c. Experimental method
d. Case study method
e. Questionnaire method
f. Interview method
g. Survey method
Research Methods in Psychology
▪ Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new
knowledge.

▪ “Research is a process of systematic inquiry that is designed to

understand ,describe ,predict or control a psychological or an
educational phenomenon”.

▪ “Research is a collection of methods people use systematically

to produce knowledge”.
I. Why Are Research Methods Important?
 I. Why Are Research Methods Important?

• Science, at a basic level attempts to answer questions (such as

"why are we aggressive) through careful observation and
collection of data.
• These answers can then (at a more complex or higher level) be
used to further our knowledge of us and our world, as well as
help us predict subsequent events and behavior.

• But, this requires a systematic/universal way of collecting and

understanding data
 Examples

• At a Practical level, methodology helps us understand and evaluate the

merit of all the information we're confronted with everyday. For example,
do you believe in the following studies?

1) study indicated that the life span of left-handed people is significantly

shorter than those who are right hand dominant.
2) study demonstrated a link between smoking and poor grades.

• There are many aspects of these studies that are necessary before one can
evaluate the validity of the results. However, most people do not bother to
find out the details (which are the keys to understanding the studies) but
only pay attention to the findings, even if the findings are completely
erroneous.
2-Goals of the Scientific Method
 2-Goals of the Scientific Method

1. Describe,
2. Predict,
3. Select Method,
4. Control,
5. Collect Data,
6. Analyze,
7. Explanation
1) Description - the citing of the observable characteristics of
an event, object, or individual. Helps us to be systematic and
consistent.

This stage sets the stage for more formal stages - here we
acquire our topic of study and begin to transform it from a
general concept or idea into a specific, testable construct.

2) Prediction - here we formulate testable predictions

3) Select Methodology & Design - chose the most

appropriate research strategy for empirically addressing your
hypotheses
• 4) Control - method of eliminating all unwanted factors that may
effect what we are attempting to study (we will address in more
detail later).
• 5) Collect Data - although the book is a little redundant and does
not differentiate well between this stage and selecting the design and
method, data collection is simply the execution and implementation
of your research design.
• 6) Analyze & Interpret the Data - use of statistical procedures to
determine the mathematical and scientific importance (not the
"actual" importance or meaningfulness) of the data.
• 7) Report/Communicate the Findings - Psychology is a science
that is based on sharing - finding answers to questions is
meaningless (to everyone except the scientist) unless that
information can be shared with others. We do this through
publications in scientific journals, books, presentations, lectures, etc.
3-What can we measure ?
 3-What can we measure ?

Psychologists have developed three main types of measure to

help them examine mental processes and states:

 Behavioral measures These involve observation of particular

forms of behaviour in order to make inferences about the
psychological phenomena that caused or contributed to them.

 Self-report measures These involve asking people about

their thoughts, feelings or reaction to a particular question.

 Physiological measures These involve measuring things that

are believed to be associated with particular forms of mental
activity.
4-Methods of Psychology:
4-Methods of Psychology:
Psychologists use many scientific methods for research
purposes to understand various psychological issues
more scientifically. These scientific methods reduce bias
and errors in understanding various behavioral aspects.

The relevance of these scientific methods extends beyond

testing and evaluating theories and hypotheses in
psychology. Though there are many such methods used
by psychologists, each has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
Types of Research Methods

a. Introspection method
b. Observation method
c. Experimental method
d. Case study method
e. Questionnaire method
f. Interview method
g. Survey method
A. Introspection Method:
Introspection or self-observation may be considered as a old method
but it is something we are doing almost constantly in our everyday
life. Introspection is a method of studying the consciousness in
which the subjects report on their subjective experiences. It is a
method that requires long and difficult training. It gives in-depth
information about the individual.
▪ In introspection, the subject is taught to achieve a state of
“focused attention” in which he can closely observe his own
conscious experiences.

▪ He will be able to report the smallest possible elements of

awareness.

▪ Thus the goal of introspection is to learn about the basic building

blocks of experience and the principles by which they combine to
give us our everyday consciousness.
Limitations:

1. It is not possible to observe one’s own behavior and at

the same time experience it. If such an attempt is
made, the experience disappears. Thus the subject has
to depend upon memory which itself may be subject
to distortions, omissions and commissions.

2. The results obtained from introspection are subjective

and so lack scientific validity. They cannot be verified
and have to be accepted at face value.
3. The method cannot be used to study children, animals,
insane people, feebleminded and those who are not good at
verbal expression.

4. Because experiences are unique, they cannot be repeated

and so introspection cannot be repeated.

5. Many experiences are either partly or wholly

unconscious and cannot be observed consciously and
analyzed.

6. All experiences cannot be verbalized.

B. Observation Method:

This is the most commonly used method especially in

relation to behavioral science, though observation as such
is common in everyday occurrences, scientific observations
are formulated in research places.

It is systematically planned, recorded and is subjected to

check and control its validity and reliability.
The other way of classifying observation is that of controlled and
uncontrolled observations:

a. Uncontrolled observation:
It is that which takes place in natural setting. Here no attempt is made
to use perceptional instruments or methods. Here the major aim of
this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life of the
persons.

b. Controlled observation:
In this, behaviour is observed according to definite prearranged plans
involving experimental procedure. Here mechanical or precision
instruments are used to aid accuracy and standardization.

This provides formulized data upon which generalizations can be

built with considerable accuracy. Generally, controlled observation
takes place in various experiments which are carried out in labs under
controlled conditions.
 Types of Observation:

• 1. Controlled Observations- structured observation

• 2. Natural Observations
• 3. Participant and Non Participant Observations
 1. Controlled Observations- structured observation

• Important Features of controlled observations are as follows :

• Carried out in lab
• Decided place ,time and participants
• Pre-decided circumstances
• Standardized procedure
• Random allocation of participants
• Code behavior-numbers or letters to describe a characteristics, or use of a scale to
measure behavior intensity
Strengths:
• easily replicated
• The data obtaining and analyzing is easier and quicker as it is quantitative .
• ability to be generalized to a large population.
Limitations:
• When participants know they are being watched they may act differently.
 2. Naturalistic Observation

 Naturalistic observation (i.e. unstructured observation) involves studying

the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The
researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.
 For example.
❖ Studying children at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup.
❖ Studying the way of life of different tribes living on islands in the South
Pacific.
❖ Studying wild animals in a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat.
 Strengths:
1. greater ecological validity.
2. observation is often used to generate new ideas.
 Limitations:
1. lacking the ability to be generalized
2. less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled.
3. Researcher needs to be trained
 3. Participant Observation and Non Participant

The researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get
a deeper insight into their lives. Non participant observation is opposite to it
Limitations:
1. It is expensive with respect to time and money.
2. The information’s provided by this method is very less or limited.
3. Sometimes, unforeseen factors may interfere with observation.

Merits:
1. If observation is done accurately, subjective bias is eliminated.
2. The information obtained under this method relates to current
happenings. Either past behaviours or future intensions, do not complicate
it.
C. Experimental Method:

The experimental method is most often used in laboratory.

This is the method of observation of the behaviour or the
ability of the individual under controlled condition or fixed
circumstances.

It is the performing of an experiment that is a tightly

controlled and highly structured observation of variables.
 Conditions of Experimental Study:

a. The control group

b. The experimental group.

a. Control group provides a base line against which the

performance of experimental group can be composed.

b. The group that receives the experimental treatment is

called the experimental group (The group that receives no
treatment is called the control group).
Limitations:
1. The situation in which the behaviour is studied is always an
artificial one.
2. Complete control of the extraneous variables is not possible.
3. All types of behaviour cannot be experimented.
4. Experimental method requires a laboratory and is expensive.
5. We cannot accumulate information from abnormal people using this
method.

Merits:
1. The results are clear and straight forward.
2. The results are usually expressed in terms of numbers which makes
it convenient for comparison of performance and analysis.
3. The experiment can be replicated by other researches and verified.
4. Highly dependable cause-effect relationships can be established.
D. Case Study (History) Method:

It is a detailed description of a particular individual. It may be

based on careful observation or formal psychological testing. It
may include information about the person’s childhood dreams,
fantasies, experiences, relationships and hopes that throw light
into the person’s behaviour.

Case studies depend on client’s memories of the past and such

memories are highly reliable to understand the problems. As case
studies focus on individuals, so we cannot generalize about human
behaviour.
E. Questionnaire Method:

Questionnaire is an instrument of data collection. It is a method

of data collection through which both qualitative as well as
quantitative data can be collected by formulating a set of
interrelated questions.

They are:
1. The general form
2. The question sequence
3. Question formulation and wording.
Limitations:
1. The method can only be used when respondents are literate and
cooperative.
2. The questionnaire is not flexible because there is no possibility of
changing the questions to suit the situation.
3. There is possibility of ambiguous responses or omission of
responses to some questions.
4. Interpretation of omissions is difficult.
5. It is difficult to know whether the sample is really representative.

Merits:
1. When the sample is large, the questionnaire method is economical.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well though-out answers.
4. Large samples can be used and so the results can be made
dependable and reliable.
F. Interview Method:

This involves collection of data by having a direct verbal

communication between two people.

Personal interviews are popular but telephone interviews

can also be conducted as well. This method is also called
face to face method.
Types of Interview:
a. Structured interview involves the use of predetermined
questions and standardized techniques of recording. The
interviewer follows a rigid procedure asking questions in a
framed prescribed order.

b. Unstructured interview is flexible in its approach to

questioning. Here it does not follow the system of
predetermined questions and standardized techniques of
recording the data. Here the interviewer is allowed much
greater freedom to ask supplementary questions or to omit
some questions if required and he may change the sequence of
questions.
Limitations:

1. It is a very expensive method.

2. Interviewer bias as well as respondents bias may operate while

gathering information.

3. Certain types of respondents may not be available for

interviews.

4. This method is relatively time consuming.

5. Selecting, training and supervising the field staff is very

complex.
Advantages:
1. More information about the subject can be obtained in
greater depth. The interviewer can obtain a perfect idea
about the subject through other means of assessing. As the
person is directly accessible he can use other means of
communication to assess the individual.

2. First hand information can be collected about the subject’s

background, economic and educational considerations.

3. The overall personal aspect of an individual can also be

assessed.
G. Survey Method:

This method involves in asking large numbers of individuals to

complete the given questionnaires or through interviews by
interviewing people directly about their experiences, attitudes or
opinions.

That is for example, survey on healthcare reform, or economic

reform, voting preferences prior to elections, consumer reactions to
various products, health practices, public opinion and complaints
with safety regulations and so on.

Surveys are often repeated over long period of time in order to trace
the shifts in public opinion. Surveys can provide highly accurate
prediction when conducted carefully.
H. Testing Method:

This method makes use of carefully devised and standardized

tests for measuring attitudes, interest, achievement, intelligence
and personality traits.

Intelligence tests measure the intellectual capacity of an

individual and achievement tests through light on achievement of
student in various subjects they are studying.

So by adopting all these methods, psychology collects

information about behaviour, which helps us to study the
behaviour systematically. There are the different methods used in
psychology to study the behaviour.
Class Discussions