Linguistics

Methodology
Testing
Teaching English to Young Learners
Teaching Language Skills
APPROACHES, METHODS and TECHNIQUES in LANGUAGE TEACHING

 When the history of language teaching and learning is examined, it can be seen that:
- depending on the needs and the educational conditions of the time different perspectives have
emerged

This led to the appearance of a wide range of approaches and methods.

(in this process the shortcomings of an approach and method or reactions to each other paved the way for
another one)

 Throughout the history of the field of foreign language teaching different approaches and methods
have emerged, but there is no best method that can be universally accepted.

The complexity of the context and the dynamic nature of the classroom have led us to this conclusion.

 Different approaches and methods were affected by certain linguistic and psychological theories in
this process.

In order to discover the principles and underlying assumptions of the approaches and methods, we need to
understand the linguistic and psychological views in language teaching methodology.
LINGUISTIC and PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS in LANGUAGE TEACHING

A. LINGUISTIC VIEWS

1. The TRADITIONAL VIEW

- focused on the written language and its grammatical structures.
- the emphasis on the accurate production of the language and determining the correct way of
putting things into words
- not concerned with the usage of the language for communication purposes
- language is a tool for understanding its literature (literature of the target language)
- teach how to form grammatically correct sentences with the knowledge of vocabulary

2. STRUCTURALISM
- views language as a complex system of interrelated parts
- is a theory that seeks to explain language by looking its individual components and how they interact
- views the language as being divided into several components; these components interact with
each other and form the rules of the language
- Language is viewed as a system of structurally related elements to convey meaning.
- Students learn how to piece the parts of English together into a more complete understanding of
the language.
- In contrast to the traditional view; focused on everyday language use and speech by examining
the way people used the language
- It emphasized the importance of language as a system and examines the role that linguistic units
(sounds, words, sentences) play within this system.

3. The GENERATIVE TRANSFORMATIONAL THEORY

- Noam Chomsky opposed to the assumptions of structuralism and criticized it by emphasizing
that there is an underlying level for all utterances of the native speakers.
- emphasized mental activity and proposed that human beings have the capability to learn a
language.
- the inborn ability (not practice) that enabled human beings to obtain the rules of a language and
comprehend or produce unlimited numbers of utterances
- most of the knowledge of language (competence) is innate
- Babies are born wired to acquire language and need only to learn the idiosyncratic features of the
languages they are exposed to.
- People can produce and comprehend utterances which they have never heard before. (creativity
aspect of language)
- People use their language competence to generate novel utterances.
4. The COMMUNICATIVE VIEW
- proposes that language is actually vehicle in order to express functional meaning conveyed
through structures
- semantic and communicative aspects of language are emphasized rather than the linguistic units
(but they are not totally neglected)
- linguistic competence is not sufficient for a person to be able to use a language communicatively
since it ignored the actual use of language (contextual factors, shared knowledge between the
interlocutors, physical context, gender)
- This view introduced the concept of communicative competence which can be defined as the
appropriate and effective use of language in line with the contextual factors influencing the
choice of words and structures.

B. THEORIES of LEARNING (PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS)

1. BEHAVIORISM
- considers learning as habit formation (a learner is passive imitator who responds to
environmental stimuli)
- language behavior is shaped by means of positive and negative reinforcement
- It is a stimulus-response-reinforcement theory.
- Learning is a process of automatic habit formation happening via reinforcement of a mechanical
relation between a stimulus and response.
- Errors are bad habits, so they need to be corrected by the teachers.
- Memorization and imitation are at the heart of this theory.

2. COGNITIVE THEORY
- The emphasis is on the importance of experience, meaning, problem-solving and the
development of insights.
- based on internal and mental processes in language learning
- Second language acquisition related to the interaction between language and cognition.
- Language learning is the result of internal mental activity.
- Learners act, construct, plan and analyze their own learning.
- Learners acquire new information then reorganize and restructure the existing knowledge.
(internal processes, internal mental activity)
- Feedback is important.
3. HUMANISM
- Language learning is a process that engages the whole person not just the intellect.
- The emotions and spiritual needs of an individual are taken into consideration.
- Emotions, feelings and attitudes of the learners towards language and language learning, their
needs, interests, beliefs and motivations are the core concerns.
- Before teaching the language, preparing the necessary conditions and classroom atmosphere is
very important.
- Self-actualization is at the centre because the reason for individuals to learn is to satisfy needs of
the self-actualization.

4. CONNECTIONISM
- It is in the cognitive framework.
- Language learning results from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli
and response.
- The L2 input is the source of both the units and the rules of language. The frequency of input is
important.
- Learners extract the rules of the language through cognitive processes.
- Language includes units which are intertwined in mind, so acquisition occurs through associating
elements or ideas with one another by means of experiences.
- Language acquisition is a process of associating words with elements of external reality.

DEFINITIONS of TERMINOLOGIES
 American applied linguist Edward Anthony identified three levels of conceptualization and
organization, which he termed approach, method and technique.

Approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning.
It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. An approach is axiomatic, something the truth
of which cannot be proven.

Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts,
and all of which is based upon the selected approach. It is the practical application of theoretical
findings. A method is procedural. The level at which theory put into practice and at which choices are
made about the specific skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content
will be presented.

Technique is implementation that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick or
strategy used to accomplish an immediate objective. It is defined as the activities, practices and tasks
utilized in the classroom. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with
an approach.
Three different theoretical views of language and the nature of language proficiency explicitly or
implicitly inform current approaches and methods in language teaching.

Structural View Functional View Interactional View

-Language is a system of -Language is a vehicle for the -Language is a vehicle for the
structurally related elements for expression of functional realization of interpersonal
coding of meaning. meaning. relations and for the performance
-The target of language learning -It emphasizes the semantic and of social trans actions between
is to master the elements of this communicative dimension rather individuals.
system (grammatical units, than only the grammatical -Language is a tool for creation
phonological units, lexical characteristics of language. and maintenance of social
items). -The Communicative Movement, relations.
-Audio Lingual Method, Total Notional Syllabus, ESP
Physical Response, Silent Way

These models of language provide the axioms and theoretical frame work that may motivate a
specific method. But in themselves they are incomplete and need to be complemented by theories
of language learning.

Some other methods derive from a theory of language learning. A learning theory underlying an
approach or method responds to two questions:

What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive What are the conditions that need to be met
processes involved in language learning? in order for these learning processes to be
activated?

Condition-oriented
Process-oriented -emphasize the nature of the human and
-build on learning processes (habit physical context in which language
formation, inference, generalization, learning takes place
hypothesis testing)
-Monitor Model of Second language
-Monitor Model of Second language development (S. Krashen)
development (S. Krashen) -Natural Approach (Tracy Terrell)
-Natural Approach (Tracy Terrell) -Total Physical Response (James Asher)
-Total Physical Response (James Asher) -Counseling Learning (Charles A. Curran)
-Silent Way (Caleb Gattegno)
 HISTORY of LANGUAGE TEACHING
BEFORE the METHODS ERA
 500 hundred years ago the most widely studied foreign language was Latin (today it is English).
 The study of classical Latin and an analysis of its grammar and rhetoric became the model for
foreign language study from the 17th to the 19th centuries.
 In the 18th century, because the modern languages began to enter the curriculum of European
schools, they were taught using the same basic procedures that were used for teaching Latin.
 Textbooks consisted of statements of abstract grammar rules,
 Lists of vocabulary
 Sentences for translation
 Speaking L2 was not the goal
 Spoken language was limited to students reading aloud the sentences they had
translated
 This approach based on the study of Latin had become the standard way of studying foreign
languages.
 A typical textbook consisted of chapters or lessons organized around grammar points.
 Each grammar point was listed, rules on its use were EXPLICITLY explained, and it was presented
by sample sentences.
 19th century textbook writers were focused on codifying the L2 into frozen rules of morphology
(structure), syntax to be explained (deductive teaching), and memorized (isolated).
 Speaking was reduced to minimum.
 This type of foreign language teaching became known as the Grammar-Translation Method.

The GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

(teaching students about L2 but not how to use it)

 The GTM is an old and traditional method that was used to teach classical languages (Latin and
Greek).
 The GTM may be described as classical method, traditional method and Prussian method.
 The GTM did not follow any approach.
 The purpose of L2 study is to learn L2 to read its literature so that learners can develop themselves
intellectually and strengthen their minds (mental discipline).
 The lessons are in L1 (translation).

 Learning Theory: Deductive teaching and learning is the way of teaching and learning. The
students are given the rules of L2 explicitly and the rules are practiced through translation exercises.

 Language Theory: L2 helps learners to understand the literature. The abstract grammatical rules of
L2 are important. Students learn the structures of their mother tongue. Written language is
considered superior over spoken language.

 Goals of Teachers: - fundamental purpose of learning L2 is to be able to read its literature

-To read literature, students need to learn grammar rules and vocabulary of L2
-Studying a foreign language provides good mental exercise (improving students’
mental capacities)

 Roles of Teachers: T is the strict and main authority in the classroom (T centered atmosphere).
 Roles of the Students: Students do what T says. They are obedient and passive receivers.

 Characteristics of Teaching and Learning Process: translation from L2 to L1 and L1 to L2

- Studying grammar deductively: teaching grammar rules explicitly without using
meaningful context. Memorizing them and applying the rules to new examples.
- Memorizing vocabulary (L1 equivalents for L2 words).

 Interaction: the interaction is from T to students (T is the knowledge provider).

- no or little interaction among students

 Dealing with Students’ Feeling: There is no information about students’ feelings (not humanistic).
 View of Culture: Culture is limited to the literature and the fine arts of L2.

 Emphasis on Areas of Language: Grammar and vocabulary are emphasized (written language is
important). Pronunciation is not focused.

 Emphasis on Language Skills: The written language is superior over the spoken language.
- Reading and writing skills are emphasized, speaking and listening are neglected.
- Accuracy and formimportant, fluency and meaningnot important

 Role of L1: Classroom language is L1. Meaning of L2 is made clear by translation into L1.
- L1 is used to teach grammar and vocabulary.
- Classroom instructions are in L1.

 Evaluation: Students are asked to translate sentences from L2 to L1 or vice versa.

- Students are assessed through written tests (about target culture, about grammar
rules).
- Fill-in-the-blank, synonyms, antonyms, cognates, comprehension questions and
composition writing are used as test techniques and classroom activities.

 T’s response to students’ errors: It is important that students get the correct answer.
- Incorrect answers are corrected by the T directly and immediately.
- Accuracy is important and errors are not tolerated.

 Syllabus Type: Structural syllabus is used to prepare the lessons.

- Discrete grammar structures are in every lesson.
- Syllabus is designed from simple to complex.

 TECHNIQUES:
- Translation of a literary passage
- Deductive application of grammar rules
- Fill-in-the-blanks
- Memorization of vocabulary and grammar rules
- Using words in sentences
- Writing composition in L2 on a given topic
- Reading comprehension questions (information questions, inference questions and
experience questions)
- Teaching vocabulary is provided by lists of isolated words with their meanings in L1.
- Teaching vocabulary is also provided by synonyms and antonyms.
- Another way to teach vocabulary is the use of cognates (cognate memorization).
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING
DIRECT METHOD
l.goals of teachers - learning how to use L2 to communicate
- sts should learn to think directly in L2
2.roles of teachers - mainly T directs the class activity
-T > director
3.roles of students - more active than in GTM
-T & sts are like partners
4.characteristics of - association of meaning & L2 directly
teaching learning process - T's demonstration of meanings through the use of realia, pictures, pantomime
- no translation
-sts speak in L2
-syllabus based on situations or topics
-vocabulary is learned through using new words in complete sentences
5.interaction ( T-S ) T>S
S > T ( T directed )
6.interaction ( S-S ) - S > S in conversation form
7.dealing with S's feeling - no principles
8.view of language -primarily speech ( spoken language > written language )
-no use of L1 in classroom
-sts study common everyday language in L2
9.view of culture consists of history and geography
information about the daily lives of people speaking L2
lO.emphasis on areas of -vocabulary is emphasized over grammar
language -pronunciation is emphasized from the beginning
ll.emphasis on language -reading, writing, listening, speaking ( from the start )
skills -speaking ( oral communication ) important
12.role of L1 * no use of L1 in classroom
13.evaluation -sts are asked to use L2 orally or in written form
-oral interview or writing a paragraph
14.T's response to sts' * sts are directed to self-correction
errors -posing a choice ( in the coast or on the coast )
-repeating the mistake
15.techniques *sts read out loud; T uses gestures, pictures to make the meaning clear ( reading aloud )

*T asks questions & sts answer in full sentences to practice vocabulary and grammar rules in L2

*( question and answer exercise )

*sts also ask questions

*sts' self-correction

*conversation practice ( sts ask questions to each other )

*fill-in-the-blank exercise

- different from GTM > no explicit grammar rules > vocabulary items in L2

*dictation

map drawing according to instructions based on meaning

paragraph writing
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING
AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
“parrot learning”

l.goals of teachers ♦sts should be able to use L2 communicatively

♦sts overlearn L2 (learning L2 automatically) through habit formation in accordance with L2
2.roles of teachers ♦T- orchestra leader (director: controlling sts' language behavior)
♦provides a good model for imitation
3.roles of students ♦imitator of T's models ♦followers of T's directions ♦responding accurately and rapidly
4.characteristics of ♦new vocabulary and grammar presented through dialogues
♦drills based upon the patterns in the dialogue
teaching learning process ♦positive reinforcement from the T
♦no explicit grammar rules which are to be drawn from the examples
♦culture is taught through dialogue in a contextualized way
♦oral work > reading and writing tasks
5.interaction ( T-S ) ♦T > S (most of the time and T initiated)
6.interaction ( S-S ) ♦S > S (in chain drills or when sts take different roles in dialogues but T directed)
7.dealing with S's feeling ♦no principles
8.view of language ♦every language has its own unique system ♦L1 & L2 should not interfere with each other
♦everyday speech is emphasized
♦level of complexity is graded (simple>complex) (beginners are exposed to only simple patterns)

9.view of culture ♦lifestyle and everyday behavior of L2 speakers

lO.emphasis on areas of ♦sound system and grammatical patterns are emphasized
language ♦vocabulary is minimum
♦grammatical pattern is not same as sentence (e.g. Meg called. The team practiced)
ll.emphasis on language ♦natural order of skills : listening>speaking>reading>writing
skills ♦oral/aural skills are emphasized
♦writing based upon what they have practiced orally previously
♦pronunciation taught from the beginning
♦practice on minimal pairs

12.role of L1 ♦no use of L1

13.evaluation ♦discrete point in nature (questions focus on only one point of the language at a time)
e.g. minimal pair or correct verb form
14.T's response to sts' ♦every error should be corrected by the T(T is aware and expects errors through contrastive analysis of
errors L1 and L2)
♦dialogue memorization through mimicry (mim-mem theory) -
sentence patterns and grammar points
♦backward build up drill (expansion) -it is used when there is a problem
♦repetition drill ♦chain drill ♦single-slot substitution drill
15.techniques
♦multiple-slot substitution drill ♦transformation drill ♦question and answer drill
♦use of minimal pairs ♦complete the dialogue
♦grammar game e.g. the supermarket alphabet game
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING
SILENT WAY
♦using the language for self-expression (thoughts, perception and feelings)
l.goals of teachers ♦sts need to develop independence from T and their own inner criteria for correctness
♦T gives sts what they need to promote their learning

2.roles of teachers ♦technician or engineer ( relying on what sts already know ) ♦respects sts' autonomy

3.roles of students ♦make use of what they already know ♦free themselves of any obstacles interfering with their
attention ♦actively engage in exploring the language

♦start learning L2 through basic building blocks-sounds

♦relying on what they already know - association between L1 and L2
4.characteristics of ♦sound-colour chart; colours later used to spell (colour-coded Fidel chart)
teaching&learning and pronounce words (colour-coded word chart)
process ♦sts practice on L2 autonomously by exploring it and making choices
♦errors are evidence of what should be worked on

♦T is silent ; ( T>S nonverbal interaction )

5.interaction ( T-S )
-active, listening the sts attentively, working on the production of sts through nonverbal gestures
♦speaking is for giving clues not modeling L2

♦S>S verbal interaction

6.interaction ( S-S ) ♦they learn from each other
♦they are encouraged

♦T observes sts
♦sts have an opportunity to express their feelings through feedback sessions in the end
7.dealing with S's ♦T takes what sts say into consideration
feelings ♦T helps sts to overcome negative feelings
♦sts' cooperation with each other enables to create a relaxed and enjoyable learning atmosphere

8.view of language ♦every language has a common point with another language but has its own unique system

9.view of culture ♦culture cannot be separated from language

♦sounds are basic to any language - pronunciation from the beginning

lO.emphasis on areas of ♦focus on the structure of L2
language ♦vocabulary is limited at first
♦there is no structural syllabus ( T develops syllabus according to learning needs )

ll.emphasis on language ♦all four skills emphasized from the beginning -production orally first then reading and writing
skills
♦meaning is made clear by focusing sts' perceptions
12.role of L1 ♦L1 is used ; to give instructions, to help sts improve pronunciation, in feedback sessions
♦T builds upon what sts already know in L1 to introduce L2 ( known to unknown )

♦no formal tests; there is continuous assessment

♦sts ability to transfer what they have been studying to new contexts
13.evaluation ♦no praise no criticism
♦every sts learn at different rates
♦steady progress is important but not perfection

♦errors are natural

14.T's response to sts' ♦T uses errors to decide where further work is necessary
errors ♦sts' self correction (second>peer correction) (T correction as a last resource)
 ♦sound-colour chart >blocks of colour representing sounds
>production of sound combinations, words, sentences

♦T's silence >promoting sts' autonomy

♦peer correction >cooperative not competitive

♦rods >meaning is made clear by rods

>rods used teach colours, numbers, and prepositions
15.techniques
♦self correction (gestures)

♦word chart >T and later the sts points words on the wall charts to read aloud the sentences they have
spoken
>the way the letters are colored (the colors from the sound-color chart are used) helps the sts with
their pronunciation

♦Fidel charts >color-coded charts to enable sts to associate the sounds of L2 with their spelling

♦structured feedback >sts are given opportunity to comment on the day's lesson
>T listens to sts acceptively in a nondefensive manner
>T exploits sts to identify problematic points
>sts take responsibility for their own learning through awareness of using learning strategies in class
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING

DESUGGESTOPEDIA
♦T hopes to accelerate the process in which sts learn to use L2 for everyday communication
l.goals of teachers ♦desuggest (overcome) the psychological barriers
♦T uses techniques to activate "PARACONSCIOUS" part of the mind at subconscious level

2.roles of teachers ♦T is the authority

♦sts trust and respect the T ( sts retain more information and be more responsive to T's
3.roles of students desuggesting limitations )
♦by trusting and respecting T, sts feel more secure and spontaneous and less inhibited

♦bright and cheerful classroom

♦posters containing grammatical information of L2 foster peripheral learning
4.characteristics ♦long dialogues introduced (receptive phase)
of >T reads out the dialogue according to the rhythm of the song (active) by which both hemispheres
teaching&learning of the brain are activated
process ♦there is no homework
♦sts do activities where they learn about the language (activation phase)
♦T initiated at first
5.interaction *T to students and then T to student
( T-S ) ♦student initiated when they have more control of L2

6.interaction ( S-S ) ♦S>S in the activity of throwing a ball to each other

♦sts should feel relaxed and confident
7.dealing with S's ♦not much effort to learn > it should come naturally and easily
feelings ♦negative feelings and barriers should be eliminated
♦choosing new identities makes sts feel more secure and more open to learning

8.view of language ♦language + linguistic message comprise communication

9.view of culture ♦everyday life of people who are speaking L2

♦the use of fine arts

♦vocabulary is emphasized
lO.emphasis on ♦grammar is taught explicitly but minimum ( drawing conscious attention, focusing on the using
areas of language of L2 not on the language forms
♦paraconscious mind absorbs the structural rules of L2

ll.emphasis on ♦speaking communicatively

language skills ♦reading in L2 ( dialogues )
♦writing imaginative compositions

♦translation to L1 to make the meaning clear

12.role of L1 ♦L1 is used when necessary
♦T uses L1 less and less as time goes by

13.evaluation ♦no formal tests which would threaten the relaxed atmosphere
♦it is based on sts' performance in class

14.T's response to
♦errors are corrected by T gently in a soft voice
sts' errors
 ♦classroom set-up > ( creating bright and colorful atmosphere )
♦peripheral learning > through posters containing grammatical information
♦positive suggestion
> T is responsible to desuggest psychological barriers of sts in two ways
1.direct positive suggestion >sts are conscious > "You won't need to try to learn. It will just come
naturally."
15.techniques
2.indirect positive suggestion >sts are subconscious > the title of the dialogue
"To want to is to be able to"

♦choose a new identity

♦role play (dramatization) > pretending to be someone else performing in L2
♦first concert (active concert)
♦second concert (passive concert)
♦primary activation>sts reread the dialogue out loud(some sts -sadly, some sts angrily)
♦creative adaptation ^ learning the new material and using it spontaneously through singing,
dancing, dramatization (sts do various activities related to the dialogue)
(focus on communication but not on forms)
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

The Comprehension Approach > gives importance to listening comprehension. Comprehension comes first and then production.

According to a research, when a person internalizes how L2 works s/he is ready to speak in the way babies do in their first
language. Natural Approach and Direct Method share this view. From the very first day, students listen to the teacher whose
language is L2 and they do not speak at first. The teacher's language is comprehensible to the students. Thus, acquisition will
come naturally. Low affective filter is created because the students are not forced to speak.

l.goals of teachers ♦reduce the stress over sts ♦encourage sts proceed their study beyond beginning level

2.roles of teachers ♦director of student behavior initially

3.roles of students ♦non-verbal imitators of teacher's directions ♦they speak only when they feel ready

♦the first phase >T model some commands and only some sts perform them with T
♦the second phase >these sts perform the same commands to show they have understood along with the
4.characteristics of other sts in the class
teaching&learning process ♦T recombines the commands to create flexibility in sts' comprehension
♦sts read and write the commands
♦sts give commands themselves when they are ready to speak
5.interaction ( T-S ) ♦T> students and T> student
♦initially T speaking and sts performing nonverbally > later role reversal
6.interaction ( S-S ) ♦student > student and student > students (issuing commands) they perform actions together and learn by
watching each other

7.dealing with students' ♦it is important to relieve anxiety through making the learning process enjoyable
feelings ♦sts should not be forced to speak, which will create anxiety. Perfection is not expected when sts speak.
♦feeling of success and low anxiety trigger learning
8.view of language ♦oral modality is primary (just as with the acquisition of the native language)
9.view of culture ♦lifestyle of people who speak L2
lO.emphasis on areas of ♦vocabulary and grammar emphasized in imperatives which are single or multi-word chunks occurring
language frequently in L1
ll.emphasis on language ♦understanding the spoken word should precede its production
skills ♦spoken language is emphasized over written language
12.role of L1 ♦introduction of TPR in L1 ♦classroom language is L2
13.evaluation ♦formal evaluations based on performance of commands
14.T's response to sts' errors ♦errors are natural>T should tolerate them and correct only important ones

♦using commands to direct sts' behavior

15.techniques ♦role reversal > sts give commands and speak
♦action sequence > a series of commands to perform a whole operation >e.g. writing a letter
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING

COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

*Students are considered as "whole persons" > sts' intellect + understanding of the relationship among sts' feelings, physical
reactions, instinctive protective reactions and desire to learn.
*CLL develops its principles from Counseling Learning Approach and humanistic psychology.
*Adults feel threatened by a new learning situation and they will appear foolish. Therefore, teachers should become language
counselors to deal with the fears of sts. Language counselor means a person who empathizes the negative feelings of the sts when
they try to learn another language and thus they help sts to turn the negative feelings into positive energy to move on to another stage
in learning.

> have sts learn; ♦how to use L2 communicatively

♦learn about learning, take responsibility for it
l. goals of teachers ♦learn how to learn from each other > these should be done in a smooth and gentle way if both sides
(T&sts) treat each other as whole persons

2.roles of teachers ♦primarily counselor (supporting sts to overcome the negative feelings and master L2)

*5 stages from dependency to interdependency with the teacher

3.roles of students Stages I,II,III - T focuses on the language and support sts in the learning process
Stage IV - T focuses on accuracy because sts feel secure and Human Computer ™ does corrections
Stage V - sts become interdependent with the t in the learning process

♦sts tell what they want to say in L1 and the T translates them into L2 in chunks >these are recorded
♦the conversation is transcripted on the board and various activities are done on this text
4.characteristics of
♦sts are asked how they feel and the T finds an opportunity to understand them.
Teaching & learning > six elements required for non-defensive learning;
1.security 2.aggression (self-expression, active involvement of sts) 3.attention 4.reflection 5.retention
process (integration of the new material with the whole self) 6.discrimination of L1 and L2

5.interaction ( T-S ) ♦teacher and student centered atmosphere

6.interaction ( S-S ) ♦S>T and S>sts they learn from each other in a cooperation not competition manner

*T should be responsive to sts' feelings (Counseling Learning)

7.dealing with students' *T invites students to comment on how they feel and listens them attentively
feelings ♦students' security is important

♦language is for communication

8.view of language ♦ "learning is persons" says Curran, with a supportive manner, sts develop creative and critical thinking
(sharing and belonging between themselves)

9.view of culture ♦cultured integral part of language

♦grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary > emphasized (based on the text sts have created)
lO. emphasis on areas of
language (learner-generated syllabus)
ll. emphasis on skills of ♦speaking L2 with the help of reading and writing
language
♦L1 used to build the feeling of security providing translations help sts create new language structures
12.role of L1 ♦T directions, feedback sessions in L1

13.evaluation ♦meaning made

♦integrative testsclear through pantomime,
are administered pictures and use of L2 synonyms
self-evaluation

14.T's response to sts' ♦( non-defensive manner ) T repetition without drawing attention to the mistake
errors
 ♦tape recording sts conversation > sts choose what to say and thus taking responsibility for their own
learning. When it is replayed, it is easier for sts to associate meaning in L2, which is motivating.
♦transcription
♦reflection on experience > sts reflect on how they feel about learning, themselves and their relationship
with each other > T does not repeat what s/he hears but shows understanding
♦reflective listening > sts relax and listen to their own voices with their eyes closed or open; T can read
conversation or sts mouth the words they hear
15.techniques ♦Human Computer ™ > T does not correct sts' errors but rather s/he repeats the word
♦small group tasks > sts make new sentences based on the text they have generated. They learn from each
other. They get more practice with L2.

5 stages from dependency to interdependency with the teacher

Stage 1 - Stage 2 - achieve a Stage 3 - seperate Stage 4 - Stage 5 -

infant/dependent measure of existence adolescence independence/autonomous
♦sts depend on T for independence ♦rejects uninvited *functions ♦learners refine their
linguistic context. A ♦begins to establish assistance from the independently. Sts understanding of register as
new self learner is born independence by using T must learn how to elicit well as grammatically correct
or generated in the target simple expressions & from the T. language use.
language phrases s/he previously
heard.
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
♦enable sts to communicate in L2 ♦manage the process of negotiating meaning
l.goals of teachers ♦choose appropriate functions ♦provide social context to perform functions

♦communication facilitator (establishing situations which will promote communication)

2.roles of teachers ♦adviser (answering sts' questions and monitoring their performance)
♦co-communicator (taking part in the communication activity along with sts)

3.roles of students ♦communicators *actively engage in negotiating meaning ♦responsible for their own learning

♦communicative activities have 3 characteristics; information gap, choice, feedback

4.characteristics of ♦authentic materials are used to give sts opportunities to develop strategies for understanding language
teaching&learning as it is actually used
process ♦classroom activities are conducted in small groups to increase the frequency of sts' finding opportunity to
communicate

5.interaction ( T-S ) ♦T > student and T > students ♦T is presenter when working with linguistic accuracy
♦T is facilitator of the activities ♦T not always interact with sts
6.interaction ( S-S ) ♦student > student and student > students ( pairs, triads, small groups, whole group )
♦sts will feel they do something useful with the language by learning to communicate
7.dealing with sts' feelings ♦sts are given opportunities to Express themselves
♦sts' security is provided through cooperative interaction with each other and the T
8.view of language
♦language is for communication
♦linguistic competence is only one part of communicative competence
♦social situation is also important
♦communicative competence = linguistic competence + knowledge of functions( form + meaning + function )

9.view of culture ♦everyday life of people who speak L2

♦language functions must be emphasized over forms
♦a variety of forms are introduced for each function
lO.emphasis on areas of ♦initially, simple forms are introduced and as the level of proficiency increases, functions are
language reintroduced along with more complex forms
♦sts work with the language at suprasentential or discourse level
♦sts learn about cohesion and coherence ( e.g. first, second, next, finally; he ,she, etc. > are cohesive devices
binding one sentence to the others )
ll.emphasis on language ♦all four skills are worked on from the beginning ♦speaking > negotiation of meaning
skills ♦meaning > deduced from context
12.role of L1 ♦limited use of L1 > where meaning should be made clear
13.evaluation ♦accuracy and fluency evaluated ♦integrative tests are administered for formal evaluation
♦L2 is used in communicational activities and classroom language
♦informal evaluation of sts' performance when T is adviser or co-communicator
14.T's response to sts' ♦errors of form are tolerated during fluency activities
errors ♦errors are natural and evidence of development of communication skills
♦T takes notes of errors during fluency activities and refers back to them with an accuracy-based activity
♦use of authentic materials > e.g. newspaper article, live radio or TV broadcast at high levels Menu, timetable at
lower levels
♦scrambled sentences > for cohesion/coherence
15.techniques ♦language games > information gap, choice, feedback
♦picture strip story > a problem solution task to promote communication ( information gap, choice, feedback)
♦role play > opportunity to practice communication in different social context and roles
( information gap, choice, feedback ) .
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
1. goals of teachers ♦give priority to process over predetermined linguistic content
♦build on students' background knowledge
2. roles of teachers ♦supporter (scaffolds the linguistic content)
♦assist students in understanding subject matter
♦supplies the missing language when students have difficulty
3. roles of students ♦perceive the relevance of their language use
♦both study academic subject matter and learn foreign language
4. characteristics of ♦known to unknown ♦content used for language teaching purposes
teaching and learning ♦pair work (cooperation) ♦process > product
process ♦integrating the learning of language with the learning of some other content
5. interaction ( T - S ) ♦T> students students > T
6. interaction ( S - S ) ♦student > student (pair work) student > students
7. dealing with students' ♦no principles
feelings
8. view of language ♦language is a medium to convey informational content of interest to students
9. view of culture ♦important
10. emphasis on areas ♦vocabulary >important ♦grammar (inductive teaching) ♦content > form
11. emphasis on skills ♦all four skills
12. role of L1 ♦no use of L1
13. evaluation ♦no formal evaluation, but homework
♦students are evaluated for the content they are learning
14. errors ♦correct content
15. techniques ♦using authentic materials ♦fill-in-the-blanks ♦guessing game ♦question answer
♦process writing ♦journal keeping ♦comprehension checking
MODELS
LANGUAGE THE ADJUNCT MODEL COMPETENCY-BASED
SHELTERED LANGUAGE
IMMERSION ♦content and language instruction are INSTRUCTION
INSTRUCTION
♦academic subjects integrated. Sts enroll in a regular
are learned through academic course. In addition they take a
♦native and non-native speakers ♦the focus is not on the
of a particular language follow a academic content. Competency-
the medium of a language course linked to the academic
regular academic curriculum. based instruction offers sts an
foreign language course. The purpose of the language
With non-native speakers, opportunity to gain survival,
teacher is to help sts process the language
sheltered instruction is aimed at life-coping skills such as filling
to understand the academic content
developing L2 proficiency. Sts out application forms.
presented by the subject teacher. The
do not have to delay their
language teacher also helps sts to
academic education because
complete academic tasks ( writing term
they study the academic content
papers, reading academic textbooks,
along with the language.
improving note taking abilities )
♦In conclusion, Content-based instruction with all its forms enables sts to learn both specific content and related lanquaqe
skills.
WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH: holistic teaching should be applied to classroom setting. Educators believe that sts
learn best when they are working to understand the meaning of whole text, sts work with top-down strategy (sts learn best
when they deal with the use of language not linguistic form). There are two writing techniques ;
♦process writing: sts may initially brainstorm ideas and begin writing; they receive feedback, make revisions and carry on
writing.
♦keep dialog journals: sts are writing in class or for homework regularly, perhaps after each class or once a week. (sts
expressing their feelings for how and what they are learning but the writing must be on anything. Teacher reads the journal
entry and writes a response to it, but does not correct its form)
 CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION

Content-Based Instruction is a teaching method that uses the target language as a tool to teach the content,
which is a subject area.

It is a version of bilingual education and subject-teaching which simultaneously teaches the target
language necessary for school learning and promotes thinking skills. It is also called as content and
language integrated learning; or language across the curriculum or cross-curricular language
learning. Similar to other communicative approaches, Content-Based Instruction also emphasizes the use of
the target language to interpret, express and negotiate meaning.

There are specific language objectives and cognitive academic language proficiency enrichment
opportunities that extend the opportunities for ESL students to learn content while they are acquiring
language skills.

Immersion Education has also a great influence on the theory of Content-Based Instruction. Immersion
education is a foreign language instruction type, in which the regular school subjects are taught in the
foreign language. That’s, the foreign language is a vehicle for teaching the subject-area. Examples for
content-based instruction are English for Specific Purposes, English for Academic Purposes, English for
Vocational Porposes and Immersion programs.

There are not any pre-planned syllabi.

Relevance of language to the students’ academic needs motivate them in order to learn the structures and
the vocabulary.

It is applied by creating thematic units organized around the core academic curriculum areas to increase
comprehensible input in the content area.

English is taught through content areas such as Social Studies, Science, Engineering, and Literature.

The development of basic interpersonal communication skills and cognitive academic language
proficiency are key components of Content-Based Instruction

Vocabulary is built up easily because of the contextual clues which help convey meaning.

TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING PARTICIPATORY APPROACH

It is a language approach which integrates themes or contents interesting for the students. The topics come
from real-life issues that have an impact on the students’ daily lives. The students are also encouraged to
take ownership of their learning as well as collaborate and negotiate with the teacher. The meaning always
comes before the structure.

Participatory Approach is based on critical themes in students' lives, and life is the vehicle for their
personal empowerment as well as their language learning.
l.goals of teachers ♦develop sts' communicative competence ♦listen to sts carefully to provide content
♦motivate sts through self-involvement
2.roles of teachers ♦conductor (conducts the flow of the lesson)
♦co-learner
3.roles of students ♦active participants ♦self-explanatory ♦director of one-self
4.characteristics of ♦the content of lesson is determined by sts' social, cultural, historical background
teaching/learning
process ♦process ^ important ♦cooperation ♦using language for communication

5.interaction ( T - S ) ♦ T > students ♦student > T

6.interaction ( S - S ) ♦ Student >Student
♦Student >students (in discussing their problems of their life experiences)
7.dealing with sts' ♦sts are motivated by their personal involvement
feelings ♦sts learn to see themselves as social and political beings by discussing problems, finding
solutions, etc.
8.view of language ♦education is based on sts' experiences
♦language is not isolated from skills and culture
♦form + meaning study ( at the same time )
9.view of culture ♦cannot be separated from language
lO.emphasis on areas of ♦content + form focus ( at the same time )
language ♦sts' lives is a vehicle for personal empowerment and language learning
ll.emphasis on skills of ♦all four skills ♦speaking (important), ♦listening ♦reading ♦writing ( write a letter
language cooperatively )
12.role of L1 ♦no use of L1
13.evaluation ♦self-evaluation (feedback session at the end)
♦no formal tests
♦T's evaluation of sts in an ongoing way in classroom
14.errors ♦often self-correction ♦T gives feedback to sts' letters
15.techniques
♦discussion ♦problem-solving ♦writing a group letter

*In Participatory Approach, sts' interest or problems in their real life is being considered for their language
learning.
♦Education is based on sts' experiences. This approach relates sts' real needs to language learning. Sts are
involved personally. *Knowledge is a tool for sts to act in the world and help them see themselves as social
and political beings.
*Focus on linguistic form occurs within a focus on content. One important goal of the participatory
approach is that sts' being able to evaluate their own learning and direct it themselves.
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING TASK - BASED INSTRUCTION

l.goals of teachers ♦provide natural context for language use ♦give sts opportunity to interact
♦enhance language learning with problem solving negotiation
2.roles of teachers ♦language supporter ♦counselor / consultant

3.roles of students ♦learning language linguistically and functionally by solving problems with the help of knowledge of that
sts hold and the new language
4.characteristics of ♦focus on use of language, not form ♦process not product ♦interaction ( communication )
teaching/learning
5.interaction ( T - S ) ♦inevitable for counseling and consultation
process
6.interaction ( S - S ) ♦heavily student > student interaction

7.dealing with sts' feelings ♦low anxiety ♦high motivation

8.view of language ♦language > necessary to complete the task ( language is a medium to complete the task )
♦language use and language study
9.view of culture ♦knowledge of culture is important
lO.emphasis on areas of ♦functional properties of language are emphasized ♦fluency
language
ll.emphasis on skills of ♦all four skills ♦speaking (important)
language
12.role of L1 ♦no use of L1
13.evaluation ♦no formal tests ♦evaluation is achieved through observing in class activities and feedback

14.errors ♦error-correction > done by reformulating and recasting what sts have said
15.techniques ♦information-gap activity ♦opinion-gap activity ♦reasoning-gap activity
♦making up mixed ability classes ♦jigsaw ( authentic speaking and listening )
There are three types of tasks
Information-gap activity Opinion-gap activity Reasoning-gap activity

♦involves the exchange of information ♦sts give their personal preferences, ♦sts try to find some new information by
among sts in order to complete a task feelings or attitudes in order to complete a inferring it from information they have been
task given
♦Sts can be given Project work which is considered to be another approach using real-world language

> First stage; sts work in class in cooperation with the T about the content of the project

>Second stage; sts take photographs, gather information and make interviews gathering printed or visual materials. This activity will
take place outside the classroom which will lead them to use all four skills in a natural and integrated fashion.

>Third stage; sts review their project, monitor their own work and receive feedback from T about their performance. T is a counselor
and consultant not a project director.

♦The aim of Project work is to encourage sts to study outside the classroom and make them be aware of the real world matters. This
also helps to bridge the gap between language study and language use.
 TECHNIQUES and PRINCIPLES in LANGUAGE TEACHING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
l.goals of teachers ♦make sts recognize their different learning styles ♦make sts aware of their intelligences
♦facilitate language acquisition ♦create activities according to 7 intelligences
2.roles of teachers ♦making lesson plans according to sts' intelligences and needs ♦referring to sts' 7 intelligences
♦facilitator of language acquisition
3.roles of students ♦being aware of their potential ♦developing their intelligences

Howard Gardner states that every individual possesses all of these intelligence types yet with different
levels.

Multiple Intelligences Theory proposes that every individual is unique and has his/her own learning
styles, strategies, preferences, and background that enable him/her to learn more effectively. Moreover, the
theory suggests that organizing the instructional materials and tasks around different intelligence types
maximizes the effectiveness of teaching and learning

Multiple Intelligences Theory can be used to develop curriculum, plan instruction, select course activities
and related assessment tools. When the teacher designs and uses a range of meaningful and appropriate
methods, activities, and assessments depending on the dominant intelligence types of the students, it is
highly likely that the students become motivated to learn.

Linguistic/Verbal Intelligence: WORD SMART

• Thinks in words
• Highly developed auditory skills
• Plays with sounds in language
• Great story tellers, tall tales and jokes
• Loves seeing, saying and hearing words
• Heads are frequently stuck in a book
• Likes to write
• Teachers, journalists, writers, lawyers, translators
• using language to present your ideas, to express your feelings or to persuade others

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence: NUMBER SMART

• Thinks conceptually
• Skilled in reasoning, logic and problem solving
• Explores patterns, categories and relationships
• Manipulates the environment to experiment in a controlled way
• Questions and wonders about natural events
• Scientists, engineers, computer programmers, accountants
• reasoning, logical thinking; handling mathematical problems
 Interpersonal Intelligence: PEOPLE SMART

Thinks and processes by relating, co-operating and communicating with others Leaders among peers

• Uncanny ability to sense feelings and intentions of others

• Understands people, mediates conflict
• Organizer, communicator, at times manipulative
• Street smart, has many friends
• Counselors, business people, politicians, community organizers
• understanding the feelings, needs, and purposes of other

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence: BODY SMART

• Processes knowledge through bodily sensation

• Excellent fine-motor co-ordination
• Gut feelings about things
• Great at mimicking your best or worst qualities and mannerisms
• Needs to move around, often labeled hyperactive
• Athletes, dancers, actors, mimes, clowns
• feeling and expressing things physically; doing hands on work

Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence: MUSIC SMART

• Thinks in sounds, rhythms and patterns

• Sings, hums, whistles to themselves
• Immediately responds to music
• Performs and appreciates music and leads in songs
• Sensitive to environmental sounds: crickets, bells,
ambient music
• Strong opinions of others' music
• Choirs, orchestra, bands, disc jockeys, theatre
creating and feeling a rhythm to express a mood;
detecting and analyzing musical themes

Intrapersonal: SELF SMART

• Skilled in inner focusing
• Displays a strong personality
• Deep awareness of inner feelings, dreams and ideas
• Reflective and analytical
• Tends to shy away from team activities
• Recognizes self strengths and weaknesses
• Requires private space and time understanding your own interior thoughts and feelings in a very clear way

Spatial/Visual Intelligence: PICTURE SMART

*Thinks in images and pictures
*Clear visual images and representations
*Knows the location of everything
*Fascination with machines
*Inventors, architects, engineers, mechanics
*creating and interpreting visual images; thinking in three dimensions

Naturalist intelligence
• understanding nature, seeing patterns in the way nature works; classifying things
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Collaborative Learning. It focuses on the idea that teaching should be carried out through maximum use of
cooperative activities and interactions. Cooperative language learning favors the viewpoint that in cooperative group
works the students are likely to scaffold each other, which increases the language level of the class.

l.goals of teachers ♦teach language and cooperation

♦teach how to learn from each other in groups
♦teach sts a social skill
♦provide positive interdependence with cooperation
2.roles of teachers ♦observer (during the activity)
♦give feedback (on social skill)
3.roles of students ♦self evaluation
♦sharing knowledge
♦teach other sts
♦learn from other sts

4.characteristics of ♦cooperation
teaching/learning ♦social skills taught explicitly
process ♦individual goals as important as group aims
♦sharing and collaboration facilitate effective language learning
♦responsibility and accountability for each other's learning is shared

♦Cooperative learning basically refers to students learning from each other in groups. Teachers teach students
collaborative or social skills so that they can work together more effectively.

Cooperative learning is organized around team-work activities so that learning is dependent on the socially
structured exchange of information between learners in groups.
It is a learner- centered approach to teaching.
It promotes communicative interaction in the classroom and can be considered as an extension of Communicative
Language Teaching.
Social interaction is maintained to be necessary for language learning and thus corresponds perfectly with the
principles of cooperative language learning.

Cooperative language learning focuses on language learning in natural settings through the use of interaction in
pairs or/and group work. This refers to the idea that interaction within one heterogeneous group can lead to a
maximum of language learning if the students work collaboratively avoiding competition.
For learning to take place, five defining elements are proposed:

1.Positive Interdependence: The members of the group are required to cooperate and contribute to eachothers’
learning and the completion of the task.

2.Individual and Group Accountability: All members of the groups are accountable for file complete final outcome
and they have to contribute and learn. However, each student is assessed individually as well as a whole group.
Therefore, individuals are observed in terms of how much contribution they have done to the group teaming and to the
task.

3.Interpersonal Skills: Working in teams and groups necessitates certain social skills. To function in interpersonal
relations, one needs to have communication, trust-building, leadership, decision making, and conflict
resolution/management skills.

4.Face-to-face promotive interaction: The members of the groups have the opportunity to teach themselves in face-
to-face situations. They orally explain how to solve problems, teach what they know to each other, so that they
promote each others’ learning.

5.Group Processing: Finally, when the task is completed, the members of the group evaluate the task completion
process and reflect on how well the team is functioning and how to function better next time. Therefore, they take
decisions about what behaviors to continue or change.

Techniques:
• Peer tutoring
• Conversation cards and paired interviews
• Think-pair-share
• Free conversations
• Information-gap activities
• Problem solving and jigsaw activities
• Cooperative projects
• Sharing opinions and debating

LEARNING STRATEGY TRAINING

Learning strategies refer to the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge.

♦teach language and learning ♦give opportunity to sts for practice

l.goals of teachers ♦train sts to be autonomous ♦help sts acquire knowledge about learning strategies
♦make sts aware of their own potential on learning something

♦supporter ♦model (of using the strategy) ♦prompter

2.roles of teachers

♦self-evaluator
♦modifying the strategies to meet their own learning needs (self-regulated)
3.roles of students ♦facilitators of their own learning
♦learning by doing (hands-on experience)

4.characteristics of
♦discovering effective ways of learning
teaching/learning ♦learning strategies taught within a content or curriculum
process
 ECLECTIC APPROACH/ECLECTICISM
 Teachers’ use of the principles and techniques from a range of language teaching approaches and
methods.
 Every educational setting is unique; therefore, teachers should make preferences regarding which
approaches and methods to select, and adapt them in relation to the features of the students, culture,
course objectives and language content to be taught.
 It is used to describe a desirable, coherent and pluralistic approach to language learning and teaching.
 Teachers choose the most appropriate and useful aspects of existing methods or approaches
following a systematic decision process.

LEXICAL APPROACH
Lexical Approach focuses on the exclusive need for building vocabulary knowledge in the foreign language. It
concentrates on developing the students’ proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations.

Lexical Approach is based on the idea that a significant part of language acquisition is the ability to understand and
produce lexical phrases as chunks.

Lexical Approach suggests that only a small proportion of language consists of entirely novel creations, the rest,
however, consists of multi-word chunks that are fixed and memorized patterns. These lexical chunks are used in
everyday interactions.

Lexical chunk can be described as pair or group of words that are commonly found together.
For Example: by the way, upside down, absolutely convinced, I’ll get it, We’ll see, That’ll do, If i were you, strong
accent . These lexical items are beiieved to have a crucial role in learning and in interaction.

Language acquisition takes place with the accumulations of examples through which the students induce the rules
of the target language and make provisional generalizations.

The nature of the language acquisition is non-linear, so a linear syllabus cannot be considered sufficient for learning
to take place.

Lexis is central to language and meaning, but grammar has a secondary role. Therefore, vocabulary learning and
teaching is considered superior to grammar.

Vocabulary teaching is carried out in chunks since it is easier for the brain to recall the words in chunks as if they
were one piece of information.

Grammar should be leamt by a process of observation, and hypothesis forming; that’s, through inductive teaching.

Techniques:

-Keeping a vocabulary notebook -Extensive listening and reading

-Collocation practice -Repetition and recycling activities

-Exercises for e lexical phrases -Guessing the meaning of lexical items from context

-Extracts from computer corpora -Noticing lexical items

-Computer concordance program -Working with dictionaries

 WHAT IS A TEST?
A test is a systematic procedure for observing learners and describing their knowledge and performance with either a numerical
scale or a category system.

Tests can be constructed primarily as tools to reinforce learning and to motivate the learners or as a means of assessing the
learners’ performances in the language.

Testing: It is a method of measuring a learners’ skills, knowledge or performance in language teaching and learning process
It generally consists of written exams and it is often used at the end of a learning period, such as unit-test, mid-term-test, semester-
test etc.

Assessment: It involves the process of gathering information or evidence of the learners’ development and achievement over a
period of time in order to improve teaching and learning.

Evaluation: This is the overall and final judgment about learners’ knowledge and performance to decide if they fail or pass the
course or class.

WHY?
The primary purpose of testing is to observe the learners’ performance and knowledge in the target language. To put it
another word, tests give opportunities to teachers to discover what the learners know and can do at a certain stage of
the learning process. Moreover, teachers test the learners to increase their own effectiveness in teaching process and to
ensure that learners get the most out of the lesson.

WAYS OF ASSESSMENT
FORMAL ASSESSMENT
Planned, systematic specifically designed, using sampling techniques

INFORMAL ASSESSMENT
Unplanned, incidental, T’s comments, responses and spontaneous feedback

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

It refers to the process of arriving at a grade for a student (either for a test or assignment, or for an entire course).
Summative assessments (e.g., exams or term papers) are formal, usually graded, and focused on letting students show
a range of skills and knowledge.

To design a successful summative assessment, one needs to start with the course objectives. The question of 'What
skills and knowledge should students will have gained at the end course?' should be answered.
Aims to summarize what sts has grasped so far.

-Occurs at the end of a course or unit

-The process of arriving at a grade for a student
-It is formal, usually graded

Less focused on specific skills or information; instead, allows students to demonstrate a range of skills and knowledge
Requires more time from instructors and students; complex; done outside of class
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

It is the assessment of student learning that is designed to develop (rather than to evaluate) students’ skills or their
understanding of specific course concepts. Formative assessments are typically carried out in class, and are usually
much more focused on particular skills or information and they are also often ungraded (e.g., teachers’ observation,
continuous assessment).

To give feedback to instructor and students about how well students understand specific material

Focused on whether students have acquired specific skills or information

Requires little time from instructors or students; simple; done in class

Assessing sts in the process of forming their competencies and skills with the goal of helping them to continue that
growth.
All informal assessments are formative assessment but not vice versa.

Alternative assessment types Standardized Tests: These are the tests designed
Portfolios: It is a purposeful collection of materials by professional testing centers to select, place and evaluate the
gathered over a period of time by the learners to provide learners. They have a fixed and standard content as well as
evidence of skills, abilities, knowledge and attitudes. They standard grading step.
are motivating, entertaining for the learners and encourage
them to be autonomous learners.

Project work: It requires students to complete a set of tasks

designed to explore a certain idea or concept.

Learner Diaries: They are the records written by the

learners on their language learning experience over a period
of time. As in the portfolios, they create opportunities for
the learners to reflect on their learning and develop
autonomy.

Criterion-referenced Norm-referenced Assessment: Individual-referenced Assessment:

Assessment: These tests assess These tests are designed to measure These tests depend on how well the
learners according to a criterion how the performance of a group of learners are performing when
rather than by comparing them learners differs from the performance compared to their own previous
with other learners (e.g., can of another group of learners whose performances.
students produce correct sentences scores are identified as the norm.
using present perfect tense?).
To place test takers along a
To give test takers feedback mathematical continuum in rank
Classroom tests involving the sts order
in only one class and connected to Can be administered to large
a curriculum audiences
Much time and effort on the part Have fixed and pre-determined
of teacher responses
 TEST TYPES
A. PROGNOSTIC TESTS B. ATTAINMENT TESTS
Unlike prognostic tests, these tests assess the learners’
These types of tests are defined as the predictive
previous knowledge or what they have learnt.
tests employed to decide the future success of the
learners by considering their current knowledge or
abilities.
1. Selection Tests: These tests are applied to the 1. Achievement Tests/Progress Tests. They are the tests
learners to accept them to a particular program or designed to measure the extent to which learners have
job. In order to be accepted to the program, one mastered the materials taught in the classroom. Internal
should score higher than the other candidates. end-of–year tests and external school-leaving
examinations are both examples of achievement tests.
Results obtained from these tests inform about the
progress of the learners.

To measure learners’ language skill progress in relation

to the syllabus

Given to sts every few weeks to see their progress

Should reflect progress
Reinforce learning

2. Placement tests: These tests are prepared to place 2. Proficiency Tests: These tests assess whether learners
learners into groups, usually by establishing their have the necessary language skills to undertake a task in
language levels so that students who have similar the future (e.g. studying at an English-medium university
levels can study together. or working as a bilingual secretary.) They tend to be
Placing new sts in the right class integrative.
Based on the syllabuses and materials that the sts Sudden death
will follow Give a general picture of sts knowledge and ability rather
It tests grammar, vocabulary, receptive and than measure progress
productive skills Most public exams are proficiency tests

3. Aptitude tests: These tests are given before any

language learning has taken place in order to
discover the potential areas/skills which learners are
likely to be good at. Hence, they measure probable
learning ability in the future rather than actual
learning achievement in the past.
4. Diagnostic tests: These tests are designed to
diagnose what a group of learners can do and cannot
do in the language.
Before the beginning of the academic year teachers
may give a test to their sts to identify their language
proficiency level.
 TYPES OF TEST ITEMS
Discrete Point Tests: Integrative Tests: Direct Testing: They Indirect Testing: They
These tests aim at Integrative tests measure require learners to perform measure the skills and
giving specific language skills and areas as the skills to be measured. knowledge underlying the
information about a whole rather than Sts perform skills and abilities to be
learners’ abilities in separately. They require communicative language measured. (e.g., a writing
particular skills or in students to combine many skills. test that requires students
particular language linguistic elements. (e.g., Try to be as much like real to identify grammatical
areas (e.g. knowledge of writing a composition, life language use as errors in sentences).
irregular past forms). In speaking during an possible Through more controlled
other words, they interview, dictation and Authentic Language use items
measure particular cloze tests). Performance Easy scoring
linguistic units such as Sts use a variety of Interview Have fixed answers
phonology, spelling, language at any given time. Role play Machine marking
vocabulary and Integration of skills and Dramatization Practical
grammar separately. areas Writing compositions Greater scorer reliability
Testing one thing at a Dictation Writing essays Example:
time. Cloze tests Multiple Choice questions
Analytic İnterview Cloze test
Holistic Transformation
item/paraphrase
Sentence re-ordering
Sentence fill-in
Finding errors in sentences
True / false questions
Matching items
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST
1. RELIABILITY: It 2. VALIDITY: The concept of 3. PRACTICALITY: 4. 5.
refers to the validity refers to the principle Tests should be user- DISCRIMINATION: AUTHENTICITY:
consistency with which that a test needs to measure what friendly and practical Good tests need to The degree of
a test can be scored. it intends to measure. Tests can to apply, easy to discriminate between correspondence of
The test should be be considered to have validity if score and easy to the learners’ ability the characteristics
consistent irrespective they measure effectively and interpret and grade. by separating the of a given test to
of the time and place correctly what they have aimed Tests should also be ones who know and the features of a
of administration and to measure. time and cost can do better than target language
the learners who are If a test measures what it is effective under the those who cannot. task (real world
being tested. A reliable supposed to test, it is valid. heading of task).
test should be a Reliability is a necessity for practicality. Natural language
consistent and validity. Time and money use
coherent measurer of a a.Content validity: A test is Meaningful topic
learner’s language said to have content validity if Contextualized
performance and its content constitutes a
knowledge. representative sample of the
*Test-retest language skills, structures, etc
*mark-remark with which it is mean to be
*intermarker concerned.
The test should include proper
sample of the relevant
structures.
The number of questions is
important.
b.Face Validity: It is the extent
to which a test is subjectively
viewed as covering the concept
it purports to measure. It is how
the examinees and
administration staff see the test.
c.Construct validity: It is the
experimental demonstration that
a test is measuring the construct
it claims to be measuring. The
test reflects accurately the
principles of a valid theory of
foreign language learning.
d.Predictive validity: The test
accurately predicts performance
in future situations. An example
might be how well a proficiency
test would predict a student's
ability to cope with the courses
at an English-medium
university.
e.Concurrent validity: It is the
extent to which a test gives
similar results to existing tests
that have already been validated.
Backwash/Washback effect refers to the impact of testing on teaching and learning. In other words, it is the impact
that the nature of the tests on the teaching and learning. A test assessing grammar knowledge is likely to result in
teaching and learning of grammatical knowledge, while a communicative test is likely to cause communicative
approaches and activities in the classroom. However, when the test does not measure the aimed skills or knowledge by
using suitable test items, the result will be a harmful backwash effect.
SAMPLING: The test must cover an adequate and representative section of areas or skills it is desired to test. The
longer the test the more reliable measuring instrument it will be (although length itself is no guarantee of a good test).

SCORING
Objective scoring Subjective scoring

TESTING LANGUAGE AREAS

TESTING GRAMMAR TESTING VOCABULARY TESTING PHONOLOGY

These tests measure learners’ ability These tests measure learners’ knowledge
The items prepared to test phonology can
to recognize suitable grammatical of the meaning of certain words as well
assess the following sub-skills: (1)
structures and to manipulate these as the lexical chunks and collocations in
ability to recognize and pronounce the
structures. Grammar tests can be which they occur.
significant sound contrasts of a language,
categorized under two different titles:
ability to recognize and use the stress
8.1.1. Tests at recognition level, During the preparation of these tests, the
patterns of language, and the ability to
which assess if the learners selection of words is of great importance.
hear and produce the intonation of the
understand the meaning of the forms Question types that can be included in
language (e.g., phoneme discrimination
and structures (e.g., matching, vocabulary tests are multiple choice
tests including minimal pairs)
multiple choice questions, true/false questions, lists of isolated words,
questions). matching, antonyms, synonyms, writing
definitions, cloze test, completing
8.1.2. Tests on production level, sentences, using words in sentences.
which assess if the learners can
accurately produce the grammatical
structures (e.g., transformation,
substitution, completion, fill-in-the
blanks).

TESTING LANGUAGE SKILLS

TESTING READING TESTING LISTENING
TESTING WRITING TESTING SPEAKING
While students must have These tests include items
decoding proficiency, designed to measure several The act of writing creates a Testing speaking skill is
knowledge of vocabulary, sub-skills such as product that needs to be difficult due to its subjectivity
and so forth to understand, understanding phonemes, assessed with a scoring guide and complex nature of the
these are prerequisites stress, intonation, words and describing components of skill and because of the lack
assessed prior to grammar). Intensive listening quality, such as ideas, of a consensus as to the
determining level of can be tested through organization, voice, word criteria to assess the speaking
comprehension. In testing discrimination among smaller choice, sentence fluency, and ability. Types of tests
components like phonemes, conventions. We might also employed to measure
reading skill, the selection
words, and discourse markers, look at the process of writing learners’ ability to speak are
of text type and length is
among others. Responsive to observe thinking strategies, “conversations, interviews,
crucial. Question types listening testing has a question-
that can be utilized in these planning strategies, revision role plays, discussions, using
and-answer format. The test-
tests are “word, sentence taker is required to find the
techniques, or editing visuals to stimulate speaking
matching, true/false appropriate response to the proficiency, which would also etc.”
questions, multiple choice questions in multiple-choice require a performance
questions, open-ended format or open-ended assessment. These tests
questions, comprehension framework. Selective listening involve many sub-skills such
questions, inference implies listening to a text with as language use, mechanical
questions, reference the purpose of scanning for skills, and content knowledge,
words, putting sentences, certain details or information. stylistics and judgment skills.
paragraphs in order”. Tests can use the information Question types used to test
transfer technique, in which writing skill are “a chart to fill
learners needs to decide which in, letter/e-mail writing,
picture in a series matches the summarizing, dictation,
text to which they are listening. punctuation, completing
Extensive listening involves sentences, changing the style
tests that require learners to & register”.
answer comprehension
questions after listening to the
passage several times.
 TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS
 Young learners are the children from the first year of formal schooling (5 or 6 year old) to eleven or twelve years of age.
 Children as learners have more willingness and liveliness.

Children, for example, have the urge for play and fun, so activities utilized in the classroom should be enjoyable if a permanent
and developmentally appropriate learning is wanted to be achieved.

Children enjoy exploring things, drawing, playing games, singing and solving puzzles.
• Their attention span is short, so kinesthetic activities and visual materials with bright colors need to be used to motivate them.

They have wish to please the teacher rather than their peer groups, which encourages them to try to participate in the tasks.

They need to be engaged in bodily-kinesthetic activities while learning the language because of their biological development and
short motivation span.
They are very imaginative, and energetic.
They enjoy imitating
They do not just repeat what they hear, but they are actively engaged in formulating rules and trying out their hypotheses to figure
out the language for themselves.
They often learn through implicit teaching rather than direct instruction since they do not have the access to metalanguage.
They are intrinsically curious; thus, they wish to discover and have predictions.
They are very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily comprehending the individual words.
Teachers should prepare various types of activities addressing to visual, auditory and kinesthetic learner styles to provide rich and
accessible input for the children from a variety of sources.

Children between the ages of 5-7

They need hands-on, concrete experiences They are very logical. What you say first happens first.
in order to learn effect ively.
They can understand direct human interaction.
They need to feel safe and secure.

Their first language is still in the process of developing fast. They can use wide range of intonation patterns in their L1.

They can use logical reasoning and discuss about something. They understand situations more quickly than
understand the language use.
They are aware of the rules.
They use lang. skills long before they are aware of them.
They can speak about the things that they are doing and that
they have heard and watched. The physical world is dominant for them.

They cannot understand abstract notions. They are often happy playing and working alone.

They can confuse the fiction and real world. They may be reluctant to share (self-centered).

They are psoitive and enthusiastic about learning.

Children between the ages of 8-12

They can understand abstract concepts.

They can understand that the real world and the fiction are
different.

The basic cultural and pragmatic notions are formed.

They can work with their classmates cooperatively.

They can be reliable and take responsibility for class activities

and routines.

They can make some decisions about their learning.

They rely on spoken word as well as the physical world to

understand the meaning.

They begin to question teacher’s decisions.

 APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE for CHILD (Language Learner)
 Given the characteristics of young learners, teachers are suggested to provide
developmentally appropriate instruction and practice for children in the language teaching
classes, which take into account the cognitive and social needs of young children.

 In teaching language to children, it is fundamental and appropriate to expose children to

comprehensible input that is slightly above their current language level of understanding.
When exposing young learners to comprehensible input, various types of input need to be
presented such as games, songs, stories, cartoons, puppets etc (addressing to auditory, tactile
and visual channels).

PIAGET (Language and Cognitive Development)

It is believed that a child continuously interacts with the world around him/ her and
experiences the objects.
How these interactions and experiences with the environment affect his/her intellectual
development.
Learning takes place when children take actions in order to deal with the problems they
encounter, so knowledge resulting from these actions is neither imitated nor innate. On the
contrary, it is constructed by children through active engagement.

Children are active learners, thinkers and sense-makers, who construct their own
knowledge depending on their experiences with objects or ideas.
In language teaching classrooms, the environment, the classroom activities can be regarded
as the experiences providing opportunities for children to learn
Experiences and actions are fundamental to cognitive development.
Cognitive development can occur in two ways as a result of activity: assimilation and
accommodation.

Assimilation happens when action takes place without any change in the child’s behaviors.

Accommodation requires the child’s adjusting to features of the environment in some way
(restructuring, which means re-organizing the mental representation of a language with that
of target language).
Stages of Child Development (Piaget)
All children develop cognitive abilities such as language in four stages. These stages of cognitive and
linguistic development are universal and that every child go through all of these steps:

1.The Sensorimotor Stage

This stage lasts until the child is around 2 years old. The emphasis is on movement and physical
reactions.
How to perform basic motor activities such as opening the fingers or waving the legs. These are
followed by more complex tasks like crawling and in the end walking.
Language skills are basically physical. The baby experiences what s/he can do with what his/her
mouth can do. Learn how to imitate some of the sounds they hear from their parents.

2.The Preoperational Stage

This stage starts at around 2 years and lasts until the age of 6 or 7.
Egocentricity.
The child talks constantly; however, most of the time it looks like thinking aloud rather than
interaction.

3.The Concrete Operational Stage

This stage starts around the age of 7 and lasts until the age of 11 or 12.
Use logic and of solve problems in the form of stories as long as the story deals only with facts rather
than abstract ideas. Language is used to refer to specific and concrete facts, not mental or abstract
concepts. Unable to comprehend metalanguage and explanations about the grammatical structures.

4.The Formal Operational Stage

This stage begins at age 11 or 12 at the earliest.
Use and understand abstract concepts and make a mental distinction between her/ himself and an idea
s/he is thinking of.
Use language to express and discuss about abstract and theoretical concepts.

VYGOTSKY (Social Interaction)

Language and social interaction are at the centre.
Intellectual and language development and learning occur by socially interacting with the people.
People and social interaction play essential roles in helping children to learn by taking their
attention to the objects and ideas, supporting them while playing, and reading stories.

Scaffolding is the support, often in the form of language, given to the child for language
development. The language support that adults provide for children.

The Zone of Proximal Development, or ZPD, which refers to the distance between what children
can do with the help of others and what they can accomplish on their own.
BRUNER (Support)
Language Acquisition Support System, indicates that adults provide a framework of
‘scaffolding’ which helps children to learn.

In contexts that are familiar to the adult, one step ahead of the child, leads the child to the
responses.

By providing the child with ritualised dialogue and constraints through questioning and
feedback, the adult prepares the cognitive base on which language is acquired.
formats and routines provide opportunities for children’s language development by
creating contexts for them to predict meaning.

In order to establish an environment with comprehensible input for children to acquire the
language according to structured input hypothesis, adult use strategies to make the message
understandable for children. This structured, simple, slower and louder speech is called
“motherese,” “caretaker speech,” “teacherese,” or “foreigner talk.”

Caretaker speech is the simplified and structured language used to communicate with the
child in the early periods of language acquisitio
 TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS TO YOUNG LEARNERS
TEACHING LISTENING TO YOUNG LEARNERS

Listening is one of the receptive skills in language use, and it is the initial stage in first and
second language acquisition, before children start to produce oral language, where they go
through a ‘silent period’ to absorb the rules of the language. Therefore, the improvement of
children’s speaking and listening skills lies at the centre of effective language learning and
teaching.
In teaching listening to children, it is aimed to develop their phonological awareness and
listening capacity. They are taught isolated sounds of the target language in order for them to
segment sounds (phonological awareness) and their ability to understand the spoken
language and remind the content of the speech (listening capacity).

Techniques
Songs are one of the most enjoyable tools to practice and develop listening skills. Any
syllabus designed for teaching language to young learners typically contains songs, chants,
and rhymes. (Enjoyable, supportive, non-threatening, anxiety-free, rhythmic and repetitive).
Songs develop the fluency and the automatic use of meaningful language structures due
their repetitive nature of the language forms and lexical chunks.

Listen And Do Activities: Teachers can use Total Physical Response activities by
combining auditory, visual, and tactile channels, which engage children actively into the
lesson. Words and chunks are taught while children are following directions and listening to
the commands.
Finger plays (little chants that are sang while moving fingers)
riddles,
syllable clapping,
rhyming word activities, and
minimal pairs, which are specifically helpful for developing phonological awareness of
children.

TEACHING SPEAKING TO YOUNG LEARNERS

Due to the fact that children enjoy talking and they are often in search for chances for
interaction, not through repetitions drills, teachers should provide the balance between
controlled and guided activities and allow children to enjoy natural talk in the classroom.
Teachers should make use of different genres appropriate for children such as
conversational interactions, extended talks, narrative (stories), dialogues, riddles, role plays
and games.
Techniques
1. Look and say 2. Tennis game 3. Guess my animal 4. Find the odd one out 5. Poems or
chants 6. Tongue twisters 7. Jingles 8. Information gap activities

Delayed error correction, rather than explicit correction should be used when children are
engaged in free speaking/ communicative activities.
Teachers should provide a valid reason for speaking (more realistic).

Children should be introduced to language patterns and words in such ways to enable them
to feel that they are meaningful and necessary through personalization (in situations where
they genuinely can find themselves expressing their ideas and emotions).
Speaking activities should be constructed on the themes and contexts that are interesting
and familiar for children, which will increase participation.
Teachers should remember that when demands are too high in the tasks, children tend to
produce single words or formulaic sequences rather than engage in longer interaction.
Speaking activities should also help children build inner strength to deal with confusing and
new situations by presenting puzzles to overcome and solve, and they should ensure success
in the end.

Both question forms and affirmative forms of the sentences should be taught to children to
prepare the baseline for short interactions with question-answer format (e.g., what are you
doing? - I’m drawing a house).
Because classrooms are often the only place where children are exposed to the target
language in EFL settings, teachers should use English as much as possible. Therefore, they
are encouraged to use English as the only classroom language to make children familiar with
certain chunks and expression via repeatedly used classroom expressions or rules.

Games are one of the most appropriate techniques in practicing speaking as they are
intrinsically motivating and creating contexts for children to interact in the target language.
TEACHING READING TO YOUNG LEARNERS
There are four approaches to teach how to read and write in a foreign and/or second
language to children:

Phonics teaching Whole words Approach

It focuses on Children look at the single words and

letter-sound relations so pictures to learn the meaning and the written
build the literacy skills form through flashcards
from the bottom-up. Words are taken from the most
The children are frequently used words/sight words in the target
showed the sounds of the language.
different letters in the
alphabet and how they
are combined.

Whole sentence reading Language experience approach

The recognition of Children start reading and writing at

sentences and phrases sentence level.
are taught by teachers. It is often based on the oral practice of
• The words are taught the written sentences that the children have
in chunks. said.

TEACHING VOCABULARY TO YOUNG LEARNERS

Young learners at the ages of 3-7 are not expected to have metalinguistic knowledge,
pragmatic knowledge and cultural content of the words because they haven’t completed their
cognitive development required to understand abstract notions yet.
There are several effective explicit (intentional, planned instruction) and implicit
(incidental learning) vocabulary teaching strategies:

Explicit Vocabulary Teaching

It refers to the planned, intentional and direct instruction to teach new words to children by:
(1) drawing pictures and diagrams
(2) using pictures and real objects
(3) miming and acting out
(4) demonstrating
(5) explaining the meaning of the words simply.
(6) Thematic organization (e.g., transportation and related words)
(7)Whole-parts relationship (e.g., body and its parts)
(8)Ordering words/degrees/antonyms/synonyms
(9)Ad-hoc categories: collection of things that go together (e.g., things that we can take to the
picnic)

Implicit Vocabulary Teaching

It occurs during extensive reading and listening and it is the unintentional way of teaching
and learning. The children do not aim to learn new words while reading or listening, yet in
order to understand the content, they need to comprehend the words by either looking up in
the dictionary or deducing the meaning of the unknown words from the context. It also takes
place when children play games and sing songs.

Teachers choose concrete words to teach, having considered the cognitive development of
children, especially with very young children. Abstract vocabulary is delayed for later stages.

In the selection of the words to teach, the frequency of the words is the primary aspect to
consider.

For sustainable vocabulary development, there needs to be repeated exposure to the words
aimed to teach. Therefore, children should be presented the words and lexical chunks in
different contexts (recycling).

TEACHING GRAMMAR TO YOUNG LEARNERS

When teaching grammar to children, grammatical structures need to be presented in

meaningful contexts, often in stories, dialogues, songs, games and chants, where children first
understand the meaning and discover the rules themselves out of the context. This is called
inductive grammar teaching. Because teaaching grammar rules directly, deductively,
necessitates thinking about abstract notions and concepts, children cannot benefit from
deductive grammar teaching.

By making use of guided noticing activities such as listening and noticing, presenting new
language with puppets; activities offering structuring opportunities such as information gap
activities, cloze activities for word classes, drills and chants; proceduralising activities such
as describing and dictogloss are used to teach and practice grammar.

TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS

(1) Receptive skills are “reading and listening skills” where meaning is extracted from the
discourse.
(2) Productive skills are “speaking and writing skills” where learners actually need to
produce the language themselves.
TEACHING LISTENING
Listening is defined as a receptive skill that involves receiving of the sounds and active
perceiving and comprehending the meaning of the utterances.
It means hearing and understanding what the speakers say.
It requires certain sub-skills such as discriminating between sounds, recognizing words,
identifying structural grouping of the words, identifying the expressions and phrases that
indicate the intended meaning, and utilizing background knowledge (schemata) to guess the
content of the speech.
It provides learners with the necessary input.
Listening is fundamental to speaking.

Listeners go through three processes while listening:

1. Processing sound/ Perception skills: Listeners segment the sounds and recognize word
boundaries, and contractions, vocabulary, utterance and clause boundaries, the significance of
intonation, pitch, tone and pace, key words and parts of speech etc.
2. Processing meaning/ Analysis skills: In listening, listeners categorize the speech into
meaningful parts, keep in mind the key words and phrases that will convey the intended
message, collect and organize the information in memory.
3. Processing knowledge and context/ Synthesis skills: Listening calls for activating the
contextual information and previous knowledge, where listeners are supposed to predict,
organize and verify meaning from the context. To do this, they make use of information
related to roles of the interlocutors, their relationship with each other.

TYPES OF LISTENING

Discriminative Listening
The aim of the discriminative listening is to distinguish sounds and visual stimuli. It largely
focuses on sounds not meaning.

Comprehensive Listening
The purpose of this type of listening is to comprehend the message of the speech. The
knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical structures are required.

Critical Listening
Listeners go through a process where they evaluate the message by expressing their opinions.
They critically respond to the argument in the speech.

Evaluative/Judgemental Listening
It includes judgments and evaluations as to what the speakers are saying.

Appreciative Listening
It refers to responding to the aesthetic nature of speech and how it is delivered.
RECIPROCITY

1. Reciprocal / interactive Listening:

Listeners are supposed to participate in the interaction and take switch the roles from
listeners to speakers occasionally.
The context that requires interactive listening are face-to-face conversations and
telephone calls, discussions, chats etc.

2. Non-reciprocal / non-interactive Listening:

Listeners are involved in listening passively to a monologue or even conversation.
Some examples for non-interactive listening contexts are listening to the radio, TV,
movies, lectures etc. In this kind of listening, listeners do not have the chance to respond back
to the speakers by asking for clarification, asking questions or expressing ideas.

PURPOSE
1. Extensive listening:
Extensive listening refers to the type of listening that often occurs outside the
classroom for pleasure and general language development.
It doesn’t follow any comprehension questions or vocabulary exercises.

2. Intensive listening:
Intensive listening involves going over a piece of material multiple times in order to
develop vocabulary and grammar knowledge.
It is followed by detailed questions, and detailed understanding.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING LISTENING TYPES OF PROCESSING

INFORMATION

Bottom up processing (lexical segmentation and word recognition skills): Linguistic

knowledge is used to identify linguistic elements starting from the smallest linguistic unit like
phonemes to the largest one like complete speech or dialogue. The smaller units of the
language are combined to create the larger parts, which is actually a linear process where
listeners arrive at meanings at the last stage. It can be stated that it is a text-based process
where learners resort to the sounds, words and grammar in the speech with the purpose of
creating meaning.

Top- down processing (metacognitive awareness-raising): Background knowledge, prior

knowledge about the topic, context and type of speech are utilized to reconstruct the meaning.
This background knowledge activates the schemata and enables the listeners to interpret what
is heard and expect what will come next.
Bottom up processing can be applied while practicing minimal pairs, taking pronunciation
tests, listening for specific details, recognizing cognates and word-order pattern. However,
top-down processing is utilized in the activities such as listening for the main idea, predicting,
drawing inferences, and summarizing where learners relate what they know and what they
hear throughout the listening comprehension process.

TEACHING SPEAKING
Speaking can be described as the process of establishing and conveying meaning by making
use of verbal and non-verbal language in a wide range of contexts.
It requires learners to pronounce sounds correctly, use appropriate stress and intonation
patterns and employ appropriate and accurate words and language structures in the context
where the interaction occurs and organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical
sequence.

Learners are supposed to speak in a wide range of different genres and contexts, utilize certain
conversational and repair strategies to maintain the communication. The aim of teaching
speaking skills is to develop communicative efficiency

Speaking involves three important areas of the language:

1.Mechanics: pronunciation, grammar & vocabulary
2.Functions: transactional (conveying information) and interactional exchanges (building &
sustaining relationships)
3.Social and cultural norms and rules: taking into account the contextual factors (turn-taking,
role relations)

FEATURES OF SPOKEN DISCOURSE

Spoken discourse, which can be planned or unplanned; interactive or non-interactive, is
composed of idea units with short phrases and clauses, fixed phrases, fillers, and hesitation
markers. It contains slips of tongue and displays variations in register (e.g., between formal
and casual speech). Besides, it is shaped in accordance with the relationship between the
interlocutors, their roles, speaking purpose, and the context as well.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING SPEAKING

Speaking is viewed in the larger context of communication with the focus on the speaker’s
ability to 1) take in messages/understand the input, 2) negotiate meaning, and 3) produce
comprehensible output. This view reflects the interactive nature of listening and the
fundamental role of negotiation of meaning in order to produce comprehensible output.

To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, teachers should make use of
a balanced approach which combines (1) language input, (2) structured output (production of
the learners’ focusing on grammar) and (3) communicative output (focusing on the content
and the message).
Input-Focused Approaches Content-oriented input :

This type of input focuses on information provided in the reading or listening

passages.
It can be a short weather report or a long lecture on an academic theme, where the
emphasis is not on the form but the message.

Form-oriented input:
It focuses on how target language is used.
Teachers guide the learners or make them notice the use of vocabulary, pronunciation,
and grammatical structures (linguistic competence); raise the learners’ awareness as to the use
of appropriate words and forms in specific contexts (discourse competence); pace of the
speech, pause length, turn-taking, and related social aspects of language use (sociolinguistic
competence).
Teachers also give explicit instruction related to what expressions to use for asking for
clarification, comprehension checks and compensation for lack of vocabulary knowledge
(strategic competence).

Output-Focused Approaches
Speaking is a productive skill, mere exposure to the input is not sufficient in order to develop
this skill. Teachers should combine structured output activities, which give opportunities for
error correction and accuracy, with communicative output activities which provide learners
with opportunities to practice language more freely.

Structured output
It focuses on the learners’ use of accurate language forms and linguistic structures.
The aim is to produce and practice the grammatical structure accurately that the teacher has
just taught to the learners, so accuracy is taken into consideration.
Using the newly-learnt structures productively often in combination with previously learned
items.

Communicative output
It often has a task-oriented approach since the primary purpose is to complete a task. In the
process of completing the task, the learners are supposed to use the target language
communicatively during the interaction.
The criterion of success is to convey the message to the interlocutors.

Fluency is the main focus rather than the accuracy unless the latter prevents the speaker from
getting the message across with any misunderstandings. (role plays, and discussions which
include information gap)
TEACHING READING

Fluent reading comprehension necessitates a number of processing sub-skills and linguistic knowledge
resources:
The ability to decode graphic forms for efficient word recognition
The ability to access the meaning of a large number of words automatically
The ability to draw meaning from phrase- and clause-level grammatical information
The ability to combine clause-level meanings to build a larger network of meaning relations
(comprehend the text)
The ability to recognize discourse-level relationships and use this information to build and support
comprehension
The ability to use reading strategies with more difficult text and for a range of academic reading tasks
The ability to set goals for reading and adjust them as needed
The ability to use inferences of various types and to monitor comprehension in line with reading goals
The ability to draw on prior knowledge
Abilities to evaluate, integrate, and synthesize information from a text to form a situation model
of comprehension (essentially what the reader learns from the text)

TYPES OF READING

To get maximum benefit from the reading skill, learners should be engaged in both extensive
and intensive reading. While in extensive reading, the learners have the chance to select what
to read for themselves for pleasure and general language improvement, in intensive reading
the reading passages are often chosen by the teacher. It is designed to enable students to
develop specific receptive skills /reading sub-skills such as reading for gist (skimming),
reading for specific information (scanning), reading for detailed comprehension and reading
for inference.

READING SUB-SKILLS
Scanning
Scanning is a reading technique that refers to searching quickly for a specific piece of
information or a particular word in a reading passage. The learners scan the passage to find
specific numbers, names, and dates (key words).

Skimming
It refers to reading through a text quickly to get an overall idea of the contents; that is, the gist
of the passage. (To get a general idea of its contents) They might read the title, subtitles,
subheading, and illustrations or the first sentence of each paragraph.
Inferencing
Sometimes, the authors do not express their points, ideas or emotions explicitly in the text, but
they imply them by hiding the intended message behind the words. To understand these
implied messages, the learners should be able to read between the lines and deduce the
meaning out of the reading text.
APPROACHES TO TEACHING READING

1.Bottom-Up Models 1960s - 1970s

Reading is a decoding process (focus on the text).
The phonics approach to teaching reading is used.

1. alphabet letters + sounds = words

2. words + grammar rules = sentences
3. sentences + discourse rules = paragraphs = longer dicources

2.Top-Down Models 1970s - 1980s

Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game (focus on the reader).
The “whole language” approach to teaching reading is used.

3.Interactive Models
Reading is a process of constructing meaning from text through the use of both bottom-up
and top-down processes, strategies, and skills (focus on the interaction).
The balanced approach to teaching reading is used.

NOTES:
• Content Schemata is the background knowledge related to the topic of the text.
• Formal Schemata refers to the knowledge about the genre of the texts (e.g., to be familiar
with the language and style of an advertisement or encyclopedia).
• Linguistic Schemata is the knowledge of how to form sentences within the rules of syntax,
lexis, grammar and morphology.

TEACHING WRITING
Writing is a complex cognitive activity which requires writers to demonstrate control of a
number of variables at the same time. At the sentence level, for instance, they need to have
control over content, format, sentence structure, vocabulary, register, punctuation, spelling
and capitalization. Beyond the sentence level, it should also include structuring and
integrating information into cohesive and coherent paragraphs and texts.

Cohesion refers to the grammatical relationship between parts of a sentence essential for its
interpretation.
Coherence is described as the order of statements related to one another by sense; that’s the
logical organization of a text.
Register, on the other hand, refers to the selection of appropriate words in line with the genre
and the context of writing.
APPROACHES TO TEACHING WRITING
The Product-oriented Approach
It focuses on the end result of the act of composition; namely, the letter, essay, story etc.
Language teachers following this approach are concerned to see that the end result (outcome)
is readable, grammatically accurate and obeys the discourse convention relating to major
points, supporting details etc. The emphasis during the in-class activities will be on copying
and imitating, carrying out sentence expansions from cue words and producing sentences and
paragraphs from various models and examples.

It is a traditional approach, in which students are encouraged to imitate a model text, which is
usually presented and analyzed at an early stage, and the important thing is the final output.

The Process-oriented Approach

In this approach, students are trained to generate ideas for writing, think of the purpose and
audience, and write multiple drafts in order to present written products that communicate their
own ideas. Writing becomes a process of discovery for the students as they discover new
ideas and new language forms to express them.

It isn’t in a linear fashion. It develops and transforms ideas by writing and rewriting them.
During the writing process, students engage in pre-writing, planning, drafting, and post-
writing activities.

TEACHING VOCABULARY

Aspects of vocabulary knowledge:

• form (spoken & written, i.e. spelling & pronunciation)
• word structure (parts of speech; common derivations, inflections)
• syntactic pattern of the word in a phrase and a sentence
• meaning
• pragmatic meaning (suitability of the word in a particular situation)
• lexical relations of the word with other words: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy
• common collocations

PRINCIPLES IN VOCABULARY TEACHING

*Explicitly teach the high-frequency vocabulary in real life situations so as to clarify and
reinforce the meaning (semantization).
*Present the new lexical items with previously learnt ones in various type of activities.
*New words need to be recycled for several times for consolidation.
*Provide contexts for incidental learning to take place through extensive reading and
listening.
*Provide opportunities to expand the connection between the students’ previous knowledge
and new information and relate them to their previous experiences and lives (personalization).
*Train students to guess the meaning of the unknown words from the contexts.
*Teach students how to use dictionaries effectively.
TECHNIQUES AND STEPS FOR VOCABULARY TEACHING

1. Presentation
If learners are motivated to learn certain words out of interest or need, they are likely to be
learnt more easily. The way or context in which a word is presented as well as the number of
times a word is encountered will affect whether it is learnt or not.

This is the stage in which the teachers either try to elicit the meaning of the lexical items from
the students or explain them by themselves using the following techniques:

1. Setting up a context, which is relevant to learners’ interest and age, builds on or

incorporates learners’ experience.
2. Elicitation of the target vocabulary item (i.e. trying to get the target item from the learners
first) in order to enhance their involvement as well as to help them fit the new item in their
existing vocabulary knowledge.
3. Choral and/or individual repetition (this may be optional at higher levels) in order to
standardize pronunciation.
4. Consolidation / concept check questions, which are aimed to check whether meaning has
been properly understood and to provide further meaningful opportunities for learners to use
the item in context.

The vocabulary teaching techniques

1. Demonstration: The meanings of the new words are made clear by means of visuals:
pictures, flash cards, realia, board drawings or miming and acting.
2. Explanation: Teachers directly give and explain the meanings of the new words to the
learners by making use of the followings:
a. Definition
b. Cognates: (True) Cognates are words in two languages that share a similar meaning,
spelling, and pronunciation. Students can benefit from cognate awareness between L1 and L2.
c. Word-building/Affixation: Learners are taught prefixes, infixes and suffixes to guess the
meaning of the words or sometimes to come up with the noun or adjective form of a word on
their own. 'unrealistically' and 'dependence'
d. Synonyms and antonyms
e. Superordinates – Hyponym
f. Mind-map: a way of classifying the words that are related to the same topic.
2. Practice

Learners need plenty of opportunities in order to acquire a new vocabulary item.

In a vocabulary presentation lesson, the teacher should provide meaningful controlled practice
for learners so that they could recognize, manipulate and use the new vocabulary items.
Vocabulary practice should be regular, carefully planned and should not involve too many
words at one time.
To make sure that the learners have understood and learnt the new words, teachers make use
of the following vocabulary practice activities (the importance of recycling):
*matching pictures to words
*matching parts of words to other parts, e.g. beginnings and endings
*matching words to other words, e.g. collocations, synonyms, opposites, sets of
related words, etc.
*using prefixes and suffixes to build new words from given words
*classifying items into lists
*using given words to complete a specific task
*filling in crosswords, grids or diagrams
*filling in gaps in sentences
*memory games

TEACHING GRAMMAR
Deductive Teaching Of Grammar
It is an approach to language learning in which learners are taught rules and given specific
information about a language explicitly. They, then, apply these rules when they use the
language.

Inductive Teaching Of Grammar

Grammar is taught through examples. Students are provided with several examples or
contexts from which a rule is inferred. It is an approach to language teaching in which
learners are taught grammatical or other types of rules implicitly. In other words, the rules are
given in context and elicited from the students by encouraging them to discover or induce the
rules from the given context.
There are three approaches to grammar teaching depending on which aspect of
grammar (form, meaning, and use) is put at the centre of teaching:

1. Focus on forms: It refers to the deliberate teaching of grammar in order to produce

understanding of the grammar, in the hope that understanding alone will allow the
language learner to use the form correctly.
2. Focus on meaning: It is based on the idea that language is best learnt by experiencing
them to communicate rather than by considering them as the object of study. The meaning
is emphasized, not the deliberate analysis of the grammatical structures.
3. Focus on form: It refers to bringing grammar to the attention of language learners as a
part of communicative language practice. It overtly draws students’ attention to linguistic
elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or
communication.

STAGES OF GRAMMAR TEACHING: PPP

Presentation
Introducing the new grammatical structure in the first stage of the lesson.
This suggests that grammar teaching needs to emphasize awareness of how grammatical
features work rather than mastery.
Learners who are aware of a grammatical structure are more likely to notice it when they
subsequently encounter it in other contexts.
Another significant point in this stage is that the teacher should also decide whether to elicit
the rule from the learners on the basis of examples or to present the rule and encourage
students to produce examples. Which method to follow here (deductive or inductive) depends
very much on the specific educational context.

Practice
This is the stage where teachers should select or design appropriate activities to practice the
newly learnt grammatical structures. The activities should be planned in such a way that
begins with controlled activities and move toward less controlled activities and the ones
focusing on meaning and use.

a. Mechanical Practice: These kinds of activities enable learners to practice the rule without
focusing neither on meaning nor use.
Repetition, Substitution, Single word prompt, Picture prompts, Free substitution

b. Meaningful practice: Students should also be provided with meaningful practice, where
they now understand the meaning of the sentences and practice the grammatical structure at
the same time.
True sentences, Situation, Adding Something, Choosing the best sentence

Production
In the communicative/productive stage, less control over grammatical structure is exercised
than during the practice phase. The aim is to have students use the structures they have been
practicing in as natural and fluent a way as possible.
Reply to a letter, Discussion
TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
The purpose of pronunciation teaching has shifted from aiming at a native-like accent to aiming at
intelligibility, which refers to the extent to which the speaker’s utterance and intended meaning are
comprehended by the listener.

Learners are taught to pronounce speech sounds of the language correctly (segmentals) and to pronounce
sentences fluently at the speed necessitated by each context with accurate supresegmental features; that’s,
stress, rhythm, pauses and intonation.

The primary goals of pronunciation teaching are for the learner to develop intelligible speech and to be able
to effectively communicate in the target language.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING PRONUNCIATION

Intuitive-Imitative Approach
The learners listen to and imitate the sound and rhythms of the target language without any
explicit instruction.

Analytic-Linguistic Approach
The learners are provided with explicit, structured teaching of speech features utilizing
articulatory descriptions and charts of speech apparatus, phonetic alphabet and vowel charts,
and a variety of interactive speech.

Current Integrative Approach

Since pronunciation is considered as an integral component of communication, rather than an
isolated drill and practice sub-skill, it is practiced by using meaningful task-based activities.
Suprasegmental features like stress, rhythm, and intonation are practiced in meaningful
discourse beyond the sound and word level.

TECHNIQUES IN TEACHING PRONUNCIATION

Articulatory charts
Sample words utilizing the targeted sound
Minimal pairs
Consonant Clusters: e.g., ticked/ticket, I scream/ice-cream
Listening discrimination of minimal pairs within a sentence
Sample sentences with several words utilizing the targeted sound
Dictations
Suprasegmental exercises (including intonation, rhythm, stress, and timing)
 FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE LEARNING

A. LINGUISTIC FACTORS B. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS C. SOCIOCULTURAL

FACTORS

1. AGE 1. CULTURE
CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE 2. MOTIVATION 2. ACCULTURATION
AND LEARNER LANGUAGE 3. INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE 3. INTERCULTURAL
1. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 4. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENCE
HYPOTHESIS LEARNERS/ LEARNING STYLES 4. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA
2. LEARNER LANGUAGE 5. LEARNING STRATEGIES FRANCA
(INTERLANGUAGE) 5. WORLD ENGLISHES
3. LEARNER ERRORS

A. LINGUISTIC FACTORS
CROSS-LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE AND LEARNER LANGUAGE
1. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS
Contrastive analysis, which relies upon a systematic comparison of the mother tongue with the target
language in order for the researcher/teacher to predict areas of difficulty for the second language
learner.

In the field of second language learning, the major source of learner errors in the process of second
or foreign language was directly attributed to the interference from the learner’s mother tongue for
many years.

Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings from their first language and culture to the
foreign languages and culture both productively, and receptively.

Contrastive Analysis (CA) was deeply rooted in the behaviorist and structuralist approaches of the
time. It was claimed that the principle barrier to second/foreign language acquisition is the interference
of the mother tongue system with the second language system.

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis refers to the method of comparing similarities and differences
between L1 and L2 languages. This helps predict potential learner errors.

Errors are assumed to result from the interference from mother tongue.
2. LEARNER LANGUAGE (INTERLANGUAGE)

Interlanguage can be described as the language developed by language learners during the process of
learning a second or foreign language. The key factor here is the fact that learners haven’t mastered
the language fully yet.

Interlanguage is viewed as a separate, systematic evolving linguistic system, clearly different from
both the learner’s native language and the target language being learned, but linked to both NL and
TL by interlingual identifications in the perception of the learner.

Since the language learning is a developmental process learner language contains errors.

Errors are not bad as once thought but actually they is apparent proof of the fact that learning is
actually taking place.

3. LEARNER ERRORS
Errors committed by the learners of second or foreign language are potentially important for the
process of second language learning, the designing of the course and instructional materials.

A mistake is defined as a performance error which is a slip of the tongue, random

ungrammaticality, or other performance laps. It is a failure to use already known information
correctly.

An error is a noticeable deviation from the correct usage of the language, and reflects the
deficiency in competence/knowledge of the learner.

One of the significant conclusions drawn from the researches on error analysis was that the majority
of errors did not result from interference caused by the learner’s native language, but were rather
developmental errors.

Error Analysis is a type of linguistic analysis focusing on the errors learners make and attempts to
describe and explain them. It also leads us to the hypothesis that learners have an interlanguage.

Sources Errors

1. Inter-lingual Errors/Negative Transfer

They result from the mother tongue influences. The differences in mother tongue
and the target language cause the learners to apply the familiar rules to a new
situation as the knowledge in L2 is not accessible or difficult to access.
2. Intra - lingual Errors / developmental Errors

They reflect the operation of learning strategies that are universal. They result from the learners'
incomplete or wrong understanding of the target language rules or ignorance of rule restrictions.

The intra-lingual errors are the developmental errors caused by the learning strategies in the process
of acquiring the language.

Examples of Developmental Errors:

Simplification: Learners tend to select simple forms and structures instead of more complex ones.
(e.g., the use of simple present instead of the present perfect continuous tense)

Overgeneralization/False Analogy: This is the use of one form or structure in one context and
extending its application to other contexts where it actually should not be applied.

Hypercorrection: Sometimes frequent acts of teacher correction of the errors induce the learners to
make errors they would normally do not. “I was at the home”

Omission/Avoidance: Some linguistic forms are difficult to produce by some learners. Consequently,
they avoid or omit these forms and use simpler ones.

Overextension: It occurs when the children use a word too broadly. In other words, it refers to the use
of a word for other objects or people that have similar features.

Underextension: It is the opposite of overextension. The children limit the use of a word for a specific
object or people.

“COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES”

It is described as a systematic technique employed by a speaker to express his meaning when faced
with some difficulty. They are speaker-oriented and considered as part of planning stage, which are
called upon when learners experience problems.

Principle of Clarity: It requires speakers to be informative and clear.

Principle of Economy: It requires being brief and economical.

Examples of Communication Strategies

A. Paraphrase

Approximation: Learners’ use of vocabulary item or structure that is not correct but shares
semantic features with the intended item to satisfy the speaker (e.g., pipe for water pipe).

Word coinage: learners make up a new word to communicate the intended concept (e.g., “airball”
for balloon; “houseshoes” for slippers).

Circumlocution: Learners describe the features of an object or action instead of using the suitable
structure. (e.g., "She is, uh, smoking something. I don't know what its name is. That's uh Persian
and we use in Turkey a lot of" ; “it´s like ja- jacket without the arms? (for the waistcoat)).

B. Transfer

Literal translation: Learners translate word for word from L1

Language switch: Learners use L1 term without bothering to translate (e.g., balon for balloon)

Appeal for assistance: Learners ask for the correct term or structure (e.g., what is this?)

Mime: Learners use non-verbal strategies to convey meaning

C. Avoidance

Topic avoidance: Learners pass concepts when they do not have the vocabulary and structures
related to them

Message abandonment: Learners begin talking about a concept but stop in the middle since they
are unable to continue.

D. Foreignizing

Pronouncing an L1 word as if it is an L2 word.

Teachers must know their students in order to decide what kind of error correction should be
used. Based on the learner characteristics and learner styles, they should pick one of the
corrective feedback types.

When teachers ignore and do not correct repetitively occurring errors, there is a danger of
fossilization. It refers to the process whereby language development stops. Fossilization most often
occurs in an inadequate learning environment.
Types Of Corrective Feedback

Explicit correction: This type of corrective feedback refers to the direct provision of the accurate
form. The teacher clearly signals or says that the production of the student was wrong. The teacher
may also say things like “Oh, you mean...” and “You should say ….”

Recast/Reformulation/Echo correction: The teacher reformulates the student’s utterance by

providing the correct form without signaling that the student has committed an error. Namely, it
paraphrases learners’ wrong utterances that involve replacing one or more of the incorrect components
with a correct form while maintaining the meaning. The teacher never uses utterances like “‘you
mean”, “Use or do not use this word”, or ‘You should say.’ It is an implicit way of correcting. This
type of correction often may not be recognized by the learners.

Clarification Request: By using phrases like “Excuse me?” or “I don’t understand,” the teacher
indicates that the message has not been understood or that the student’s utterance contained some kind
of mistake and that a repetition or a reformulation is required.

Metalinguistic Feedback: Without providing the accurate form, the teacher poses questions or
provides comments or information related to the formation of the student’s utterance (for example,
“Do we say it like that?” “That’s not how you say it in English,” and “Is it feminine?”). Notice that
in this type of corrective feedback, the teacher attempts to elicit the information or the rule from the
student.

Elicitation: The teacher directly elicits the accurate form from the learners by asking questions like
“How do we say that in English?” or by saying “Say that again”. The teacher lets the student
complete his/her utterance through a deliberate pause.

Repetition: The teacher repeats the student’s error and adjusts intonation to draw student’s
attention to it.

B. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
1. AGE

It is believed that here is a critical period for foreign and second language acquisition. This is
supported by Critical Period Hypothesis, which indicates that human beings are wired to learn
foreign/second language abilities during a certain age span, and that after this period learning the
language is difficult.
2. MOTIVATION
Motivation is defined as the learner’s orientation, effort and willingness with respect to the goal of
learning a second language.

It is observed and thought that successful language learners are those who like the people that speak
the language, admire the culture and have a wish to become familiar with or even integrate into the
society where the target language is used. This type of motivation is known as integrative
motivation.

Another type of motivation is the instrumental motivation which is defined as the desire to gain
something practical or concrete out of the second or foreign language learning. The purpose of
language learning is functional such as meeting the requirements for education, applying for a job,
meeting the requirement of promotion, etc.

Intrinsic motivation refers to aiming to learn a second/foreign language without any external force
but with the enjoyment and satisfaction of engagement itself.

Extrinsic motivation refers to learning a second or foreign language with an external driving force
such as earning more money, getting prizes, social approval, and avoiding punishments such as
scolding, and rejection etc.

NOTE: Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are different from the integrative and instrumental
motivation types. The former ones depend on the source of the motivation to learn the language; that’s
whether it is internal or external. However, the latter ones depend on the reason why the language is
learnt.

3. INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE

Aptitude refers to the special ability involved in language learning and its effects are measured in
terms of proficiency scores achieved by the learners.

‘Intelligence’ refers to the general ability that governs how well learners master a wide range of
linguistic and nonlinguistic units.
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS / LEARNING STYLES
Learning style is defined as the general approach, for instance, global or analytic, auditory or visual,
which learners use to learn a new language. They are the overall patterns that give general direction to
learning behavior.

Examples of Learning Styles

Visual (spatial): using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.

Aural (auditory-musical): using sound and music.

Verbal (linguistic): using words, both in speech and writing.

Physical (kinesthetic): using your body, hands and sense of touch.

Logical (mathematical): using logic, reasoning and systems.

Social (interpersonal): learning in groups or with other people.

Solitary (intrapersonal): working alone and using self-study.

Analytical (field independent) learners: A field-independent learning style is defined by a tendency

to separate details from the surrounding context. They concentrate on grammatical structures and
rules. They tend to learn the rules and principles of a language. They perceive analytically. They may
need explicit training in social skills.

Global (field dependent) learners: They are more sociable, and they like interaction and
communication. They do not prefer learning grammatical rules. They can be observed to employ
compensation strategies to avoid communication breakdowns or misunderstandings. They experience
in a global fashion. They use observational approach for concept attainment (learns best by using
examples).
5. LEARNING STRATEGIES
Learning strategies are specific actions; behaviors, steps, or techniques learners use in order to
improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, recalling and using second or foreign language.

What makes a strategy positive and helpful for a given learner depends on three factors:

 if the strategy relates well to the L2 task at hand

 if the strategy fits the learners’ learning style preferences

 if the learners use the strategy effectively and link it with other relevant strategies.

Strategies that fulfill these conditions make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more
self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations and enable more
independent, autonomous, lifelong learning.

Three primary types of learning strategies

Metacognitive Strategies: These are the higher order thinking skills that require planning, monitoring, or
assessing the success of a learning activity; that’s, managing the learning process overall (e.g., identifying one’s
own learning style preferences and needs, planning for an L2 task).

Cognitive strategies: They operate directly on incoming information, manipulat­ing it in ways that enhance
learning. Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways, e.g., through
reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop
stronger schemas, practicing in naturalistic settings.

Socio/Affective Strategies: Learners’ identifying their mood and anxiety level, talking about their feelings,
rewarding themselves for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive self-talk to motivate
themselves in the language learning process are examples of affective strategies.

Social strategies, however, are asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point,
asking for help, exploring cultural and social norms while using the target language and they help learners work
with others.

C. SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS

1. CULTURE
Culture is described as a blueprint which guides the behavior of people in a community. It governs our behavior
in groups, makes us sensitive to matters of status. It can also be defined as the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and
tools that characterize a given group of people.
When teaching culture of the target culture, stereotyping (labeling cultures with definite and often negative
characteristics) needs to be avoided. Rather, learners need to be taught to recognize and understand differing
world views so that they can adopt a positive and open-minded attitude toward cross-cultural differences.

2. ACCULTURATION
Second language learning involves the acquisition of a second identity. It refers to adopting a new identity in the
target culture. During the acquisition of language and culture, learners occasionally may experience culture
shock (changing from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis).

3. INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
In general, it is the ability to communicate with the members of other cultures effectively and appropriately. It
refers to a combination of attitudes, knowledge, understanding and skills applied through the cross-cultural
interaction which enables people to understand and respect people from different cultures; establish positive
relationship where they respond appropriately, effectively and respectfully when interacting with people from
different cultures and understand themselves and their own cultural identities.

4. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA

It refers to the contact language between people who share neither a common mother tongue nor a common
culture, and for whom English is the selected foreign language of communication.

5. WORLD ENGLISHES
The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English utilized in various sociolinguistic
contexts globally and analyzing how the use of English is influenced by the sociolinguistic histories,
multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function.

The inner circle includes the countries in which English is the primary national language, such as Australia,
Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. .

The outer circle shows the countries such as Ghana, India, Nigeria, Philippines, and Singapore where
English, is often used in major institutions such as education, civil service, and government along with
indigenous languages.

The expanding circle includes countries in which English is taught as a foreign language. These countries are
Japan, China, Russia, and Turkey. They are the ones where English is learnt as a foreign language.