Hydroelectric Dam

A hydroelectric dam is one of the major components of a hydroelectric facility. A dam is a

large, man-made structure built to contain some body of water. In addition to construction for the
purpose of producing hydroelectric power, dams are created to control river flow and
regulate flooding.

Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river plants.
Large-scale hydroelectric dams continue to be built in many parts of the world (including China
and Brazil), but it is unlikely that new facilities will be added to the existing U.S. fleet in the
future.

Instead, the future of hydroelectric power in the United States will likely involve increased
capacity at current dams and new run-of-the-river projects. There are environmental impacts at
both types of plants.

Land use

The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending largely on
the size of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land. Hydroelectric plants in
flat areas tend to require much more land than those in hilly areas or canyons where deeper
reservoirs can hold more volume of water in a smaller space.

At one extreme, the large Balbina hydroelectric plant, which was built in a flat area of Brazil,
flooded 2,360 square kilometers—an area the size of Delaware—and it only provides 250 MW
of power generating capacity (equal to more than 2,000 acres per MW) [1]. In contrast, a small
10 MW run-of-the-river plant in a hilly location can use as little 2.5 acres (equal to a quarter of
an acre per MW) [2].

Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it destroys
forest, wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands. In many instances, such as the Three
Gorges Dam in China, entire communities have also had to be relocated to make way for
reservoirs

Wildlife impacts

Dammed reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural irrigation, flood control,
and recreation, so not all wildlife impacts associated with dams can be directly attributed to
hydroelectric power. However, hydroelectric facilities can still have a major impact on aquatic
ecosystems. For example, though there are a variety of methods to minimize the impact
(including fish ladders and in-take screens), fish and other organisms can be injured and killed by
turbine blades.
Apart from direct contact, there can also be wildlife impacts both within the dammed reservoirs
and downstream from the facility. Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river
water. As a result, the reservoir will have higher than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients,
which can cultivate an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd out
other river animal and plant-life, and they must be controlled through manual harvesting or by
introducing fish that eat these plants [4]. In addition, water is lost through evaporation in
dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate than in flowing rivers.

In addition, if too much water is stored behind the reservoir, segments of the river downstream
from the reservoir can dry out. Thus, most hydroelectric operators are required to release a
minimum amount of water at certain times of year. If not released appropriately, water levels
downstream will drop and animal and plant life can be harmed. In addition, reservoir water is
typically low in dissolved oxygen and colder than normal river water. When this water is
released, it could have negative impacts on downstream plants and animals. To mitigate these
impacts, `aerating turbines can be installed to increase dissolved oxygen and multi-level water
intakes can help ensure that water released from the reservoir comes from all levels of the
reservoir, rather than just the bottom (which is the coldest and has the lowest dissolved oxygen).

Life-cycle global warming emissions

Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling of hydroelectric
power plants, but recent research suggests that emissions during a facility’s operation can also be
significant. Such emissions vary greatly depending on the size of the reservoir and the nature of
the land that was flooded by the reservoir.

Small run-of-the-river plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent
per kilowatt-hour. Life-cycle emissions from large-scale hydroelectric plants built in semi-arid
regions are also modest: approximately 0.06 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-
hour. However, estimates for life-cycle global warming emissions from hydroelectric plants built
in tropical areas or temperate peatlands are much higher. After the area is flooded, the vegetation
and soil in these areas decomposes and releases both carbon dioxide and methane. The exact
amount of emissions depends greatly on site-specific characteristics. However, current estimates
suggest that life-cycle emissions can be over 0.5 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per
kilowatt-hour.

To put this into context, estimates of life-cycle global warming emissions for natural gas
generated electricity are between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-
hour and estimates for coal-generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide
equivalent per kilowatt-hour.
The Pakistan National Conservation Strategy

The Pakistan NCS is a broad-based policy statement aimed at achieving environmentally

sustainable economic and social development in Pakistan. The three overriding objectives
of the NCS are:

o Conservation of natural resources,

o Sustainable development, and
o Improved efficiency in the use and management of resources.
Three operating principles are identified to achieve these objectives. These are:

o Greater public participation in development and environmental management,

o A merging of environment and economics decision-making, and
o Lasting improvements in the quality of life.

The NCS was developed over a nine-year period (1983-1992) through the collaborative
efforts of the IUCN and the Government of Pakistan. The NCS development process
included extensive consultation with thousands of experts, interested individuals,
communities, NGOs, and government agencies. The final product, according to several
observers, is outstanding, in terms of both comprehensiveness and quality.

The NCS sets out the basic guidelines for an integrated effort aimed at protecting the
environment and natural resources of the country. This broad framework provides a
comprehensive point of reference for all agencies, departments, private sector companies,
financial institutions, and donor agencies for undertaking systematic efforts to bring
about an effective change for sustainable development.

The NCS has three main parts:

Part 1, Pakistan and the Environment, provides the context of the document. A
comprehensive discussion on the state of the environment in Pakistan is followed by
discussions on resource use, existing institutions, policies, instruments and environment-
related programs.

Part 2, Elements of National Conservation Strategy, starts by defining the basic

objectives and principles of the NCS as discussed earlier in this section. This is followed
by a comprehensive discussion of issues and opportunities in the primary sectors
(agriculture, forest management, rangeland rehabilitation, livestock management, water
resources, marine and coastal resource management, fisheries, wildlife and their
ecosystem, and mineral resources). After this, the issues and opportunities in the
secondary and tertiary sectors (energy, industrial development, human settlement,
pollution control, recreation and tourism) are presented, followed by a discussion on
supporting programs (population, education, communications, research and technology,
women in development, training and environmental information systems).

Part 3, Implementation Arrangements, provides the action agenda and implementation

strategy. The NCS has 14 program areas for priority implementation. These are:

7. Maintaining soils in croplands

8. Increasing irrigation efficiency
9. Protecting watersheds
10. Supporting forestry and plantations
11. Restoring rangelands and improving livestock
12. Protecting water bodies and sustaining fisheries
13. Conserving biodiversity
 14. Increasing energy efficiency
15. Developing and deploying renewables

Preventing/abating pollution

16. Managing urban wastes

17. Supporting institutions for common resources
18. Integrating population and environment programs
19. Preserving the cultural heritage.

Within the 14 program areas, 68 specific programs have been identified. For each
program, the long-term goals, and expected outputs and physical investments required
within the first 10 years of implementation have been identified. The NCS proposes a
seven-level strategy for implementation. The seven levels are federal and provincial
leadership, departmental responsibility, district coordination, community participation,
individual action, corporate tasks, and government and NGO support. The required
government and institutional development, the role of community organizations, and the
financial support required for the implementation of the NCS have also been discussed in
this part.