Image Compression (Chapter 8)

Reference: Prof. Bebis, University of Nevada, USA

 Image Compression
• The goal of image compression is to reduce the amount
of data required to represent a digital image.
 Image Compression (cont’d)

• Lossless
– Information preserving
– Low compression ratios

• Lossy
– Not information preserving
– High compression ratios

Trade-off: information loss vs compression ratio

 Data ≠ Information

• Data and information are not synonymous terms!

• Data is the means by which information is conveyed.

• Data compression aims to reduce the amount of data

while preserving as much information as possible.
 Data vs Information (cont’d)
• The same information can be represented by different
amount of data – for example:

Ex1: Your wife, Helen, will meet you at Logan Airport

in Boston at 5 minutes past 6:00 pm tomorrow
night

Ex2: Your wife will meet you at Logan Airport at 5

minutes past 6:00 pm tomorrow night

Ex3: Helen will meet you at Logan at 6:00 pm

tomorrow night
 Compression Ratio

compression

Compression ratio:
Relevant Data Redundancy

Example:
 Types of Data Redundancy

(1) Coding Redundancy

(2) Interpixel Redundancy
(3) Psychovisual Redundancy

• Data compression attempts to reduce one or more of

these redundancy types.
 Coding - Definitions
• Code: a list of symbols (letters, numbers, bits etc.)
• Code word: a sequence of symbols used to represent
some information (e.g., gray levels).
• Code word length: number of symbols in a code word.
Coding - Definitions (cont’d)
N x M image
rk: k-th gray level
l(rk): # of bits for rk
P(rk): probability of rk

Expected value: E ( X )   xP ( X  x)
x
 Coding Redundancy
• Case 1: l(rk) = constant length

Example:
 Coding Redundancy (cont’d)
• Case 2: l(rk) = variable length
variable length

Total number of bits: 2.7NM

 Interpixel redundancy
• Interpixel redundancy implies that pixel values are
correlated (i.e., a pixel value can be reasonably predicted
by its neighbors).
histograms

auto-correlation


f ( x) o g ( x)   f ( x) g ( x  a) da


auto-correlation: f(x)=g(x)
 Interpixel redundancy (cont’d)
• To reduce interpixel redundancy, some kind of transformation
must be applied on the data (e.g., thresholding, DFT, DWT)

Example:

threshold
original

11 ……………0000……………………..11…..000…..

thresholded
(1+10) bits/pair
 Psychovisual redundancy

• The human eye is more sensitive to the lower frequencies

than to the higher frequencies in the visual spectrum.

• Idea: discard data that is perceptually insignificant!

 Psychovisual redundancy (cont’d)
Example: quantization
256 gray levels 16 gray levels 16 gray levels + random noise

add a small pseudo-random number

C=8/4 = 2:1 to each pixel prior to quantization
 Measuring Information

• A key question in image compression is:

“What is the minimum amount of data that is

sufficient to describe completely an image
without loss of information?”

• How do we measure the information content of an

image?
 Measuring Information (cont’d)
• We assume that information generation is a
probabilistic process.

• Idea: associate information with probability!

A random event E with probability P(E) contains:

Note: I(E)=0 when P(E)=1

How much information does a pixel contain?

• Suppose that gray level values are generated by a

random process, then rk contains:

units of information!

(assume statistically independent random events)

 How much information does an image contain?

• Average information content of an image:

L 1
E   I (rk ) P(rk )
k 0

using

units/pixel
Entropy:
(e.g., bits/pixel)
 Redundancy - revisited

• Redundancy:

where:

Note: if Lavg= H, then R=0 (no redundancy)

 Entropy Estimation
• It is not easy to estimate H reliably!

image
 Entropy Estimation (cont’d)
• First order estimate of H:

Lavg = 8 bits/pixel R= Lavg-H

The first-order estimate provides only a lower-

bound on the compression that can be achieved.
 Estimating Entropy (cont’d)
• Second order estimate of H:
– Use relative frequencies of pixel blocks :

image
 Differences in Entropy Estimates

• Differences between higher-order estimates of

entropy and the first-order estimate indicate the
presence of interpixel redundancy!

• Need to apply some transformation to deal with

interpixel redundancy!
Differences in Entropy Estimates (cont’d)
• For example, consider pixel differences:

16
Differences in Entropy Estimates (cont’d)
• What is the entropy of the difference image?

(better than the entropy of the original image H=1.81)

• An even better transformation is possible

since the second order entropy estimate is lower:
 Image Compression Model

We will focus on the Source Encoder/Decoder only.

 Image Compression Model (cont’d)

• Mapper: transforms data to account for interpixel redundancies.

 Image Compression Model (cont’d)

• Quantizer: quantizes the data to account for psychovisual

redundancies.
 Image Compression Model (cont’d)

• Symbol encoder: encodes the data to account for coding

redundancies.
 Image Compression Models (cont’d)

• The decoder applies the inverse steps.

• Note that quantization is irreversible in general.

 Fidelity Criteria

• How close is to ?

• Criteria
– Subjective: based on human observers
– Objective: mathematically defined criteria
Subjective Fidelity Criteria
 Objective Fidelity Criteria

• Root mean square error (RMS)

• Mean-square signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Subjective vs Objective Fidelity Criteria

RMSE = 5.17 RMSE = 15.67 RMSE = 14.17

Lossless Compression
Taxonomy of Lossless Methods
 Huffman Coding
(addresses coding redundancy)

• A variable-length coding technique.

• Source symbols are encoded one at a time!
– There is a one-to-one correspondence between source
symbols and code words.
• Optimal code - minimizes code word length per
source symbol.
 Huffman Coding (cont’d)
• Forward Pass
1. Sort probabilities per symbol
2. Combine the lowest two probabilities
3. Repeat Step2 until only two probabilities remain.
 Huffman Coding (cont’d)

• Backward Pass
Assign code symbols going backwards
 Huffman Coding (cont’d)
• Lavg assuming Huffman coding:

• Lavg assuming binary coding:

 Huffman Coding/Decoding

• Coding/Decoding can be implemented using a look-up

table.
• Decoding can be done unambiguously.
 Arithmetic (or Range) Coding
(addresses coding redundancy)
• The main weakness of Huffman coding is that it
encodes source symbols one at a time.
• Arithmetic coding encodes sequences of source
symbols together.
– There is no one-to-one correspondence between source
symbols and code words.
• Slower than Huffman coding but can achieve better
compression.
 Arithmetic Coding (cont’d)

• A sequence of source symbols is assigned to a sub-

interval in [0,1) which can be represented by an
arithmetic code, e.g.:
sub-interval arithmetic code
α1 α2 α3 α3 α4 [0.06752, 0.0688) 0.068

• Start with the interval [0, 1) ; a sub-interval is chosen

to represent the message which becomes smaller and
smaller as the number of symbols in the message
increases.
 Arithmetic Coding (cont’d)

Encode message: α1 α2 α3 α3 α4

1) Start with interval [0, 1)

0 1
2) Subdivide [0, 1) based on the probabilities of αi

3) Update interval by processing source symbols

 Example

Encode
α1 α2 α3 α3 α4
0.8

0.4
[0.06752, 0.0688)
0.2
or
0.068
(must be inside sub-interval)
 Example (cont’d)

• The message α1 α2 α3 α3 α4 is encoded using 3 decimal

digits or 3/5 = 0.6 decimal digits per source symbol.

• The entropy of this message is:

-(3 x 0.2log10(0.2)+0.4log10(0.4))=0.5786 digits/symbol

Note: finite precision arithmetic might cause problems

due to truncations!
 Arithmetic Decoding
1.0 0.8 0.72 0.592 0.5728
α4
0.8 0.72 0.688 0.5856 0.57152

Decode 0.572
α3
(code length=4)
0.4 0.56 0.624 0.5728 0.56896
α2
0.2 0.48 0.592 0.5664 0.56768
α3 α3 α1 α2 α4
α1
0.0 0.4
0.56 0.56 0.5664
 LZW Coding
(addresses interpixel redundancy)
• Requires no prior knowledge of symbol probabilities.

• Assigns fixed length code words to variable length

symbol sequences.
– There is no one-to-one correspondence between source symbols
and code words.

• Included in GIF, TIFF and PDF file formats

 LZW Coding
• A codebook (or dictionary) needs to be constructed.

• Initially, the first 256 entries of the dictionary are assigned

to the gray levels 0,1,2,..,255 (i.e., assuming 8 bits/pixel)

Initial Dictionary
Consider a 4x4, 8 bit image Dictionary Location Entry

39 39 126 126 0 0
39 39 126 126 1 1
. .
39 39 126 126 255 255
39 39 126 126 256 -

511 -
 LZW Coding (cont’d)
As the encoder examines image pixels, gray level sequences
(i.e., blocks) that are not in the dictionary are assigned to a
new entry.
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
Dictionary Location Entry
39 39 126 126
0 0
1 1
- Is 39 in the dictionary……..Yes
. . - What about 39-39………….No
255 255
256 -
39-39
* Add 39-39 at location 256
511 -
 Example
39 39 126 126 Concatenated Sequence: CS = CR + P
39 39 126 126
(CR) (P)
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126

CR = empty
repeat
P=next pixel
CS=CR + P
If CS is found:
(1) No Output
(2) CR=CS
else:
(1) Output D(CR)
(2) Add CS to D
(3) CR=P
 Decoding LZW

• Use the dictionary for decoding the “encoded output”

sequence.
• The dictionary need not be sent with the encoded
output.
• Can be built on the “fly” by the decoder as it reads the
received code words.
 Run-length coding (RLC)
(addresses interpixel redundancy)
• Reduce the size of a repeating string of symbols (i.e., runs):

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1  (1,5) (0, 6) (1, 1)

a a a b b b b b b c c  (a,3) (b, 6) (c, 2)

• Encodes a run of symbols into two bytes: (symbol, count)

• Can compress any type of data but cannot achieve high
compression ratios compared to other compression methods.
 Combining Huffman Coding
with Run-length Coding
• Assuming that a message has been encoded using
Huffman coding, additional compression can be
achieved using run-length coding.

e.g., (0,1)(1,1)(0,1)(1,0)(0,2)(1,4)(0,2)
 Bit-plane coding
(addresses interpixel redundancy)
• Process each bit plane individually.

(1) Decompose an image into a series of binary images.

(2) Compress each binary image (e.g., using run-length coding)
Lossy Methods - Taxonomy
 Lossy Compression
• Transform the image into some other domain to reduce
interpixel redundancy.

~ (N/n)2 subimages
Example: Fourier Transform

Note that the

magnitude of the FT
decreases, as u, v
increase!

K << N
K-1 K-1
 Transform Selection

• T(u,v) can be computed using various transformations,

for example:
– DFT
– DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform)
– KLT (Karhunen-Loeve Transformation) or Principal
Component Analysis (PCA)

• JPEG using DCT for handling interplixel redundancy.

 DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform)

Forward:

Inverse:

if u=0 if v=0
if u>0 if v>0
 DCT (cont’d)

• Basis functions for a 4x4 image (i.e., cosines of

different frequencies).
 DCT (cont’d)
Using DFT WHT DCT
8 x 8 sub-images
yields 64 coefficients
per sub-image.

Reconstructed images
by truncating
50% of the
coefficients

More compact
transformation

RMS error: 2.32 1.78 1.13

 DCT (cont’d)

• Sub-image size selection:

Reconstructions

original 2 x 2 sub-images 4 x 4 sub-images 8 x 8 sub-images

 DCT (cont’d)
• DCT minimizes "blocking artifacts" (i.e., boundaries
between subimages do not become very visible).

DFT
has n-point periodicity

DCT
has 2n-point periodicity
 JPEG Compression

Entropy
encoder

Accepted
as an
internatio
nal image
compressi
on
standard
in 1992. Entropy
decoder
 JPEG - Steps

1. Divide image into 8x8 subimages.

For each subimage do:

2. Shift the gray-levels in the range [-128, 127]

3. Apply DCT  64 coefficients

1 DC coefficient: F(0,0)
63 AC coefficients: F(u,v)
Example

[-128, 127] (non-centered

spectrum)
 JPEG Steps

4. Quantize the coefficients (i.e., reduce the amplitude of

coefficients that do not contribute a lot).

Q(u,v): quantization table

 Example

• Quantization Table Q[i][j]

Example (cont’d)

Quantization
 JPEG Steps (cont’d)

5. Order the coefficients using zig-zag ordering

- Creates long runs of zeros (i.e., ideal for run-length encoding)
 JPEG Steps (cont’d)

6. Encode coefficients:

6.1 Form “intermediate” symbol sequence.

6.2 Encode “intermediate” symbol sequence into

a binary sequence.
 Intermediate Symbol Sequence – DC coeff

symbol_1 (SIZE) symbol_2 (AMPLITUDE)

DC (6) (61)

SIZE: # bits need to encode

the coefficient
 DC Coefficient Encoding

symbol_1 symbol_2
(SIZE) (AMPLITUDE)

predictive
coding:
 Intermediate Symbol Sequence – AC coeff

symbol_1 (RUN-LENGTH, SIZE) symbol_2 (AMPLITUDE) end of block

AC (0, 2) (-3)
RUN-LENGTH: run of zeros preceding coefficient
SIZE: # bits for encoding the amplitude of coefficient
Note: If RUN-LENGTH > 15, use symbol (15,0) ,
Example: AC Coefficients Encoding
Symbol_1 Symbol_2
(Variable Length Code (VLC)) (Variable Length Integer (VLI))

# bits

(1,4) (12)  (111110110 1100)

VLC VLI
Final Symbol Sequence
 What is the effect of the “Quality”
parameter?

(58k bytes) (21k bytes) (8k bytes)

lower compression higher compression

What is the effect of the “Quality”
parameter? (cont’d)
 Effect of Quantization:
homogeneous 8 x 8 block
 Effect of Quantization:
homogeneous 8 x 8 block (cont’d)
Quantized De-quantized
 Effect of Quantization:
homogeneous 8 x 8 block (cont’d)
Reconstructed
Error is low!

Original
 Effect of Quantization:
non-homogeneous 8 x 8 block
 Effect of Quantization:
non-homogeneous 8 x 8 block (cont’d)
Quantized De-quantized
 Effect of Quantization:
non-homogeneous 8 x 8 block (cont’d)
Reconstructed

Error is high!

Original:
 Case Study: Fingerprint Compression

• FBI is digitizing fingerprints at 500 dots per inch with

8 bits of grayscale resolution.
• A single fingerprint card turns into about 10 MB of
data!

A sample fingerprint image

768 x 768 pixels =589,824 bytes
 WSQ Fingerprint Compression

• An image coding standard for digitized fingerprints

employing the Discrete Wavelet Transform
(Wavelet/Scalar Quantization or WSQ).

• Developed and maintained by:

– FBI
– Los Alamos National Lab (LANL)
– National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
Need to Preserve Fingerprint Details

The "white" spots in the middle of

the black ridges are sweat pores and
they are admissible points of
identification in court.

These details are just a couple

pixels wide!
 What compression scheme should be used?

• Lossless or lossy compression?

• In practice lossless compression methods haven’t

done better than 2:1 on fingerprints!

• Does JPEG work well for fingerprint compression?

 Results using JPEG compression
file size 45853 bytes
compression ratio: 12.9

Fine details have been lost.

Image has an artificial ‘‘blocky’’

pattern superimposed on it.

Artifacts will affect the

performance of fingerprint
recognition.
 Results using WSQ compression
file size 45621 bytes
compression ratio: 12.9

Fine details are better

preserved.

No “blocky” artifacts.
WSQ Algorithm
 Compression ratio

• FBI’s target bit rate is around 0.75 bits per pixel (bpp)

• This corresponds to a compression ratio of

8/0.75=10.7

• Target bit rate can set via a parameter, similar to the

"quality" parameter in JPEG.
Varying compression ratio (cont’d)
Original image 768 x 768 pixels (589824 bytes)
 Varying compression ratio (cont’d)
0.9 bpp compression
WSQ image, file size 47619 bytes, JPEG image, file size 49658 bytes,
compression ratio 12.4 compression ratio 11.9
 Varying compression ratio (cont’d)
0.75 bpp compression
WSQ image, file size 39270 bytes JPEG image, file size 40780 bytes,
compression ratio 15.0 compression ratio 14.5
 Varying compression ratio (cont’d)
0.6 bpp compression
WSQ image, file size 30987 bytes, JPEG image, file size 30081 bytes,
compression ratio 19.0 compression ratio 19.6
 JPEG Modes

• JPEG supports several different modes

– Sequential Mode
– Progressive Mode
– Hierarchical Mode
– Lossless Mode

• The default mode is “sequential”

– Image is encoded in a single scan (left-to-right, top-to-
bottom).
 Progressive JPEG
• Image is encoded in multiple scans, in order to
produce a quick, rough decoded image when
transmission time is long.

Sequential

Progressive
 Progressive JPEG (cont’d)

• Each scan encodes a subset of DCT coefficients.

• We’ll examine the following algorithms:

(1) Progressive spectral selection algorithm
(2) Progressive successive approximation algorithm
(3) Combined progressive algorithm
 Progressive JPEG (cont’d)

(1) Progressive spectral selection algorithm

– Group DCT coefficients into several spectral bands
– Send low-frequency DCT coefficients first
– Send higher-frequency DCT coefficients next
Example
 Progressive JPEG (cont’d)

(2) Progressive successive approximation algorithm

– Send all DCT coefficients but with lower precision.
– Refine DCT coefficients in later scans.
Example
 Example
after 0.9s after 1.6s

after 3.6s after 7.0s

 Progressive JPEG (cont’d)

(3) Combined progressive algorithm

– Combines spectral selection and successive approximation.
 Hierarchical JPEG

• Hierarchical mode encodes the image at different

resolutions.

• Image is transmitted in multiple passes with increased

resolution at each pass.
 Hierarchical JPEG (cont’d)

N/4 x N/4

N/2 x N/2

NxN
 More Methods …

• See “Image Compression Techniques”, IEEE

Potentials, February/March 2001