INC 122 : AC Steady-State Analysis

Dr.-Ing. Sudchai Boonto

Assistant Professor
April 18, 2023
Department of Control System and Instrumentation Engineering
King Mongkut’s Unniversity of Technology Thonburi Thailand
Learning Outcomes
Students should be able to:
▶ Describe the basic characteristics of sinusoidal function.
▶ Perform phasor and inverse phasor transformations.
▶ Draw phasor diagrams.
▶ Calculate impedance and admittance for basic circuit elements: R, L, C.
▶ Determine the equivalent impedance of basic circuit elements connected in
series and parallel.
▶ Redraw a circuit in the frequency domain given a circuit with a sinusoidal source.
▶ Appliy our circuit analysis techniques to frequency domain circuit.

2
Sinusoids
Consider a sine wave

x(t) = Xm sin ωt

▶ Xm is the amplitude, maximum value, or peak value.

▶ ω is the radian/sec or angular frequency.
▶ ωt is the argument of the sin function.

x(ωt) x(t)

XM XM

π π 3π 2π ωt T T 3T T t
2 2 4 2 4
−XM −XM

▶ f = 1
Hz and ωT = 2π sec, and then ω = 2π
= 2πf rad/sec.
T T
0 0 3
Sinusoids
Let us considert the general expression for a sinusoidal function:

x(t) = XM sin(ωt + θ)

▶ (ωt + θ) is the argument of the sin function, and θ is called the phase angle.
▶ The presence of the phase angle, any point on the waveform XM sin(ωt + θ)
occurs θ radians earlier in time than the corresponding point on the waveform
XM sin ωt
▶ We say that XM sin ωt lags XM sin(ωt + θ) by θ radians. Think like ωt = 0 for
the first signal, and ωt + θ = 0 ⇒ ωt = −θ for the second signal.

x(ωt)

XM

0 π π 3π 2π ωt
θ 2 2
−XM 4
Sinusoids
More general form,

x1 (t) = XM1 sin(ωt + θ), and x2 (t) = XM2 sin(ωt + ψ)

Then,
▶ x1 (t) leads x2 (t) by θ − ψ radians and x2 (t) lags x1 (t) by θ − ψ radians.
▶ In either case, leading or lagging, we say that the sinusoids and out of phase. If
the phase angles are equal, the sinusoids are said to be in phase.
▶ In electrical engineering, the phase angle is commonly given in degrees, rather
than radians;
 π
v(t) = 100 sin 2π1000t − ⇒ v(t) = 100 sin(2π1000t − 30◦ )
6

▶ The sine and cosine are essentially the same function, but with a 90◦ phase
difference.
 π  π
cos ωt = sin ωt + , sin ωt = cos ωt −
2 2
5
Sinusoids

Useful Identities

− cos(ωt) = cos(ωt ± 180◦ ), − sin(ωt) = sin(ωt ± 180◦ )

Angle-sum and angle-difference

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

6
Sinusoids: Example
We wish to plot the waveforms for the following functions:

a. v(t) = cos(ωt + 45◦ ), b. v(t) = cos(ωt + 225◦ ), c. v(t) = cos(ωt − 315◦ )

We have

v(t) = cos(ωt + 225◦ ) = cos(ωt + 45◦ + 180◦ ) = − cos(ωt + 45◦ )

v(t) = cos(ωt − 315◦ ) = cos(ωt − 315◦ + 360◦ ) = cos(ωt + 45◦ )
x(ωt)
XM

0 45◦ 90◦ 135◦ 180◦ ωt

−XM

cos(ωt) − cos(ωt + 45◦ ) cos(ωt + 45◦ ) 7

Sinusoids: Example
Determine the frequency and the phase angle between the two voltages
v1 (t) = 12 sin(1000t + 60◦ ) and v2 (t) = −6 cos(1000t + 30◦ ) V.
The frequency in Hertz (Hz) is given by the expression

ω 1000
f = = = 159.2 Hz
2π 2π

The v2 (t) can be written as

v2 (t) = −6 cos(ωt + 30◦ ) = 6 cos(ωt + 30◦ + 180◦ ) = 6 cos(ωt + 210◦ ) V

= 6 cos(ωt + 210◦ ) = 6 sin(ωt + 210◦ + 90◦ ) = 6 sin(ωt + 300◦ )
= 6 sin(ωt − 60◦ ) V

Since both voltage with same frequency are exparesed as sine waves with positive
amplitudes, the phase angle between v1 (t) and v2 (t) is 60◦ − (−60◦ ) = 120◦ ; that is,
v1 (t) leads v2 (t) by 120◦ or v2 (t) lags v1 (t) by 120◦ .

8
The Sinusoid forcing function
If we apply a sinusoidal forcing function to a linear network, the steady-state voltages
and currents in the network will also be sinusoidal.
▶ As shown in Figure below, then if v(t) = VM cos(ωt + θ), the current i(t) from
another part of the circuit will be of the form i(t) = IM cos(ωt + ϕ).
▶ The solution involeves simply determining the values of the two parameters IM
and θ.
▶ The sinusoidal forcing function VM cos(ωt + θ) produces the steady-state
sinusoidal response IM cos(ωt + ϕ).

VM cos(ωt + θ) N IM cos(ωt + ϕ)

9
The Sinusoid forcing function

The KVL equation for this circuit is

Consider the circuit in the Figure. Let us
derive the expression for the current. di(t) R VM
+ i(t) = cos(ωt)
dt L L
R

Since the input forcing function is

VM cos(ωt), we assume that the forced
v(t) = VM cos(ωt) L
response component of the current i(t) is
of the form
i(t)
i(t) = A cos(ωt + ϕ)

Substituting this solution back yields

d R Vm
(A cos(ωt + ϕ)) + A cos(ωt + ϕ) = cos(ωt)
dt L L
R Vm
−Aω sin(ωt + ϕ) + A cos(ωt + ϕ) = cos(ωt)
L L

10
The Sinusoid forcing function
Let

R
C cos θ = A and C sin θ = Aω
L
s  2 s  2
R R
C = A2 ω 2 + A2 = A ω 2 +
L L
Aω ωL
θ = tan−1 R = tan−1
L
A R

Then, we have

VM
C cos(ωt + ϕ + θ) = cos(ωt)
L
VM ωL VM
C= , ϕ = −θ = − tan−1 ,A= √
L R R 2 + ω 2 L2

Finally,

VM ωL
i(t) = √ cos(ωt − tan−1 )
R 2 + ω 2 L2 R
11
The Sinusoid forcing function: Example
Find the current iL in the circuit shown in Figure below, if the transients have already
died out.

iR1 25 Ω

iL i R2

10 cos(103 t) 30 mH 100 Ω

We cannot directly apply the result of the previous solution, since there are two
resistor. We need to find the Thévenin equivalent as viewed from terminals of the
inductor.

25 Ω 20 Ω

+
10 cos(103 t) voc 100 Ω 8 cos(103 t) 30 mH
−

12
The Sinusoid forcing function: Example
Using voltage divider, we have

100

voc = 10 cos(103 t) = 8 cos(103 t)
100 + 25

Find the Rth by shorting out the voltage source and calculating the resistance of the
passive network, so

25(100)
Rth = = 20 Ω
25 + 100

Now we can use the previous solution as

 
8 30
iL (t) = p cos 103 t − tan−1
202 + (103 × 30 × 10−3 )2 20
◦


= 222 cos 10 t − 56.3
3
mA

13
The Sinusoid forcing function: Example
Actually, we don’t need any formula. We can directly calculate from the KVL as follow:

diL
25iR1 + L = 10 cos(103 t)
dt
L diL
i R1 = i L + i R2 = i L +
100 dt
5 diL
L + 25iL = 10 cos(103 t)
4 dt
diL
+ 666.67iL = 266.67 cos(103 t)
dt

At the steady state iL is C cos(103 t + θ). Substituting the result to the differential
equation and equating the coefficients, we have

iL (t) = 222 cos(103 t − 56.3◦ ) mA

14
The Sinusoid forcing function: Example

10 0.4

iL (t) = 0.222 cos(103 t − 56.3◦ )

5 0.2
v(t) = 10 cos(103 t)

0 0

−5 −0.2

iL (t)
−10 v(t) −0.4

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (s) ·10 −3

15
The Complex forcing function
Consider something more complicated:
▶ We aim to expand our analysis to the circuit containing a lot of resistors,
capacitors and inductors.
▶ This part will show the relationship leads to a set of algebraic equations for
currents and voltages in a network in which the coefficients of the variables are
complex number.
▶ In this case, their solution is complicated by the fact that variables in the
equations have complex, rather than real, coefficients.
▶ We start by introducing the Euler’s equation:

ejωt = cos(ωt) + j sin(ωt) ⇒ Re{ejωt } = cos(ωt), Im{ejωt } = sin(ωt),

where Re{·} and Im{·} represent the real part and the imaginary part. Recall
√
that j = −1.

16
The Complex forcing function

▶ With the complex forcing function,

v(t) = VM ej(ωt+θ) = VM cos(ωt + θ) + jVM sin(ωt + θ)

and the current response in the circuit can be written as

i(t) = IM cos(ωt + ϕ) + jIM sin(ωt + ϕ) = IM ej(ωt+ϕ)

VM ej(ωt+θ) N IM ej(ωt+ϕ)

17
The Complex forcing function
Consider the circuit in the Figure. Let us derive the expression for the current.

R
The KVL equation for this circuit is

v(t) = VM ej(ωt) L di(t) R VM j(ωt)

+ i(t) = e
dt L L

i(t)

Since the input forcing function is VM ej(ωt) , we assume that the forced response
component of the current i(t) is of the form

i(t) = IM ej(ωt+ϕ)

Substituting i(t) into the differential equation for the circuit, we obtain

d  
RIM ej(ωt+ϕ) + L IM ej(ωt+ϕ) = VM ejωt
dt
RIM ej(ωt+ϕ ) + jωLIM ej(ωt+ϕ) = VM ejωt

18
The Complex forcing function
Dividing each term of the equation by the common factor ejωt yields

VM
RIM ejϕ + jωLIM ejϕ = VM ⇒ IM ejϕ =
R + jωL

Converting the equation to polar form produces the equation

jIM ejϕ VM −1
IM ejϕ = IM ejϕ e = √ ej[− tan (ωL/R)]
R 2 + ω 2 L2

Then

VM ωL
IM = √ and ϕ = − tan−1
R 2 + ω 2 L2 R

Since VM ejωt = VM (cos(ωt) + j sin(ωt)) , we consider only real part of the complex
response:

 
VM ωL
i(t) = IM cos(ωt + ϕ) = √ cos ωt − tan−1
R 2 + ω 2 L2 R
19
The Complex forcing function
Using complex source to solve for the steady-state capacitor voltage. We replace
3 cos(5t) with 3ej5t .

1Ω i C2 1Ω

+ +
v(t) = 3 cos(5t) vC 2F 3ej5t vC 2 2F
− −

The differential equation can be now obtained by KVL,

−3ej5t + iC2 + vC2 = 0

dvC2 1 3
+ vC2 (t) = ej5t
dt 2 2

The solutions must be

vC2 = ṼM ej(5t+ϕ) or ṼM ejϕ ej5t V

20
The Complex forcing function
Substituting the solution into the differential equation yields

ṼM j(5t+ϕ) 3
j5ṼM ej(5t+ϕ) + e = ej5t
2 2
ṼM ejϕ (1 + j10) = 3
3 1 − j10 3 −1 10
ṼM ejϕ = =3 = √ ej (− tan 1 )
1 + j10 101 101
3 ◦ ◦
= √ e−84.3 = 0.2985e−84.3
101

At the steady-state the capacitor voltage is

◦
Re{vC2 } = Re{298.5ej(5t−84.3 ) } = 298.5 cos(5t − 84.3◦ ) mV

21
Phasors

▶ Consider the forcing function for a linear network is of the form v(t) = VM ejωt .
Then every steady-state voltage or current in the network will have the same
form and the same frequency ω i.e., a current i(t) will be of the form
i(t) = IM ej(ωt+ϕ) .
▶ If we know the frequency, we can drop the factor ejωt in very voltages and
currents in the circuit. For example

v(t) = VM cos(ωt + θ) = Re{VM ej(ωt+θ) } = Re{VM ejωt ejθ } = Re{VM θejωt }

Since we are working with a complex forcing function, the real part of which is
the desired answer, and each term in the equation will contain ejωt , we can
drop Re{·} and ejωt and work only with the complex number VM θ.
▶ This complex representation is commonly called a phasor. For example,

VM cos(ωt + θ) ⇔ VM θ,
IM cos(ωt + ϕ) ⇔ IM ϕ,
VM sin(ωt + θ) ⇔ VM θ − 90◦
22
Phasors
Convert the following voltage function to phasors.

v1 (t) = 12 cos(377t − 425◦ ) V ⇒ v(t) = 12 cos(377t − 360◦ − 65◦ )

V1 = 12 −65◦ V
v2 (t) = 18 sin(2513t + 4.2◦ ) V ⇒ v(t) = 18 cos(2513t + 4.2◦ − 90◦ )
V2 = 18 −85.8◦ V

Convert the following phasors to the time domain if the frequency is 400 Hz.

V1 = 10 20◦ V ⇒ v1 (t) = 10 cos(800πt + 20◦ ) V

V2 = 12 −60◦ V ⇒ v2 (t) = 12 cos(800πt − 60◦ ) V

23
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements: Resistor
i(t) I

+ +

v(t) = Ri(t) R V = RI R

− −

In time domain, we have v(t) = Ri(t). Let us apply the complex voltage

v(t) = VM ej(ωt+θv ) = VM cos(ωt + θv ) + jVM sin(ωt + θv )

i(t) = IM ej(ωt+θi ) = IM cos(ωt + θi ) + jIM sin(ωt + θi )

so that

VM ej(ωt+θv ) = Ri(t) = RIM ej(ωt+θi ) ⇒ VM ejθv = RIM ejθi

VM θv = RIM θi ⇒ V = RI

For example, let a voltage of 8 cos(100t − 50◦ ) V is across a 4 Ω resistor. Then

v(t) V 24
i(t) = = 2 cos(100t − 50◦ ) ⇒ I = = 2 −50◦ A
R R
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements: Resistor
Voltage-current relationships for a resistor.

Im
v, i
I V

θv = θi
Re
0 ωt
θv = θi
v i

(a) Phasor Diagram (b) Sinusoidal

If the voltage v(t) = 24 cos(377t + 75◦ ) V is applied to a 6 Ω resistor, what is the

resultant current.

24 75◦
V = 24 75◦ V ⇒ I = = 4 75◦ A
6
i(t) = 4 cos(377t + 75◦ ) A
25
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements: Inductors
i(t) I

+ +

di
v(t) = L dt L V = jωLI L

− −

The time-domain expression is

di(t) d
v(t) = L ⇒ VM ej(ωt+θv ) = L IM ej(ωt+θi )
dt dt

Tanking the indicated derivative and dividing through by ejωt :

VM ej(ωt+θv ) = jωLIM ej(ωt+θi ) ⇒ VM ejθv = jωLIM ejθi

We obtain the phasor relationship V = jωLI. Note that the angle of the factor jωL is
exactly +90◦ and that I must therefore lag V by 90◦ in an inductor.

26
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements: Inductor
Voltage-current relationships for an inductor.

Im
θv = θi + 90◦
v, i
V
I
θi
Re ωt
0

v i

(a) Phasor Diagram (b) Sinusoidal

The voltage v(t) = 12 cos(377t + 20◦ ) V is applied to a 20 mH inductor, Find the

resultant current. Since V = jωLI, we obtain

V 12 20◦ 12 20◦
I= = ◦
= = 1.59 20◦ − 90◦ = 159 −70◦
jωL ωL 90 (377)(20 × 10−3 ) 90◦
i(t) = 1.59 cos(377t − 70◦ ) A
27
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements: Capacitors
i(t) = C dv
dt I = jωCV

+ +

v(t) C V C

− −

The time-domain expression is

dv(t) d
i(t) = C ⇒ IM ej(ωt+θi ) = C VM ej(ωt+θv )
dt dt

Tanking the indicated derivative and dividing through by ejωt :

IM ej(ωt+θi ) = jωCVM ej(ωt+θv ) ⇒ IM ejθi = jωCVM ejθv

1
We obtain the phasor relationship I = jωCV or V = I. Note that the angle of
jωC
the factor jωC is exactly +90 and that V must therefore lag I by 90◦ in a capacitor.
◦

28
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements: Capacitor
Voltage-current relationships for a Capacitor.

Im
θi = θv + 90◦
v, i
I
V
θv
Re ωt
0

v i

(a) Phasor Diagram (b) Sinusoidal

The voltage v(t) = 100 cos(314t + 15◦ ) V is applied to a 100 µF capacitor. Find the
current. Since V = (1/jωC)I, we have

I = jωC(100 15◦ ) = (314)(100 × 10−6 90◦ )(100 15◦ )

3.14 90◦ + 15◦ = 3.14 105◦ A
i(t) = 3.14 cos(314t + 105◦ ) A 29
Impedance and Admittance

▶ The current-voltage relationships for the three passive elements in the

frequency domain are

1
V = RI, V = jωLI, V= I
jωC

▶ As a phasor voltage/phasor current ratios

V V V 1
= R = ZR , = jωL = ZL , = = ZC
I I I jωC

▶ The ratio of phasor voltage to the phasor current is defined as impedance and
symbolized by the letter Z. The impedance is a complex quantity having the
dimensions of ohms.

30
Impedance and Admittance

IM θi

AC
VM θv VM
VM θv
+
−
Z θz →
Circuit
Z= = θv − θi = Z θz Ω
IM θi IM

▶ In rectangular form, impedance is expressed as

Z(ω) = R(ω) + jX(ω)

where R(ω) is the real, or resistive, component and X(ω) is the imaginary, or
reactive, component. In general, we simply refer to R as the resistance and X
as the reactance.
▶ R and X are real functions of ω and Z(ω) is frequency dependent.
▶ Z is a complex number; however, it is not a phasor, since phasors denote
sinusoidal functions.
▶ In the complex domain, we use the DC source symbols instead of the AC source 31
symbol.
Impedance and Admittance

▶ Since Z = Z θz and Z(ω) = R(ω) + jX(ω), it indicates that

p X
Z θz = R + jX, Z = R2 + X 2 and θz = tan−1
R

where R = Z cos θz and X = Z sin θz .

▶ All impedance are the relationship between V and I. If Z1 , Z2 , Z3 , · · · , Zn are
connected in series, the equivalent impedance Z s is

Zs = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + · · · + Zn

▶ and if they are connected in parallel, the equivalent impedance is given by

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ··· +
Zp Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn

32
Impedance and Admittance

Passive Element Impedance

R Z=R
L Z = jωL = jXL , XL = ωL
j
C 1
Z = jωC = − ωC , XC = ωC
1

Example: Determine the equivalent impedance of the network shown in Figure below.
If the frequency is f = 50 Hz. Then compute the current i(t) if the voltage source is
v(t) = 50 cos(ωt + 30◦ ) V. Finally, calculate the equivalent impedance if the frequency
is f = 400 Hz.

i(t)

R = 25 Ω

v(t) L = 20 mH

C = 50 µF

33
Impedance and Admittance
The impedances of the individual elements at 50 Hz are

ZR = 25 Ω, ZL = jωL = j(2π(50))(20 × 10−3 ) = j6.28 Ω

j −j
ZC = − = = −j63.66 Ω(dominate impedance)
ωC (2π(50))(50 × 10−6 )
Z = ZR + ZL + ZC = 25 + j6.28 − j63.66 = 25 − j57.38 Ω

The current in the circuit is given by

V 50 30◦ 50 30◦
I= = = = 0.80 96.46◦
Z 25 − j57.38 62.59 −66.46◦
i(t) = 0.80 cos(314.16t + 96.46◦ )

If the frequency is changed to 400 Hz, the impedance of each element is

ZR = 25 Ω, ZL = jωL = j(2π(400))(20 × 10−3 ) = j50.27 Ω(dominate impedance)

j −j
ZC = − = = −j7.96 Ω
ωC (2π(400))(50 × 10−6 )
Z = ZR + ZL + ZC = 25 + j50.27 − j7.96 = 25 − j42.31 = 49.14 59.42◦ Ω 34
Impedance and Admittance

▶ The reciprocal of an impedance is an admittance; that is

1 I
Y= =
Z V

The units of Y are siemens, and this quantity is analogous to the conductance
in resistive DC circuits. Y is also a complex number.

Y = YM θy = G + jB

where G and B are called conductance and susceptance, respectively.

▶ The relationship between Y and Z is

1 R −X
G + jB = = 2 +j 2
R + jX R + X2 R + X2

and in a similar manner, we can have

G −B
R + jX = +j 2 35
G2 + B 2 G + B2
Impedance and Admittance

▶ The admittance of the individual passive elements are

1 1 −j
YR = = G, YL = = , YC = jωC
R jωL ωL

▶ If Y1 , Y2 , Y3 , · · · , Yn are connected in parallel, the equivalent admittance is

Y p = Y 1 + Y2 + · · · + Y n

and if Y1 , Y2 , Y3 , · · · , Yn are connected in series, the equivalent admittance

is

1 1 1 1
= + + ··· +
Ys Y1 Y2 Yn

36
Impedance and Admittance
Calculate the equivalent admittance Yp for the network shown in Fig below and use it
to determine the current I if Vs = 60 45◦ .

+
VS Yp ZR = 2 Ω ZL = j4 Ω
−

We note that

1 1 1 −j 1 1
YR = = S, YL = = S =⇒ Yp = −j S
ZR 2 ZL 4 2 4

Hence
 
1 1
I = Y p Vs = −j (60 45◦ ) = (0.56 −26.57◦ )(60 45◦ )
2 4
= 33.5 18.43◦ A

37
Impedance and Admittance
Consider the network shown below. The impedance of each element is given in the
figure. We wish to calculate the equivalent impedance of the network Zeq at terminals
A − B.

1Ω

4Ω j2 Ω
A

2Ω
− j2 Ω

A Z1 Z3
Zeq j6 Ω j4 Ω −j2 Ω

Zeq Z2 Z4
−j2 Ω

B B

(a) (b)

1 1 1
Y4 = YL + YC = + =j S =⇒ Z4 = −j4 Ω
j4 −j2 4
Z34 = Z3 + Z4 = (4 + j2) + (−j4) = 4 − j2 Ω 38
Impedance and Admittance

1 1
Y34 = = = 0.20 + j0.10 S
Z34 4 − j2

Since

1
Z2 = 2 + j6 − j2 = 2 + j4 Ω =⇒ Y2 = = 0.10 − j0.20 S
2 + j4
Y234 = Y2 + Y34 = 0.30 − j0.10 S

From Y234 we can compute Z234 as

1 1
Z234 = = = 3 + j1 Ω
Y234 0.30 − j0.10
1 1 1
Y1 = YR + YC = + =1+j S
1 −j2 2
1
Z1 = = 0.8 − j0.4 Ω
1 + j 12
Zeq = Z1 + Z234 = 0.8 − j0.4 + 3 + j1 = 3.8 + j0.6 Ω
39
Examples
Find the current i(t) in the circuit shown in Figure below.

i(t) 1 kΩ

1.5 kΩ
(j)(1 − j2)
Zeq = 1.5 +
j + 1 − j2
vs (t) = 40 sin 3000t V 1
3
H 1
6
µF
2+j
= 1.5 +
1−j
2 + j1 + j
= 1.5 +
(a) 1 − j1 + j
1 + j3
1 kΩ
= 1.5 +
I 2
1.5 kΩ
= 2 + j1.5 = 2.5 36.87◦ kΩ

Vs = 40 −90◦ V
+ Vs 40 −90◦
−
j1 kΩ −j2 kΩ I= = mA
Zeq 2.5 36.87◦

(b)

40
I= −90◦ − 36.87◦ mA = 16.00 −126.9◦ mA 40
2.5
Examples: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

j3 Ω
Use Nodal analysis to compute the phasor VA 2 Ω VB

voltage VAB = VA − VB for the circuit 4Ω 8Ω i2 (t)

shown in Figure.
5 0◦ A 10 0◦ A

i1 (t) −j6 Ω −j3 Ω

Define

Z1 = 4 − j6 = 7.211 −56◦ , Z2 = 2 + j3 = 3.606 56.3◦ , Z3 = 8 − j3 = 8.544 −20.6◦

Using KCL at VA ,

VA VA − VB
+ = 5 0◦
Z1 Z2
 
Z1 + Z2 1
VA − V B = 5 0◦
Z1 Z2 Z2
(0.258 −26.6◦ )VA − (0.277 −56.3◦ )VB = 5 0◦
41
Z̃1 VA − Z̃2 VB = 5 0◦
Examples: Nodal and Mesh Analysis
At node VB :

VB − VA VB
+ = −10 0◦
Z2 Z3
 
1 Z2 + Z3
− VA + VB = 10 180◦
Z2 Z2 Z3
−(0.277 −56.3◦ )VA + (0.325 −35.7◦ )VB = 10 180◦
−Z̃2 VA + Z̃3 VB = 10 180◦

Using matrix from (In Matlab, you can use rectangular form):

" #" # " #

Z̃1 −Z̃2 VA 5
=
−Z̃2 Z̃3 VB −10
" # " #−1 " # " #
VA Z̃1 −Z̃2 5 −4.1379 + j19.6552
= =
VB −Z̃2 Z̃3 −10 −22.4138 − j1.0345

VAB = VA − VB = 18.2759 + j20.6897

= 27.60 48.5◦ and vAB (t) = 27.60 cos(ωt + 48.5◦ ) V
42
Examples: Nodal and Mesh Analysis (Matlab)

1 Z1 = 4 − 6 j ; Z2 = 2 + 3 j ; Z3 = 8 − 3 j ; % D e f i n e Z1 , Z2 , Z3
2 Z = [ 1 / Z1 + 1/ Z2 , −1/ Z2 ; −1/ Z2 , 1/ Z2 + 1/ Z3 ] ; % Element o f Z
3 I = [ 5 ; −10]; % Column v e c t o r I
4 V = Z\ I ;
5
6 Va = round ( V ( 1 , 1 ) , 2 ) ; Vb = round ( V ( 2 , 1 ) , 2 ) ; Vab = round ( Va − Vb , 2 ) ;
7 % With f p r i n t f only the r e a l p a r t o f each parameter
8 % i s processed so we w i l l use d i s p
9 Vap = [ ’ Va = ’ , num2str ( Va ) ] ;
10 Vbp = [ ’ Vb = ’ , num2str ( Vb ) ] ;
11 Vabp = [ ’ Vab = ’ , num2str ( Vab ) ] ;
12 d i s p ( Vap )
13 d i s p ( Vbp )
14 d i s p ( Vabp )

Va = -4.14+19.66i
Vb = -22.41-1.03i
Vab = 18.28+20.69i

To make a polar form in Matab we use abs() and angle() to find the magnitude
and phase in radius.

43
Examples: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

j3 Ω
VA 2 Ω
Use Mesh analysis to find the voltage V10A VB

, that is the voltage across the 10 10◦ 4Ω 8Ω

+ i2 (t)
current source. 5 0◦ A V10A 10 0◦ A

i1 (t) −j6 Ω −j3 Ω −

The values of Z1 , Z2 , and Z3 are the same like in previous example. From the circuit,
we have three mesh:

2Ω j3 Ω
VA VB

+ i2 (t)
4Ω 8Ω

5 0◦ A I1 I2 I3 V10A 10 0◦ A

i1 (t) −j6 Ω −j3 Ω −

Mesh 1: I1 = 5 0◦
Mesh 3: I3 = 10 0◦ 44
Examples: Nodal and Mesh Analysis
At Mesh 2:

−Z1 I1 + (Z1 + Z2 + Z3 )I2 − Z3 I3 = 0

−(4 − j6)I1 + (14 − j6)I2 − (8 − j3)I3 = 0

In Matrix form
    
1 0 0 I1 5
    
−(4 − j6) (14 − j6) −(8 − j3) I2  =  0 
0 0 1 I3 10

We have I1 = 5 , I2 = 7.59 − j1.035 , and I3 = 10 A. Therefore, the voltage across the

10 0◦ A current source is

V10A = Z3 (I2 − I3 ) = (8 − j3)(7.59 − j1.035 − 10) = −22.4138 − j1.0345 V,

which is equal to VB in the previous example.

45
Phasor Diagrams
This section, we consider the behavior of circuits under AC steady-state conditions.
Phasor Diagrams probide an informative picture of AC voltage and current
relationships.
▶ The diagrams are used primarily for qualitative rather than quantitative
purposes. The important is how to construction the diagram.
▶ Consider the series RL networks in Figure. The network’s impedance is
Z = R + jωL and

ωL
θ = Z = tan−1
R

I
Im V Im V
+ VL
+
R VR
VL VL
−
V
+
θ θ
− jωL VL
− I VR Re I VR Re

(a) RL (b) Phasor diagram (c) vector sum

network 46
Phasor Diagrams

▶ Consider the series RC networks in Figure. The network’s impedance is

j
Z = R − ωC and

−1 1
θ = Z = tan−1 = − tan−1
ωCR ωCR

Im
I
+
+
R VR θ I VR Re
− VC
V
−j +
− VC
ωC −
VC VR V

(a) RC (b) Phasor diagram

network

47
Phasor Diagrams

▶ Turning to parallel RL networks in the Figure, the diagram with V and

I = IR + IL

V
IL = ⇒ IL = V − 90◦ = −90◦
jωL

▶ The parallel RC networks, the impedance angle is negative and

V
IC = = jωCV ⇒ IC = 90◦ + V = 90◦
1/jωC

Im
I IR V Im IR I
+ IR IX Re
θ
jX
IL IL IC IC
V R
θ
−
IR I IR V Re

(a) Parallel (b) Phasor diagram (c) Phasor diagram

network for parallel RL for parallel RC 48
Phasor Diagrams: Example
The terminal impedantce of the network shown in Figure in page 51 is
Z = (−j5)||(4 + j2) = 4 − j2 Ω so θ = −26.6◦ and Z = 4.47 −26.56◦ . The phasor
diagram can be constructed by the following steps:
▶ Draw I and V using the fact that entire network is capacitive and I lead V by
26.6◦ . The length of I and V are arbitrary since they have different scales. Here
we set |I| = 2 cm per unit and |V| = 0.5 cm per unit. Then we should have
I = 1 0 cm and V = 4.47 −26.6◦ A = 4.47 2
−26.6◦ = 2.235 −26.6◦ cm.
▶ We construct VR and VL to scale by noting that

VR = 4I2 , VL = j2I2 , VR + V L = V

Thus, VL = VR + 90◦ , |VL | = |VR |/2, and the voltage phasors thus form a
right triangle with V as the hypotenuse. From the network we have

 
I(−j5) 3 4
I2 = =I −j = I(1 −53.13◦ )
−j5 + 4 + j2 5 5
= 1 −53.13◦ A = 2 −53.13◦ cm
4
VR = 4I2 = 4 −53.13◦ V = −53.13◦ cm
2 49
Phasor Diagrams: Example

2
VL = j2I2 = 2 90◦ I −53.13◦ = 2 −53.13◦ + 90◦ V = 36.87◦ cm
2

▶ We construct I1 and I2 to scale by noting that

V 4.47
I1 = = I −26.6◦ = 0.895(1 −26.6◦ + 90◦ ) A = 1.79 63.4 cm
−j5 −j5
VR VL 2
I2 = = = I 36.87◦ − 90◦ = 1 −53.13◦ A = 2 −53.15◦ cm
4 j2 2
I1 + I2 = I

The current phasors thus form a triangle, but not a right triangle. Instead,
I1 = V + 90◦ while I2 = VL − 90◦

50
Phasor Diagrams: Example

Im I1

I2

I
I + VR − θ Re
4 V
+ I2
I1 + I2
V −j5 j2 VL
VL
− VR
−

(a) Frequency-domain (b) Phasor contruction

network diagram

51
Series Resonance
Inductors and capacitors have opposite properties :
▶ Inductive reactance XL = ωL is positive and increase with frequency
▶ Capacitive reactance XC = −1/ωC is negative and decreases with frequency.
▶ Thess properties lead to important and sometimes unexpected effects in
circuits that contain both types of reactive elements.
▶ Depending upon the excitation frequency, either the inductance of the
capacitance may dominate, or the two reactance may can cancel out and
produce the phenomenon known as resonance.

j
Z(jω) = R + jωL −
I + VR − ωC
+
R +
+ = R + jX(ω)
jωL VL
−
V VX
−j + where
− VC
ωC −
− 1
X(ω) = ωL −
ωC 52
Series Resonance

▶ The capacitance dominates at low frequencies ωl , the net reactance is negative.

1
> ωl L
ωl C

▶ The inductance dominates at high frequencies ωh , the net reactance is positive.

1
ωh L >
ωh C

▶ The borderline between these two cases above occurs at ω = ω0 , when

X(ω0 ) = Im{Z(jω0 )} = 0

The equation defined the series resonance condition. The corresponding

resonant frequency for RLC network must satisfy ω0 L − ω 1C = 0, so ω02 = 1
LC
0
and

1
ω0 = √
LC 53
Series Resonance

▶ The network appears to be purely resistive at resonance, since

Z(jω0 ) = R + jX(ω0 ) = R
▶ The relationship between the frequency and the magnitude and phase angle of
Z(jω) of the network, calculated from

q
ωL − 1/ωC
|Z(ω)| = R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 , θ(ω) = tan−1
R

We see that |Z(ω)| has a unique ∞

minimum at ω0 , and that θ(ω) |Z(ω)|
90◦
goes from −90◦ to +90◦ as ω R θ(ω)
increase.

ω0 ω

54
−90◦
Series Resonance: Phasor Diagram

Im Im
VL
Im

VR VL
VL I
VX VX
I VR = V
V Re V Re
Re
VC I
VR
VC
VC

(a) ω < ω0 (b) ω = ω0 (c) ω > ω0

▶ We take V = 0 and let VX = VL + VC to construct VR + VX = V.

▶ Regardless of ω, I always lags VL by 90◦ , leads VC by 90◦ , and is in phase with
VR .
▶ The network is capacitive below resonance (ω < ω0 ), so the diagram on the left
has |VL | < |VC | and I leads V. The network is inductive above resonance
(ω > ω0 ) , so the diagram on the right has |VL | > |VC | and I lags V.
▶ The middle diagram depicts the resonance situation (ω = ω0 when
55
|VL | = |VC |, so VX = 0, VR = V, and I is in phase with V.
Series Resonance: Quality Factor
Although VX = 0 at the resonance, the individual reactive voltages vL (t) and vC (t)
may actually have large amplitudes. It may be larger than the amplitude of the
terminal voltage. (You will use this in Solar energy system.)
▶ The terminal current and voltage at ω0 are related by

V V
I= =
Z(jω0 ) R

√
Then, with ω = ω0 = 1 LC , we have

r r
j L I j L
VL = jω0 LI = V, VC = =− V
R C jω0 C R C

▶ We define the Quality factor: Q of a series RLC network to be

r
ω0 L 1 1 L
Qser = = =
R ω0 CR R C

56
Series Resonance: Quality Factor

▶ At the resonance,

VL = jQser V, VC = −jQser V

▶ If Qser > 1, then the amplitudes |VL | and |VC | will exceed |V| and the effect
known as resonant voltage rise.
▶ From the phasor diagram shown that |VL | and |VC | may be arbitrarily large
compared to |V| since VX = VL + VC = 0. The physical explanation of
resonant volatage rise relates to oscillating energy storage , in that |Z(ω0 )| is
minimum and the large current I transfers a large amount of energy back and
forth between the inductor and capacitor.
▶ An alternative, more general expression for quality factor is

maximum energy stored

Q = 2π
energy lost per cycle

Since the lost energy is dissipated as heat in the resistance, a high-Q series
circuit must have small resistance.
57
Series Resonance: Quality Factor

▶ Resonant voltage rise in electric circuits is sometimes exploited to obtain

voltage amplitudes much greater than the available source voltage. We need
large L and small R to get Qser ≫ 1
▶ In real inductors always include some winding resistance, and the resulting
value of ω0 L/R may be less than required to achieve the desired Qser at low
resonant frequencies.

58
Series Resonance: Design
Suppose we want to design a circuit that produces a 1 kV sinusoid, given a source with
|V| = 100 V and ω = 5000 rad/sec. WE decide to take advantage of series resonance
with ω0 = 5000 rad/sec and Qser = 10, so VC | = Qser |V| = 1000 V. In this case, we
have L = 0.4 H. Then we can determine the series capacitance and resistance from

r
√ 1 L
ω0 = 1/ LC, Qser =
R C
1 L
C= L = 10−7 = 0.1 µF, R = ω0 = 200 Ω
ω02 Qser

After the design, we discover that |VC | = 800 V, which is implying that Qser = 8
instead of 10. In this case the coil must have significant winding resistance Rw that
decreases the quality factor. Since the total series resistance is Rw + 200 Ω, and since
Qser = 8, we infer that

L
Rw + 200 = ω = 250 Ω =⇒ R2 = 50 Ω
Qser

We can replace the 200 Ω resistor with 150 Ω to get Qser = 10, and |VC | = 1000 V as
required.
59
Parallel Resonance
The dual of a series RLC network is the parallel RLC network.

Its admittance is
I IX
j
Y(jω) = G + jωC − = G + jB(ω)
+ IR IL
ωL
IC
j
V R jωL − where G = 1/R and
ωC
−
1
B(ω) = ωC −
ωL

▶ The susceptance B(ω) changes sign as frequency increases, and we define the
parallel resonance condition by

B(ω0 ) = Im{Y(jω0 )} = 0

▶ At the resonant frequency ω0 C − 1/ω0 L = 0 requires

1
ω0 = √ 60
LC
Parallel Resonance

▶ The network appears to be purely resistive at resonance, since

1
Y(jω0 ) = G = R
▶ The relationship between the frequency and the magnitude and phase angel of
Z(jω) = 1/Y(jω) yields

1 ωL − 1/ωC
|Z(ω)| = p , θ = − tan−1
G2 + (ωC − 1/ωL)2 G

We see that |Z(ω)| has a unique |Z(ω)|

maximum at ω0 , and that θ(ω)
90◦
0
goes from +90◦ to −90◦ as ω
increase.

ω0 ω
θ(ω)
◦
−9061
−90◦
The Difference Between Parallel and Series Resonance

▶ In parallel networks may exhibit resonant current rise, instead of voltage as in

series networks. Although IX = IC + IL = 0 when ω = ω0 , the reactive
currents are

IC = jQpar I, IL = −jQpar I

▶ The quality factor Qpar is given by

r
R C
Qpar = ω0 CR = =R and Qpar = 1/Qser
ω0 L L

▶ The result shows that a high-Q parallel resonant network must have large
resistance to reduce energy loss, whereas a high-Q series resonant network has
small resistance.

62
Winding Resistance

▶ The winding resistance Rw is the only resistance, and the admittance of the
network is

1 jωCRw − ω 2 LC + 1
Y(jω) = jωC + =
Rw + jωL Rw + jωL

▶ Since Rw should be small, it can be simplify the analysis by assuming that

Rw + jωL ≈ jωL. Then

 
CRw 1
Y(jω) ≈ +j ωC −
L ωL
1 L
Im{Y(jω0 )} = 0 at ω0 ≈ √ , Rpar = for Rw ≪ ω0 L
LC CRw

Rw
j L j
ω = ω0 , Rpar = jωL
ωC CRw ωC
jωL

63
(a) (b)
Parallel Resonance Calculations
The circuit in Figure below is driven at ω = 5000 rad/sec by a voltage source with
internal resistance, and the inductor has winding resistance Rw = 2.5 Ω. The
capacitance is to be designed for parallel resonance at the source frequency, and the
resultig amplitudes and angles of v, i1 , iC , and i2 are to be evaluated.

250 Ω i1

+
iC 2.5 Ω
i2
10 cos 5000t V C
v
10 mH
−

Note: at ω0 = 5000 rad/sec ω0 L = 50Ω and Rw = 2.5 Ω ≪ ωo L. Therefore, the

network connected to the source will indeed act like a parallel RLC.
The required capacitance value is

1
C= = 4 µF
ω02 L

64
Parallel Resonance Calculations
In this case, Norton equivalent circuit have I = 40 0◦ mA. The parallel resistance is

L
Rpar = = 1000 Ω
CRw

I1 IX

+
IC

I = 40 0◦ mA 250 Ω V 1000 Ω −j50 Ω j50 Ω

The equivalent parallel resistance is R = 250||1000 = 200 Ω and IX = 0 at

resonance. Thus, with I = 40 0◦ mA ,

V
V = RI = 8 0◦ V, I1 = = 8 0◦ mA
1000
R 200
Qpar = = = 4, IC = jQpar I = 160 90◦ mA
ω0 L 50
I2 = I1 − IC = 8 − j160 = 160.2 −87.1◦ mA
65
Reference

1. William H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin Engineering Circuit
Analysis, 8th Edition McGraw-Hill, 2012.
2. J. David Irwin, and R. Mark Nelms Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, 11th, Wiley,
2015.
3. A. Bruce Calson Circuits: Enginering Concepts and Analysis of Linear Electric
Circuits, 1st Edition, Thomson-Engineering, 1999

66