numpy-tutorial

September 6, 2023

1 NumPy
1.1 Numpy introduction
The NumPy package (read as NUMerical PYthon) provides access to
• a new data structure called arrays which allow
• efficient vector and matrix operations. It also provides
• a number of linear algebra operations (such as solving of systems of linear equations, compu-
tation of Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues).

1.1.1 History
Some background information: There are two other implementations that provide nearly the same
functionality as NumPy. These are called “Numeric” and “numarray”:
• Numeric was the first provision of a set of numerical methods (similar to Matlab) for Python.
It evolved from a PhD project.
• Numarray is a re-implementation of Numeric with certain improvements (but for our purposes
both Numeric and Numarray behave virtually identical).
• Early in 2006 it was decided to merge the best aspects of Numeric and Numarray into the
Scientific Python (scipy) package and to provide (a hopefully “final”) array data type under
the module name “NumPy”.
We will use in the following materials the “NumPy” package as provided by (new) SciPy. If for
some reason this doesn’t work for you, chances are that your SciPy is too old. In that case, you
will find that either “Numeric” or “numarray” is installed and should provide nearly the same
capabilities.[5]

1.1.2 Arrays
We introduce a new data type (provided by NumPy) which is called “array”. An array appears
to be very similar to a list but an array can keep only elements of the same type (whereas a list
can mix different kinds of objects). This means arrays are more efficient to store (because we don’t
need to store the type for every element). It also makes arrays the data structure of choice for
numerical calculations where we often deal with vectors and matricies.
Vectors and matrices (and matrices with more than two indices) are all called “arrays” in NumPy.

1
 Vectors (1d-arrays) The data structure we will need most often is a vector. Here are a few
examples of how we can generate one:

2 Array Creation and Properties

There are a lot of ways to create arrays. Let’s look at a few
Here we create an array using arange and then change its shape to be 3 rows and 5 columns.

[1]: import numpy as np

[2]: a = np.arange(15)
b = range(20)

[3]: print(a)
print(b)

[ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14]
range(0, 20)

[4]: a = np.arange(15).reshape(3,5)

[4]: array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4],

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]])

A NumPy array has a lot of meta-data associated with it describing its shape, datatype, etc.
[5]: print(a.ndim)
print(a.shape)
print(a.size)
print(a.dtype)
print(a.itemsize)
print(type(a))

2
(3, 5)
15
int32
4
<class 'numpy.ndarray'>

[6]: help(a)

Help on ndarray object:

class ndarray(builtins.object)

2
| ndarray(shape, dtype=float, buffer=None, offset=0,
| strides=None, order=None)
|
| An array object represents a multidimensional, homogeneous array
| of fixed-size items. An associated data-type object describes the
| format of each element in the array (its byte-order, how many bytes it
| occupies in memory, whether it is an integer, a floating point number,
| or something else, etc.)
|
| Arrays should be constructed using `array`, `zeros` or `empty` (refer
| to the See Also section below). The parameters given here refer to
| a low-level method (`ndarray(…)`) for instantiating an array.
|
| For more information, refer to the `numpy` module and examine the
| methods and attributes of an array.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| (for the __new__ method; see Notes below)
|
| shape : tuple of ints
| Shape of created array.
| dtype : data-type, optional
| Any object that can be interpreted as a numpy data type.
| buffer : object exposing buffer interface, optional
| Used to fill the array with data.
| offset : int, optional
| Offset of array data in buffer.
| strides : tuple of ints, optional
| Strides of data in memory.
| order : {'C', 'F'}, optional
| Row-major (C-style) or column-major (Fortran-style) order.
|
| Attributes
| ----------
| T : ndarray
| Transpose of the array.
| data : buffer
| The array's elements, in memory.
| dtype : dtype object
| Describes the format of the elements in the array.
| flags : dict
| Dictionary containing information related to memory use, e.g.,
| 'C_CONTIGUOUS', 'OWNDATA', 'WRITEABLE', etc.
| flat : numpy.flatiter object
| Flattened version of the array as an iterator. The iterator
| allows assignments, e.g., ``x.flat = 3`` (See `ndarray.flat` for
| assignment examples; TODO).

3
| imag : ndarray
| Imaginary part of the array.
| real : ndarray
| Real part of the array.
| size : int
| Number of elements in the array.
| itemsize : int
| The memory use of each array element in bytes.
| nbytes : int
| The total number of bytes required to store the array data,
| i.e., ``itemsize * size``.
| ndim : int
| The array's number of dimensions.
| shape : tuple of ints
| Shape of the array.
| strides : tuple of ints
| The step-size required to move from one element to the next in
| memory. For example, a contiguous ``(3, 4)`` array of type
| ``int16`` in C-order has strides ``(8, 2)``. This implies that
| to move from element to element in memory requires jumps of 2 bytes.
| To move from row-to-row, one needs to jump 8 bytes at a time
| (``2 * 4``).
| ctypes : ctypes object
| Class containing properties of the array needed for interaction
| with ctypes.
| base : ndarray
| If the array is a view into another array, that array is its `base`
| (unless that array is also a view). The `base` array is where the
| array data is actually stored.
|
| See Also
| --------
| array : Construct an array.
| zeros : Create an array, each element of which is zero.
| empty : Create an array, but leave its allocated memory unchanged (i.e.,
| it contains "garbage").
| dtype : Create a data-type.
| numpy.typing.NDArray : An ndarray alias :term:`generic <generic type>`
| w.r.t. its `dtype.type <numpy.dtype.type>`.
|
| Notes
| -----
| There are two modes of creating an array using ``__new__``:
|
| 1. If `buffer` is None, then only `shape`, `dtype`, and `order`
| are used.
| 2. If `buffer` is an object exposing the buffer interface, then
| all keywords are interpreted.

4
 |
| No ``__init__`` method is needed because the array is fully initialized
| after the ``__new__`` method.
|
| Examples
| --------
| These examples illustrate the low-level `ndarray` constructor. Refer
| to the `See Also` section above for easier ways of constructing an
| ndarray.
|
| First mode, `buffer` is None:
|
| >>> np.ndarray(shape=(2,2), dtype=float, order='F')
| array([[0.0e+000, 0.0e+000], # random
| [ nan, 2.5e-323]])
|
| Second mode:
|
| >>> np.ndarray((2,), buffer=np.array([1,2,3]),
| … offset=np.int_().itemsize,
| … dtype=int) # offset = 1*itemsize, i.e. skip first element
| array([2, 3])
|
| Methods defined here:
|
| __abs__(self, /)
| abs(self)
|
| __add__(self, value, /)
| Return self+value.
|
| __and__(self, value, /)
| Return self&value.
|
| __array__(…)
| a.__array__([dtype], /) -> reference if type unchanged, copy otherwise.
|
| Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given or a new
array
| of provided data type if dtype is different from the current dtype of
the
| array.
|
| __array_finalize__(…)
| a.__array_finalize__(obj, /)
|
| Present so subclasses can call super. Does nothing.
|

5
 | __array_function__(…)
|
| __array_prepare__(…)
| a.__array_prepare__(array[, context], /)
|
| Returns a view of `array` with the same type as self.
|
| __array_ufunc__(…)
|
| __array_wrap__(…)
| a.__array_wrap__(array[, context], /)
|
| Returns a view of `array` with the same type as self.
|
| __bool__(self, /)
| True if self else False
|
| __complex__(…)
|
| __contains__(self, key, /)
| Return key in self.
|
| __copy__(…)
| a.__copy__()
|
| Used if :func:`copy.copy` is called on an array. Returns a copy of the
array.
|
| Equivalent to ``a.copy(order='K')``.
|
| __deepcopy__(…)
| a.__deepcopy__(memo, /) -> Deep copy of array.
|
| Used if :func:`copy.deepcopy` is called on an array.
|
| __delitem__(self, key, /)
| Delete self[key].
|
| __divmod__(self, value, /)
| Return divmod(self, value).
|
| __dlpack__(…)
| a.__dlpack__(*, stream=None)
|
| DLPack Protocol: Part of the Array API.
|
| __dlpack_device__(…)
| a.__dlpack_device__()

6
 |
| DLPack Protocol: Part of the Array API.
|
| __eq__(self, value, /)
| Return self==value.
|
| __float__(self, /)
| float(self)
|
| __floordiv__(self, value, /)
| Return self//value.
|
| __format__(…)
| Default object formatter.
|
| __ge__(self, value, /)
| Return self>=value.
|
| __getitem__(self, key, /)
| Return self[key].
|
| __gt__(self, value, /)
| Return self>value.
|
| __iadd__(self, value, /)
| Return self+=value.
|
| __iand__(self, value, /)
| Return self&=value.
|
| __ifloordiv__(self, value, /)
| Return self//=value.
|
| __ilshift__(self, value, /)
| Return self<<=value.
|
| __imatmul__(self, value, /)
| Return self@=value.
|
| __imod__(self, value, /)
| Return self%=value.
|
| __imul__(self, value, /)
| Return self*=value.
|
| __index__(self, /)
| Return self converted to an integer, if self is suitable for use as an
index into a list.

7
|
| __int__(self, /)
| int(self)
|
| __invert__(self, /)
| ~self
|
| __ior__(self, value, /)
| Return self|=value.
|
| __ipow__(self, value, /)
| Return self**=value.
|
| __irshift__(self, value, /)
| Return self>>=value.
|
| __isub__(self, value, /)
| Return self-=value.
|
| __iter__(self, /)
| Implement iter(self).
|
| __itruediv__(self, value, /)
| Return self/=value.
|
| __ixor__(self, value, /)
| Return self^=value.
|
| __le__(self, value, /)
| Return self<=value.
|
| __len__(self, /)
| Return len(self).
|
| __lshift__(self, value, /)
| Return self<<value.
|
| __lt__(self, value, /)
| Return self<value.
|
| __matmul__(self, value, /)
| Return self@value.
|
| __mod__(self, value, /)
| Return self%value.
|
| __mul__(self, value, /)
| Return self*value.

8
|
| __ne__(self, value, /)
| Return self!=value.
|
| __neg__(self, /)
| -self
|
| __or__(self, value, /)
| Return self|value.
|
| __pos__(self, /)
| +self
|
| __pow__(self, value, mod=None, /)
| Return pow(self, value, mod).
|
| __radd__(self, value, /)
| Return value+self.
|
| __rand__(self, value, /)
| Return value&self.
|
| __rdivmod__(self, value, /)
| Return divmod(value, self).
|
| __reduce__(…)
| a.__reduce__()
|
| For pickling.
|
| __reduce_ex__(…)
| Helper for pickle.
|
| __repr__(self, /)
| Return repr(self).
|
| __rfloordiv__(self, value, /)
| Return value//self.
|
| __rlshift__(self, value, /)
| Return value<<self.
|
| __rmatmul__(self, value, /)
| Return value@self.
|
| __rmod__(self, value, /)
| Return value%self.
|

9
| __rmul__(self, value, /)
| Return value*self.
|
| __ror__(self, value, /)
| Return value|self.
|
| __rpow__(self, value, mod=None, /)
| Return pow(value, self, mod).
|
| __rrshift__(self, value, /)
| Return value>>self.
|
| __rshift__(self, value, /)
| Return self>>value.
|
| __rsub__(self, value, /)
| Return value-self.
|
| __rtruediv__(self, value, /)
| Return value/self.
|
| __rxor__(self, value, /)
| Return value^self.
|
| __setitem__(self, key, value, /)
| Set self[key] to value.
|
| __setstate__(…)
| a.__setstate__(state, /)
|
| For unpickling.
|
| The `state` argument must be a sequence that contains the following
| elements:
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| version : int
| optional pickle version. If omitted defaults to 0.
| shape : tuple
| dtype : data-type
| isFortran : bool
| rawdata : string or list
| a binary string with the data (or a list if 'a' is an object array)
|
| __sizeof__(…)
| Size of object in memory, in bytes.
|

10
| __str__(self, /)
| Return str(self).
|
| __sub__(self, value, /)
| Return self-value.
|
| __truediv__(self, value, /)
| Return self/value.
|
| __xor__(self, value, /)
| Return self^value.
|
| all(…)
| a.all(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False, *, where=True)
|
| Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.
|
| Refer to `numpy.all` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.all : equivalent function
|
| any(…)
| a.any(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False, *, where=True)
|
| Returns True if any of the elements of `a` evaluate to True.
|
| Refer to `numpy.any` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.any : equivalent function
|
| argmax(…)
| a.argmax(axis=None, out=None, *, keepdims=False)
|
| Return indices of the maximum values along the given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.argmax` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.argmax : equivalent function
|
| argmin(…)
| a.argmin(axis=None, out=None, *, keepdims=False)
|

11
| Return indices of the minimum values along the given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.argmin` for detailed documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.argmin : equivalent function
|
| argpartition(…)
| a.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind='introselect', order=None)
|
| Returns the indices that would partition this array.
|
| Refer to `numpy.argpartition` for full documentation.
|
| .. versionadded:: 1.8.0
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.argpartition : equivalent function
|
| argsort(…)
| a.argsort(axis=-1, kind=None, order=None)
|
| Returns the indices that would sort this array.
|
| Refer to `numpy.argsort` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.argsort : equivalent function
|
| astype(…)
| a.astype(dtype, order='K', casting='unsafe', subok=True, copy=True)
|
| Copy of the array, cast to a specified type.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| dtype : str or dtype
| Typecode or data-type to which the array is cast.
| order : {'C', 'F', 'A', 'K'}, optional
| Controls the memory layout order of the result.
| 'C' means C order, 'F' means Fortran order, 'A'
| means 'F' order if all the arrays are Fortran contiguous,
| 'C' order otherwise, and 'K' means as close to the
| order the array elements appear in memory as possible.
| Default is 'K'.

12
 | casting : {'no', 'equiv', 'safe', 'same_kind', 'unsafe'}, optional
| Controls what kind of data casting may occur. Defaults to 'unsafe'
| for backwards compatibility.
|
| * 'no' means the data types should not be cast at all.
| * 'equiv' means only byte-order changes are allowed.
| * 'safe' means only casts which can preserve values are allowed.
| * 'same_kind' means only safe casts or casts within a kind,
| like float64 to float32, are allowed.
| * 'unsafe' means any data conversions may be done.
| subok : bool, optional
| If True, then sub-classes will be passed-through (default),
otherwise
| the returned array will be forced to be a base-class array.
| copy : bool, optional
| By default, astype always returns a newly allocated array. If this
| is set to false, and the `dtype`, `order`, and `subok`
| requirements are satisfied, the input array is returned instead
| of a copy.
|
| Returns
| -------
| arr_t : ndarray
| Unless `copy` is False and the other conditions for returning the
input
| array are satisfied (see description for `copy` input parameter),
`arr_t`
| is a new array of the same shape as the input array, with dtype,
order
| given by `dtype`, `order`.
|
| Notes
| -----
| .. versionchanged:: 1.17.0
| Casting between a simple data type and a structured one is possible
only
| for "unsafe" casting. Casting to multiple fields is allowed, but
| casting from multiple fields is not.
|
| .. versionchanged:: 1.9.0
| Casting from numeric to string types in 'safe' casting mode requires
| that the string dtype length is long enough to store the max
| integer/float value converted.
|
| Raises
| ------
| ComplexWarning
| When casting from complex to float or int. To avoid this,

13
| one should use ``a.real.astype(t)``.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])
| >>> x
| array([1. , 2. , 2.5])
|
| >>> x.astype(int)
| array([1, 2, 2])
|
| byteswap(…)
| a.byteswap(inplace=False)
|
| Swap the bytes of the array elements
|
| Toggle between low-endian and big-endian data representation by
| returning a byteswapped array, optionally swapped in-place.
| Arrays of byte-strings are not swapped. The real and imaginary
| parts of a complex number are swapped individually.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| inplace : bool, optional
| If ``True``, swap bytes in-place, default is ``False``.
|
| Returns
| -------
| out : ndarray
| The byteswapped array. If `inplace` is ``True``, this is
| a view to self.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> A = np.array([1, 256, 8755], dtype=np.int16)
| >>> list(map(hex, A))
| ['0x1', '0x100', '0x2233']
| >>> A.byteswap(inplace=True)
| array([ 256, 1, 13090], dtype=int16)
| >>> list(map(hex, A))
| ['0x100', '0x1', '0x3322']
|
| Arrays of byte-strings are not swapped
|
| >>> A = np.array([b'ceg', b'fac'])
| >>> A.byteswap()
| array([b'ceg', b'fac'], dtype='|S3')
|

14
| ``A.newbyteorder().byteswap()`` produces an array with the same values
| but different representation in memory
|
| >>> A = np.array([1, 2, 3])
| >>> A.view(np.uint8)
| array([1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
| 0, 0], dtype=uint8)
| >>> A.newbyteorder().byteswap(inplace=True)
| array([1, 2, 3])
| >>> A.view(np.uint8)
| array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
| 0, 3], dtype=uint8)
|
| choose(…)
| a.choose(choices, out=None, mode='raise')
|
| Use an index array to construct a new array from a set of choices.
|
| Refer to `numpy.choose` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.choose : equivalent function
|
| clip(…)
| a.clip(min=None, max=None, out=None, **kwargs)
|
| Return an array whose values are limited to ``[min, max]``.
| One of max or min must be given.
|
| Refer to `numpy.clip` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.clip : equivalent function
|
| compress(…)
| a.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)
|
| Return selected slices of this array along given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.compress` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.compress : equivalent function
|
| conj(…)

15
 | a.conj()
|
| Complex-conjugate all elements.
|
| Refer to `numpy.conjugate` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.conjugate : equivalent function
|
| conjugate(…)
| a.conjugate()
|
| Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
|
| Refer to `numpy.conjugate` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.conjugate : equivalent function
|
| copy(…)
| a.copy(order='C')
|
| Return a copy of the array.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| order : {'C', 'F', 'A', 'K'}, optional
| Controls the memory layout of the copy. 'C' means C-order,
| 'F' means F-order, 'A' means 'F' if `a` is Fortran contiguous,
| 'C' otherwise. 'K' means match the layout of `a` as closely
| as possible. (Note that this function and :func:`numpy.copy` are
very
| similar but have different default values for their order=
| arguments, and this function always passes sub-classes through.)
|
| See also
| --------
| numpy.copy : Similar function with different default behavior
| numpy.copyto
|
| Notes
| -----
| This function is the preferred method for creating an array copy. The
| function :func:`numpy.copy` is similar, but it defaults to using order
'K',
| and will not pass sub-classes through by default.

16
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
|
| >>> y = x.copy()
|
| >>> x.fill(0)
|
| >>> x
| array([[0, 0, 0],
| [0, 0, 0]])
|
| >>> y
| array([[1, 2, 3],
| [4, 5, 6]])
|
| >>> y.flags['C_CONTIGUOUS']
| True
|
| cumprod(…)
| a.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
|
| Return the cumulative product of the elements along the given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.cumprod` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.cumprod : equivalent function
|
| cumsum(…)
| a.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
|
| Return the cumulative sum of the elements along the given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.cumsum` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.cumsum : equivalent function
|
| diagonal(…)
| a.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)
|
| Return specified diagonals. In NumPy 1.9 the returned array is a
| read-only view instead of a copy as in previous NumPy versions. In
| a future version the read-only restriction will be removed.

17
|
| Refer to :func:`numpy.diagonal` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.diagonal : equivalent function
|
| dot(…)
|
| dump(…)
| a.dump(file)
|
| Dump a pickle of the array to the specified file.
| The array can be read back with pickle.load or numpy.load.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| file : str or Path
| A string naming the dump file.
|
| .. versionchanged:: 1.17.0
| `pathlib.Path` objects are now accepted.
|
| dumps(…)
| a.dumps()
|
| Returns the pickle of the array as a string.
| pickle.loads will convert the string back to an array.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| None
|
| fill(…)
| a.fill(value)
|
| Fill the array with a scalar value.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| value : scalar
| All elements of `a` will be assigned this value.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> a = np.array([1, 2])
| >>> a.fill(0)
| >>> a

18
 | array([0, 0])
| >>> a = np.empty(2)
| >>> a.fill(1)
| >>> a
| array([1., 1.])
|
| flatten(…)
| a.flatten(order='C')
|
| Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| order : {'C', 'F', 'A', 'K'}, optional
| 'C' means to flatten in row-major (C-style) order.
| 'F' means to flatten in column-major (Fortran-
| style) order. 'A' means to flatten in column-major
| order if `a` is Fortran *contiguous* in memory,
| row-major order otherwise. 'K' means to flatten
| `a` in the order the elements occur in memory.
| The default is 'C'.
|
| Returns
| -------
| y : ndarray
| A copy of the input array, flattened to one dimension.
|
| See Also
| --------
| ravel : Return a flattened array.
| flat : A 1-D flat iterator over the array.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
| >>> a.flatten()
| array([1, 2, 3, 4])
| >>> a.flatten('F')
| array([1, 3, 2, 4])
|
| getfield(…)
| a.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
|
| Returns a field of the given array as a certain type.
|
| A field is a view of the array data with a given data-type. The values
in
| the view are determined by the given type and the offset into the

19
current
| array in bytes. The offset needs to be such that the view dtype fits in
the
| array dtype; for example an array of dtype complex128 has 16-byte
elements.
| If taking a view with a 32-bit integer (4 bytes), the offset needs to be
| between 0 and 12 bytes.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| dtype : str or dtype
| The data type of the view. The dtype size of the view can not be
larger
| than that of the array itself.
| offset : int
| Number of bytes to skip before beginning the element view.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
| >>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
| >>> x
| array([[1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
| [0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
| >>> x.getfield(np.float64)
| array([[1., 0.],
| [0., 2.]])
|
| By choosing an offset of 8 bytes we can select the complex part of the
| array for our view:
|
| >>> x.getfield(np.float64, offset=8)
| array([[1., 0.],
| [0., 4.]])
|
| item(…)
| a.item(*args)
|
| Copy an element of an array to a standard Python scalar and return it.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| \*args : Arguments (variable number and type)
|
| * none: in this case, the method only works for arrays
| with one element (`a.size == 1`), which element is
| copied into a standard Python scalar object and returned.
|

20
 | * int_type: this argument is interpreted as a flat index into
| the array, specifying which element to copy and return.
|
| * tuple of int_types: functions as does a single int_type argument,
| except that the argument is interpreted as an nd-index into the
| array.
|
| Returns
| -------
| z : Standard Python scalar object
| A copy of the specified element of the array as a suitable
| Python scalar
|
| Notes
| -----
| When the data type of `a` is longdouble or clongdouble, item() returns
| a scalar array object because there is no available Python scalar that
| would not lose information. Void arrays return a buffer object for
item(),
| unless fields are defined, in which case a tuple is returned.
|
| `item` is very similar to a[args], except, instead of an array scalar,
| a standard Python scalar is returned. This can be useful for speeding up
| access to elements of the array and doing arithmetic on elements of the
| array using Python's optimized math.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> np.random.seed(123)
| >>> x = np.random.randint(9, size=(3, 3))
| >>> x
| array([[2, 2, 6],
| [1, 3, 6],
| [1, 0, 1]])
| >>> x.item(3)
| 1
| >>> x.item(7)
| 0
| >>> x.item((0, 1))
| 2
| >>> x.item((2, 2))
| 1
|
| itemset(…)
| a.itemset(*args)
|
| Insert scalar into an array (scalar is cast to array's dtype, if
possible)

21
 |
| There must be at least 1 argument, and define the last argument
| as *item*. Then, ``a.itemset(*args)`` is equivalent to but faster
| than ``a[args] = item``. The item should be a scalar value and `args`
| must select a single item in the array `a`.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| \*args : Arguments
| If one argument: a scalar, only used in case `a` is of size 1.
| If two arguments: the last argument is the value to be set
| and must be a scalar, the first argument specifies a single array
| element location. It is either an int or a tuple.
|
| Notes
| -----
| Compared to indexing syntax, `itemset` provides some speed increase
| for placing a scalar into a particular location in an `ndarray`,
| if you must do this. However, generally this is discouraged:
| among other problems, it complicates the appearance of the code.
| Also, when using `itemset` (and `item`) inside a loop, be sure
| to assign the methods to a local variable to avoid the attribute
| look-up at each loop iteration.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> np.random.seed(123)
| >>> x = np.random.randint(9, size=(3, 3))
| >>> x
| array([[2, 2, 6],
| [1, 3, 6],
| [1, 0, 1]])
| >>> x.itemset(4, 0)
| >>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
| >>> x
| array([[2, 2, 6],
| [1, 0, 6],
| [1, 0, 9]])
|
| max(…)
| a.max(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False, initial=<no value>,
where=True)
|
| Return the maximum along a given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.amax` for full documentation.
|
| See Also

22
 | --------
| numpy.amax : equivalent function
|
| mean(…)
| a.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False, *, where=True)
|
| Returns the average of the array elements along given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.mean` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.mean : equivalent function
|
| min(…)
| a.min(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False, initial=<no value>,
where=True)
|
| Return the minimum along a given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.amin` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.amin : equivalent function
|
| newbyteorder(…)
| arr.newbyteorder(new_order='S', /)
|
| Return the array with the same data viewed with a different byte order.
|
| Equivalent to::
|
| arr.view(arr.dtype.newbytorder(new_order))
|
| Changes are also made in all fields and sub-arrays of the array data
| type.
|
|
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| new_order : string, optional
| Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications
| below. `new_order` codes can be any of:
|
| * 'S' - swap dtype from current to opposite endian
| * {'<', 'little'} - little endian

23
 | * {'>', 'big'} - big endian
| * {'=', 'native'} - native order, equivalent to `sys.byteorder`
| * {'|', 'I'} - ignore (no change to byte order)
|
| The default value ('S') results in swapping the current
| byte order.
|
|
| Returns
| -------
| new_arr : array
| New array object with the dtype reflecting given change to the
| byte order.
|
| nonzero(…)
| a.nonzero()
|
| Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
|
| Refer to `numpy.nonzero` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.nonzero : equivalent function
|
| partition(…)
| a.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind='introselect', order=None)
|
| Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that the value of the
| element in kth position is in the position it would be in a sorted
array.
| All elements smaller than the kth element are moved before this element
and
| all equal or greater are moved behind it. The ordering of the elements
in
| the two partitions is undefined.
|
| .. versionadded:: 1.8.0
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| kth : int or sequence of ints
| Element index to partition by. The kth element value will be in its
| final sorted position and all smaller elements will be moved before
it
| and all equal or greater elements behind it.
| The order of all elements in the partitions is undefined.
| If provided with a sequence of kth it will partition all elements

24
 | indexed by kth of them into their sorted position at once.
|
| .. deprecated:: 1.22.0
| Passing booleans as index is deprecated.
| axis : int, optional
| Axis along which to sort. Default is -1, which means sort along the
| last axis.
| kind : {'introselect'}, optional
| Selection algorithm. Default is 'introselect'.
| order : str or list of str, optional
| When `a` is an array with fields defined, this argument specifies
| which fields to compare first, second, etc. A single field can
| be specified as a string, and not all fields need to be specified,
| but unspecified fields will still be used, in the order in which
| they come up in the dtype, to break ties.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.partition : Return a partitioned copy of an array.
| argpartition : Indirect partition.
| sort : Full sort.
|
| Notes
| -----
| See ``np.partition`` for notes on the different algorithms.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])
| >>> a.partition(3)
| >>> a
| array([2, 1, 3, 4])
|
| >>> a.partition((1, 3))
| >>> a
| array([1, 2, 3, 4])
|
| prod(…)
| a.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False, initial=1,
where=True)
|
| Return the product of the array elements over the given axis
|
| Refer to `numpy.prod` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.prod : equivalent function

25
|
| ptp(…)
| a.ptp(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)
|
| Peak to peak (maximum - minimum) value along a given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.ptp` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.ptp : equivalent function
|
| put(…)
| a.put(indices, values, mode='raise')
|
| Set ``a.flat[n] = values[n]`` for all `n` in indices.
|
| Refer to `numpy.put` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.put : equivalent function
|
| ravel(…)
| a.ravel([order])
|
| Return a flattened array.
|
| Refer to `numpy.ravel` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.ravel : equivalent function
|
| ndarray.flat : a flat iterator on the array.
|
| repeat(…)
| a.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
|
| Repeat elements of an array.
|
| Refer to `numpy.repeat` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.repeat : equivalent function
|
| reshape(…)

26
 | a.reshape(shape, order='C')
|
| Returns an array containing the same data with a new shape.
|
| Refer to `numpy.reshape` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.reshape : equivalent function
|
| Notes
| -----
| Unlike the free function `numpy.reshape`, this method on `ndarray`
allows
| the elements of the shape parameter to be passed in as separate
arguments.
| For example, ``a.reshape(10, 11)`` is equivalent to
| ``a.reshape((10, 11))``.
|
| resize(…)
| a.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
|
| Change shape and size of array in-place.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| new_shape : tuple of ints, or `n` ints
| Shape of resized array.
| refcheck : bool, optional
| If False, reference count will not be checked. Default is True.
|
| Returns
| -------
| None
|
| Raises
| ------
| ValueError
| If `a` does not own its own data or references or views to it exist,
| and the data memory must be changed.
| PyPy only: will always raise if the data memory must be changed,
since
| there is no reliable way to determine if references or views to it
| exist.
|
| SystemError
| If the `order` keyword argument is specified. This behaviour is a
| bug in NumPy.

27
|
| See Also
| --------
| resize : Return a new array with the specified shape.
|
| Notes
| -----
| This reallocates space for the data area if necessary.
|
| Only contiguous arrays (data elements consecutive in memory) can be
| resized.
|
| The purpose of the reference count check is to make sure you
| do not use this array as a buffer for another Python object and then
| reallocate the memory. However, reference counts can increase in
| other ways so if you are sure that you have not shared the memory
| for this array with another Python object, then you may safely set
| `refcheck` to False.
|
| Examples
| --------
| Shrinking an array: array is flattened (in the order that the data are
| stored in memory), resized, and reshaped:
|
| >>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='C')
| >>> a.resize((2, 1))
| >>> a
| array([[0],
| [1]])
|
| >>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='F')
| >>> a.resize((2, 1))
| >>> a
| array([[0],
| [2]])
|
| Enlarging an array: as above, but missing entries are filled with zeros:
|
| >>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
| >>> b.resize(2, 3) # new_shape parameter doesn't have to be a tuple
| >>> b
| array([[0, 1, 2],
| [3, 0, 0]])
|
| Referencing an array prevents resizing…
|
| >>> c = a
| >>> a.resize((1, 1))

28
 | Traceback (most recent call last):
| …
| ValueError: cannot resize an array that references or is referenced …
|
| Unless `refcheck` is False:
|
| >>> a.resize((1, 1), refcheck=False)
| >>> a
| array([[0]])
| >>> c
| array([[0]])
|
| round(…)
| a.round(decimals=0, out=None)
|
| Return `a` with each element rounded to the given number of decimals.
|
| Refer to `numpy.around` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.around : equivalent function
|
| searchsorted(…)
| a.searchsorted(v, side='left', sorter=None)
|
| Find indices where elements of v should be inserted in a to maintain
order.
|
| For full documentation, see `numpy.searchsorted`
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.searchsorted : equivalent function
|
| setfield(…)
| a.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)
|
| Put a value into a specified place in a field defined by a data-type.
|
| Place `val` into `a`'s field defined by `dtype` and beginning `offset`
| bytes into the field.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| val : object
| Value to be placed in field.
| dtype : dtype object

29
 | Data-type of the field in which to place `val`.
| offset : int, optional
| The number of bytes into the field at which to place `val`.
|
| Returns
| -------
| None
|
| See Also
| --------
| getfield
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.eye(3)
| >>> x.getfield(np.float64)
| array([[1., 0., 0.],
| [0., 1., 0.],
| [0., 0., 1.]])
| >>> x.setfield(3, np.int32)
| >>> x.getfield(np.int32)
| array([[3, 3, 3],
| [3, 3, 3],
| [3, 3, 3]], dtype=int32)
| >>> x
| array([[1.0e+000, 1.5e-323, 1.5e-323],
| [1.5e-323, 1.0e+000, 1.5e-323],
| [1.5e-323, 1.5e-323, 1.0e+000]])
| >>> x.setfield(np.eye(3), np.int32)
| >>> x
| array([[1., 0., 0.],
| [0., 1., 0.],
| [0., 0., 1.]])
|
| setflags(…)
| a.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)
|
| Set array flags WRITEABLE, ALIGNED, WRITEBACKIFCOPY,
| respectively.
|
| These Boolean-valued flags affect how numpy interprets the memory
| area used by `a` (see Notes below). The ALIGNED flag can only
| be set to True if the data is actually aligned according to the type.
| The WRITEBACKIFCOPY and flag can never be set
| to True. The flag WRITEABLE can only be set to True if the array owns
its
| own memory, or the ultimate owner of the memory exposes a writeable
buffer

30
 | interface, or is a string. (The exception for string is made so that
| unpickling can be done without copying memory.)
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| write : bool, optional
| Describes whether or not `a` can be written to.
| align : bool, optional
| Describes whether or not `a` is aligned properly for its type.
| uic : bool, optional
| Describes whether or not `a` is a copy of another "base" array.
|
| Notes
| -----
| Array flags provide information about how the memory area used
| for the array is to be interpreted. There are 7 Boolean flags
| in use, only four of which can be changed by the user:
| WRITEBACKIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED.
|
| WRITEABLE (W) the data area can be written to;
|
| ALIGNED (A) the data and strides are aligned appropriately for the
hardware
| (as determined by the compiler);
|
| WRITEBACKIFCOPY (X) this array is a copy of some other array (referenced
| by .base). When the C-API function PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy is
| called, the base array will be updated with the contents of this array.
|
| All flags can be accessed using the single (upper case) letter as well
| as the full name.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> y = np.array([[3, 1, 7],
| … [2, 0, 0],
| … [8, 5, 9]])
| >>> y
| array([[3, 1, 7],
| [2, 0, 0],
| [8, 5, 9]])
| >>> y.flags
| C_CONTIGUOUS : True
| F_CONTIGUOUS : False
| OWNDATA : True
| WRITEABLE : True
| ALIGNED : True
| WRITEBACKIFCOPY : False

31
 | >>> y.setflags(write=0, align=0)
| >>> y.flags
| C_CONTIGUOUS : True
| F_CONTIGUOUS : False
| OWNDATA : True
| WRITEABLE : False
| ALIGNED : False
| WRITEBACKIFCOPY : False
| >>> y.setflags(uic=1)
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
| ValueError: cannot set WRITEBACKIFCOPY flag to True
|
| sort(…)
| a.sort(axis=-1, kind=None, order=None)
|
| Sort an array in-place. Refer to `numpy.sort` for full documentation.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| axis : int, optional
| Axis along which to sort. Default is -1, which means sort along the
| last axis.
| kind : {'quicksort', 'mergesort', 'heapsort', 'stable'}, optional
| Sorting algorithm. The default is 'quicksort'. Note that both
'stable'
| and 'mergesort' use timsort under the covers and, in general, the
| actual implementation will vary with datatype. The 'mergesort'
option
| is retained for backwards compatibility.
|
| .. versionchanged:: 1.15.0
| The 'stable' option was added.
|
| order : str or list of str, optional
| When `a` is an array with fields defined, this argument specifies
| which fields to compare first, second, etc. A single field can
| be specified as a string, and not all fields need be specified,
| but unspecified fields will still be used, in the order in which
| they come up in the dtype, to break ties.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.sort : Return a sorted copy of an array.
| numpy.argsort : Indirect sort.
| numpy.lexsort : Indirect stable sort on multiple keys.
| numpy.searchsorted : Find elements in sorted array.
| numpy.partition: Partial sort.

32
 |
| Notes
| -----
| See `numpy.sort` for notes on the different sorting algorithms.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])
| >>> a.sort(axis=1)
| >>> a
| array([[1, 4],
| [1, 3]])
| >>> a.sort(axis=0)
| >>> a
| array([[1, 3],
| [1, 4]])
|
| Use the `order` keyword to specify a field to use when sorting a
| structured array:
|
| >>> a = np.array([('a', 2), ('c', 1)], dtype=[('x', 'S1'), ('y', int)])
| >>> a.sort(order='y')
| >>> a
| array([(b'c', 1), (b'a', 2)],
| dtype=[('x', 'S1'), ('y', '<i8')])
|
| squeeze(…)
| a.squeeze(axis=None)
|
| Remove axes of length one from `a`.
|
| Refer to `numpy.squeeze` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.squeeze : equivalent function
|
| std(…)
| a.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False, *,
where=True)
|
| Returns the standard deviation of the array elements along given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.std` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.std : equivalent function

33
 |
| sum(…)
| a.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False, initial=0,
where=True)
|
| Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.sum` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.sum : equivalent function
|
| swapaxes(…)
| a.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
|
| Return a view of the array with `axis1` and `axis2` interchanged.
|
| Refer to `numpy.swapaxes` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.swapaxes : equivalent function
|
| take(…)
| a.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode='raise')
|
| Return an array formed from the elements of `a` at the given indices.
|
| Refer to `numpy.take` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.take : equivalent function
|
| tobytes(…)
| a.tobytes(order='C')
|
| Construct Python bytes containing the raw data bytes in the array.
|
| Constructs Python bytes showing a copy of the raw contents of
| data memory. The bytes object is produced in C-order by default.
| This behavior is controlled by the ``order`` parameter.
|
| .. versionadded:: 1.9.0
|
| Parameters
| ----------

34
| order : {'C', 'F', 'A'}, optional
| Controls the memory layout of the bytes object. 'C' means C-order,
| 'F' means F-order, 'A' (short for *Any*) means 'F' if `a` is
| Fortran contiguous, 'C' otherwise. Default is 'C'.
|
| Returns
| -------
| s : bytes
| Python bytes exhibiting a copy of `a`'s raw data.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], dtype='<u2')
| >>> x.tobytes()
| b'\x00\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00'
| >>> x.tobytes('C') == x.tobytes()
| True
| >>> x.tobytes('F')
| b'\x00\x00\x02\x00\x01\x00\x03\x00'
|
| tofile(…)
| a.tofile(fid, sep="", format="%s")
|
| Write array to a file as text or binary (default).
|
| Data is always written in 'C' order, independent of the order of `a`.
| The data produced by this method can be recovered using the function
| fromfile().
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| fid : file or str or Path
| An open file object, or a string containing a filename.
|
| .. versionchanged:: 1.17.0
| `pathlib.Path` objects are now accepted.
|
| sep : str
| Separator between array items for text output.
| If "" (empty), a binary file is written, equivalent to
| ``file.write(a.tobytes())``.
| format : str
| Format string for text file output.
| Each entry in the array is formatted to text by first converting
| it to the closest Python type, and then using "format" % item.
|
| Notes
| -----

35
 | This is a convenience function for quick storage of array data.
| Information on endianness and precision is lost, so this method is not a
| good choice for files intended to archive data or transport data between
| machines with different endianness. Some of these problems can be
overcome
| by outputting the data as text files, at the expense of speed and file
| size.
|
| When fid is a file object, array contents are directly written to the
| file, bypassing the file object's ``write`` method. As a result, tofile
| cannot be used with files objects supporting compression (e.g.,
GzipFile)
| or file-like objects that do not support ``fileno()`` (e.g., BytesIO).
|
| tolist(…)
| a.tolist()
|
| Return the array as an ``a.ndim``-levels deep nested list of Python
scalars.
|
| Return a copy of the array data as a (nested) Python list.
| Data items are converted to the nearest compatible builtin Python type,
via
| the `~numpy.ndarray.item` function.
|
| If ``a.ndim`` is 0, then since the depth of the nested list is 0, it
will
| not be a list at all, but a simple Python scalar.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| none
|
| Returns
| -------
| y : object, or list of object, or list of list of object, or …
| The possibly nested list of array elements.
|
| Notes
| -----
| The array may be recreated via ``a = np.array(a.tolist())``, although
this
| may sometimes lose precision.
|
| Examples
| --------
| For a 1D array, ``a.tolist()`` is almost the same as ``list(a)``,
| except that ``tolist`` changes numpy scalars to Python scalars:

36
|
| >>> a = np.uint32([1, 2])
| >>> a_list = list(a)
| >>> a_list
| [1, 2]
| >>> type(a_list[0])
| <class 'numpy.uint32'>
| >>> a_tolist = a.tolist()
| >>> a_tolist
| [1, 2]
| >>> type(a_tolist[0])
| <class 'int'>
|
| Additionally, for a 2D array, ``tolist`` applies recursively:
|
| >>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
| >>> list(a)
| [array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
| >>> a.tolist()
| [[1, 2], [3, 4]]
|
| The base case for this recursion is a 0D array:
|
| >>> a = np.array(1)
| >>> list(a)
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| …
| TypeError: iteration over a 0-d array
| >>> a.tolist()
| 1
|
| tostring(…)
| a.tostring(order='C')
|
| A compatibility alias for `tobytes`, with exactly the same behavior.
|
| Despite its name, it returns `bytes` not `str`\ s.
|
| .. deprecated:: 1.19.0
|
| trace(…)
| a.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)
|
| Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
|
| Refer to `numpy.trace` for full documentation.
|
| See Also

37
 | --------
| numpy.trace : equivalent function
|
| transpose(…)
| a.transpose(*axes)
|
| Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
|
| For a 1-D array this has no effect, as a transposed vector is simply the
| same vector. To convert a 1-D array into a 2D column vector, an
additional
| dimension must be added. `np.atleast2d(a).T` achieves this, as does
| `a[:, np.newaxis]`.
| For a 2-D array, this is a standard matrix transpose.
| For an n-D array, if axes are given, their order indicates how the
| axes are permuted (see Examples). If axes are not provided and
| ``a.shape = (i[0], i[1], … i[n-2], i[n-1])``, then
| ``a.transpose().shape = (i[n-1], i[n-2], … i[1], i[0])``.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| axes : None, tuple of ints, or `n` ints
|
| * None or no argument: reverses the order of the axes.
|
| * tuple of ints: `i` in the `j`-th place in the tuple means `a`'s
| `i`-th axis becomes `a.transpose()`'s `j`-th axis.
|
| * `n` ints: same as an n-tuple of the same ints (this form is
| intended simply as a "convenience" alternative to the tuple form)
|
| Returns
| -------
| out : ndarray
| View of `a`, with axes suitably permuted.
|
| See Also
| --------
| transpose : Equivalent function
| ndarray.T : Array property returning the array transposed.
| ndarray.reshape : Give a new shape to an array without changing its
data.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
| >>> a
| array([[1, 2],

38
 | [3, 4]])
| >>> a.transpose()
| array([[1, 3],
| [2, 4]])
| >>> a.transpose((1, 0))
| array([[1, 3],
| [2, 4]])
| >>> a.transpose(1, 0)
| array([[1, 3],
| [2, 4]])
|
| var(…)
| a.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False, *,
where=True)
|
| Returns the variance of the array elements, along given axis.
|
| Refer to `numpy.var` for full documentation.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.var : equivalent function
|
| view(…)
| a.view([dtype][, type])
|
| New view of array with the same data.
|
| .. note::
| Passing None for ``dtype`` is different from omitting the parameter,
| since the former invokes ``dtype(None)`` which is an alias for
| ``dtype('float_')``.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| dtype : data-type or ndarray sub-class, optional
| Data-type descriptor of the returned view, e.g., float32 or int16.
| Omitting it results in the view having the same data-type as `a`.
| This argument can also be specified as an ndarray sub-class, which
| then specifies the type of the returned object (this is equivalent
to
| setting the ``type`` parameter).
| type : Python type, optional
| Type of the returned view, e.g., ndarray or matrix. Again, omission
| of the parameter results in type preservation.
|
| Notes
| -----

39
 | ``a.view()`` is used two different ways:
|
| ``a.view(some_dtype)`` or ``a.view(dtype=some_dtype)`` constructs a view
| of the array's memory with a different data-type. This can cause a
| reinterpretation of the bytes of memory.
|
| ``a.view(ndarray_subclass)`` or ``a.view(type=ndarray_subclass)`` just
| returns an instance of `ndarray_subclass` that looks at the same array
| (same shape, dtype, etc.) This does not cause a reinterpretation of the
| memory.
|
| For ``a.view(some_dtype)``, if ``some_dtype`` has a different number of
| bytes per entry than the previous dtype (for example, converting a
regular
| array to a structured array), then the last axis of ``a`` must be
| contiguous. This axis will be resized in the result.
|
| .. versionchanged:: 1.23.0
| Only the last axis needs to be contiguous. Previously, the entire
array
| had to be C-contiguous.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([(1, 2)], dtype=[('a', np.int8), ('b', np.int8)])
|
| Viewing array data using a different type and dtype:
|
| >>> y = x.view(dtype=np.int16, type=np.matrix)
| >>> y
| matrix([[513]], dtype=int16)
| >>> print(type(y))
| <class 'numpy.matrix'>
|
| Creating a view on a structured array so it can be used in calculations
|
| >>> x = np.array([(1, 2),(3,4)], dtype=[('a', np.int8), ('b', np.int8)])
| >>> xv = x.view(dtype=np.int8).reshape(-1,2)
| >>> xv
| array([[1, 2],
| [3, 4]], dtype=int8)
| >>> xv.mean(0)
| array([2., 3.])
|
| Making changes to the view changes the underlying array
|
| >>> xv[0,1] = 20
| >>> x

40
 | array([(1, 20), (3, 4)], dtype=[('a', 'i1'), ('b', 'i1')])
|
| Using a view to convert an array to a recarray:
|
| >>> z = x.view(np.recarray)
| >>> z.a
| array([1, 3], dtype=int8)
|
| Views share data:
|
| >>> x[0] = (9, 10)
| >>> z[0]
| (9, 10)
|
| Views that change the dtype size (bytes per entry) should normally be
| avoided on arrays defined by slices, transposes, fortran-ordering, etc.:
|
| >>> x = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], dtype=np.int16)
| >>> y = x[:, ::2]
| >>> y
| array([[1, 3],
| [4, 6]], dtype=int16)
| >>> y.view(dtype=[('width', np.int16), ('length', np.int16)])
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| …
| ValueError: To change to a dtype of a different size, the last axis must
be contiguous
| >>> z = y.copy()
| >>> z.view(dtype=[('width', np.int16), ('length', np.int16)])
| array([[(1, 3)],
| [(4, 6)]], dtype=[('width', '<i2'), ('length', '<i2')])
|
| However, views that change dtype are totally fine for arrays with a
| contiguous last axis, even if the rest of the axes are not C-contiguous:
|
| >>> x = np.arange(2 * 3 * 4, dtype=np.int8).reshape(2, 3, 4)
| >>> x.transpose(1, 0, 2).view(np.int16)
| array([[[ 256, 770],
| [3340, 3854]],
| <BLANKLINE>
| [[1284, 1798],
| [4368, 4882]],
| <BLANKLINE>
| [[2312, 2826],
| [5396, 5910]]], dtype=int16)
|
| ----------------------------------------------------------------------
| Class methods defined here:

41
|
| __class_getitem__(…) from builtins.type
| a.__class_getitem__(item, /)
|
| Return a parametrized wrapper around the `~numpy.ndarray` type.
|
| .. versionadded:: 1.22
|
| Returns
| -------
| alias : types.GenericAlias
| A parametrized `~numpy.ndarray` type.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> from typing import Any
| >>> import numpy as np
|
| >>> np.ndarray[Any, np.dtype[Any]]
| numpy.ndarray[typing.Any, numpy.dtype[typing.Any]]
|
| Notes
| -----
| This method is only available for python 3.9 and later.
|
| See Also
| --------
| :pep:`585` : Type hinting generics in standard collections.
| numpy.typing.NDArray : An ndarray alias :term:`generic <generic type>`
| w.r.t. its `dtype.type <numpy.dtype.type>`.
|
| ----------------------------------------------------------------------
| Static methods defined here:
|
| __new__(*args, **kwargs) from builtins.type
| Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature.
|
| ----------------------------------------------------------------------
| Data descriptors defined here:
|
| T
| The transposed array.
|
| Same as ``self.transpose()``.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])

42
| >>> x
| array([[ 1., 2.],
| [ 3., 4.]])
| >>> x.T
| array([[ 1., 3.],
| [ 2., 4.]])
| >>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
| >>> x
| array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
| >>> x.T
| array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
|
| See Also
| --------
| transpose
|
| __array_interface__
| Array protocol: Python side.
|
| __array_priority__
| Array priority.
|
| __array_struct__
| Array protocol: C-struct side.
|
| base
| Base object if memory is from some other object.
|
| Examples
| --------
| The base of an array that owns its memory is None:
|
| >>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
| >>> x.base is None
| True
|
| Slicing creates a view, whose memory is shared with x:
|
| >>> y = x[2:]
| >>> y.base is x
| True
|
| ctypes
| An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the ctypes
| module.
|
| This attribute creates an object that makes it easier to use arrays
| when calling shared libraries with the ctypes module. The returned

43
| object has, among others, data, shape, and strides attributes (see
| Notes below) which themselves return ctypes objects that can be used
| as arguments to a shared library.
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| None
|
| Returns
| -------
| c : Python object
| Possessing attributes data, shape, strides, etc.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.ctypeslib
|
| Notes
| -----
| Below are the public attributes of this object which were documented
| in "Guide to NumPy" (we have omitted undocumented public attributes,
| as well as documented private attributes):
|
| .. autoattribute:: numpy.core._internal._ctypes.data
| :noindex:
|
| .. autoattribute:: numpy.core._internal._ctypes.shape
| :noindex:
|
| .. autoattribute:: numpy.core._internal._ctypes.strides
| :noindex:
|
| .. automethod:: numpy.core._internal._ctypes.data_as
| :noindex:
|
| .. automethod:: numpy.core._internal._ctypes.shape_as
| :noindex:
|
| .. automethod:: numpy.core._internal._ctypes.strides_as
| :noindex:
|
| If the ctypes module is not available, then the ctypes attribute
| of array objects still returns something useful, but ctypes objects
| are not returned and errors may be raised instead. In particular,
| the object will still have the ``as_parameter`` attribute which will
| return an integer equal to the data attribute.
|
| Examples

44
 | --------
| >>> import ctypes
| >>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], dtype=np.int32)
| >>> x
| array([[0, 1],
| [2, 3]], dtype=int32)
| >>> x.ctypes.data
| 31962608 # may vary
| >>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_uint32))
| <__main__.LP_c_uint object at 0x7ff2fc1fc200> # may vary
| >>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_uint32)).contents
| c_uint(0)
| >>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_uint64)).contents
| c_ulong(4294967296)
| >>> x.ctypes.shape
| <numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x7ff2fc1fce60> # may
vary
| >>> x.ctypes.strides
| <numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x7ff2fc1ff320> # may
vary
|
| data
| Python buffer object pointing to the start of the array's data.
|
| dtype
| Data-type of the array's elements.
|
| .. warning::
|
| Setting ``arr.dtype`` is discouraged and may be deprecated in the
| future. Setting will replace the ``dtype`` without modifying the
| memory (see also `ndarray.view` and `ndarray.astype`).
|
| Parameters
| ----------
| None
|
| Returns
| -------
| d : numpy dtype object
|
| See Also
| --------
| ndarray.astype : Cast the values contained in the array to a new data-
type.
| ndarray.view : Create a view of the same data but a different data-type.
| numpy.dtype
|

45
 | Examples
| --------
| >>> x
| array([[0, 1],
| [2, 3]])
| >>> x.dtype
| dtype('int32')
| >>> type(x.dtype)
| <type 'numpy.dtype'>
|
| flags
| Information about the memory layout of the array.
|
| Attributes
| ----------
| C_CONTIGUOUS (C)
| The data is in a single, C-style contiguous segment.
| F_CONTIGUOUS (F)
| The data is in a single, Fortran-style contiguous segment.
| OWNDATA (O)
| The array owns the memory it uses or borrows it from another object.
| WRITEABLE (W)
| The data area can be written to. Setting this to False locks
| the data, making it read-only. A view (slice, etc.) inherits
WRITEABLE
| from its base array at creation time, but a view of a writeable
| array may be subsequently locked while the base array remains
writeable.
| (The opposite is not true, in that a view of a locked array may not
| be made writeable. However, currently, locking a base object does
not
| lock any views that already reference it, so under that circumstance
it
| is possible to alter the contents of a locked array via a previously
| created writeable view onto it.) Attempting to change a non-
writeable
| array raises a RuntimeError exception.
| ALIGNED (A)
| The data and all elements are aligned appropriately for the
hardware.
| WRITEBACKIFCOPY (X)
| This array is a copy of some other array. The C-API function
| PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy must be called before deallocating
| to the base array will be updated with the contents of this array.
| FNC
| F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
| FORC
| F_CONTIGUOUS or C_CONTIGUOUS (one-segment test).

46
 | BEHAVED (B)
| ALIGNED and WRITEABLE.
| CARRAY (CA)
| BEHAVED and C_CONTIGUOUS.
| FARRAY (FA)
| BEHAVED and F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
|
| Notes
| -----
| The `flags` object can be accessed dictionary-like (as in
``a.flags['WRITEABLE']``),
| or by using lowercased attribute names (as in ``a.flags.writeable``).
Short flag
| names are only supported in dictionary access.
|
| Only the WRITEBACKIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED flags can be
| changed by the user, via direct assignment to the attribute or
dictionary
| entry, or by calling `ndarray.setflags`.
|
| The array flags cannot be set arbitrarily:
|
| - WRITEBACKIFCOPY can only be set ``False``.
| - ALIGNED can only be set ``True`` if the data is truly aligned.
| - WRITEABLE can only be set ``True`` if the array owns its own memory
| or the ultimate owner of the memory exposes a writeable buffer
| interface or is a string.
|
| Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously.
| This is clear for 1-dimensional arrays, but can also be true for higher
| dimensional arrays.
|
| Even for contiguous arrays a stride for a given dimension
| ``arr.strides[dim]`` may be *arbitrary* if ``arr.shape[dim] == 1``
| or the array has no elements.
| It does *not* generally hold that ``self.strides[-1] == self.itemsize``
| for C-style contiguous arrays or ``self.strides[0] == self.itemsize``
for
| Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.
|
| flat
| A 1-D iterator over the array.
|
| This is a `numpy.flatiter` instance, which acts similarly to, but is not
| a subclass of, Python's built-in iterator object.
|
| See Also
| --------

47
| flatten : Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
|
| flatiter
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.arange(1, 7).reshape(2, 3)
| >>> x
| array([[1, 2, 3],
| [4, 5, 6]])
| >>> x.flat[3]
| 4
| >>> x.T
| array([[1, 4],
| [2, 5],
| [3, 6]])
| >>> x.T.flat[3]
| 5
| >>> type(x.flat)
| <class 'numpy.flatiter'>
|
| An assignment example:
|
| >>> x.flat = 3; x
| array([[3, 3, 3],
| [3, 3, 3]])
| >>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
| array([[3, 1, 3],
| [3, 1, 3]])
|
| imag
| The imaginary part of the array.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
| >>> x.imag
| array([ 0. , 0.70710678])
| >>> x.imag.dtype
| dtype('float64')
|
| itemsize
| Length of one array element in bytes.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.float64)
| >>> x.itemsize

48
| 8
| >>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.complex128)
| >>> x.itemsize
| 16
|
| nbytes
| Total bytes consumed by the elements of the array.
|
| Notes
| -----
| Does not include memory consumed by non-element attributes of the
| array object.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.zeros((3,5,2), dtype=np.complex128)
| >>> x.nbytes
| 480
| >>> np.prod(x.shape) * x.itemsize
| 480
|
| ndim
| Number of array dimensions.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])
| >>> x.ndim
| 1
| >>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
| >>> y.ndim
| 3
|
| real
| The real part of the array.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])
| >>> x.real
| array([ 1. , 0.70710678])
| >>> x.real.dtype
| dtype('float64')
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.real : equivalent function
|

49
 | shape
| Tuple of array dimensions.
|
| The shape property is usually used to get the current shape of an array,
| but may also be used to reshape the array in-place by assigning a tuple
of
| array dimensions to it. As with `numpy.reshape`, one of the new shape
| dimensions can be -1, in which case its value is inferred from the size
of
| the array and the remaining dimensions. Reshaping an array in-place will
| fail if a copy is required.
|
| .. warning::
|
| Setting ``arr.shape`` is discouraged and may be deprecated in the
| future. Using `ndarray.reshape` is the preferred approach.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
| >>> x.shape
| (4,)
| >>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
| >>> y.shape
| (2, 3, 4)
| >>> y.shape = (3, 8)
| >>> y
| array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
| [ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
| [ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.]])
| >>> y.shape = (3, 6)
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
| ValueError: total size of new array must be unchanged
| >>> np.zeros((4,2))[::2].shape = (-1,)
| Traceback (most recent call last):
| File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
| AttributeError: Incompatible shape for in-place modification. Use
| `.reshape()` to make a copy with the desired shape.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.shape : Equivalent getter function.
| numpy.reshape : Function similar to setting ``shape``.
| ndarray.reshape : Method similar to setting ``shape``.
|
| size
| Number of elements in the array.

50
|
| Equal to ``np.prod(a.shape)``, i.e., the product of the array's
| dimensions.
|
| Notes
| -----
| `a.size` returns a standard arbitrary precision Python integer. This
| may not be the case with other methods of obtaining the same value
| (like the suggested ``np.prod(a.shape)``, which returns an instance
| of ``np.int_``), and may be relevant if the value is used further in
| calculations that may overflow a fixed size integer type.
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> x = np.zeros((3, 5, 2), dtype=np.complex128)
| >>> x.size
| 30
| >>> np.prod(x.shape)
| 30
|
| strides
| Tuple of bytes to step in each dimension when traversing an array.
|
| The byte offset of element ``(i[0], i[1], …, i[n])`` in an array `a`
| is::
|
| offset = sum(np.array(i) * a.strides)
|
| A more detailed explanation of strides can be found in the
| "ndarray.rst" file in the NumPy reference guide.
|
| .. warning::
|
| Setting ``arr.strides`` is discouraged and may be deprecated in the
| future. `numpy.lib.stride_tricks.as_strided` should be preferred
| to create a new view of the same data in a safer way.
|
| Notes
| -----
| Imagine an array of 32-bit integers (each 4 bytes)::
|
| x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
| [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
|
| This array is stored in memory as 40 bytes, one after the other
| (known as a contiguous block of memory). The strides of an array tell
| us how many bytes we have to skip in memory to move to the next position
| along a certain axis. For example, we have to skip 4 bytes (1 value) to

51
 | move to the next column, but 20 bytes (5 values) to get to the same
| position in the next row. As such, the strides for the array `x` will
be
| ``(20, 4)``.
|
| See Also
| --------
| numpy.lib.stride_tricks.as_strided
|
| Examples
| --------
| >>> y = np.reshape(np.arange(2*3*4), (2,3,4))
| >>> y
| array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
| [ 4, 5, 6, 7],
| [ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
| [[12, 13, 14, 15],
| [16, 17, 18, 19],
| [20, 21, 22, 23]]])
| >>> y.strides
| (48, 16, 4)
| >>> y[1,1,1]
| 17
| >>> offset=sum(y.strides * np.array((1,1,1)))
| >>> offset/y.itemsize
| 17
|
| >>> x = np.reshape(np.arange(5*6*7*8), (5,6,7,8)).transpose(2,3,1,0)
| >>> x.strides
| (32, 4, 224, 1344)
| >>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
| >>> offset = sum(i * x.strides)
| >>> x[3,5,2,2]
| 813
| >>> offset / x.itemsize
| 813
|
| ----------------------------------------------------------------------
| Data and other attributes defined here:
|
| __hash__ = None

linspace (and logspace) create arrays with evenly space (in log) numbers. For logspace, you
specify the start and ending powers (base**start to base**stop)

[8]: d = np.linspace(-1, 2, 15, endpoint=False)

print(d)

52
 [-1. -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0. 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1. 1.2 1.4 1.6
1.8]

[9]: e = np.logspace(-1, 2, 15, endpoint=True, base=10)

print(e)

[ 0.1 0.16378937 0.26826958 0.43939706 0.71968567

1.17876863 1.93069773 3.16227766 5.17947468 8.48342898
13.89495494 22.75845926 37.2759372 61.05402297 100. ]
As always, as for help – the numpy functions have very nice docstrings
[ ]: help(np.logspace)

we can also initialize an array based on a function

[10]: f = np.fromfunction(lambda i, j: i == j, (3, 3), dtype=int)
f

[10]: array([[ True, False, False],

[False, True, False],
[False, False, True]])

3 Array Operations
most operations (+, -, *, /) will work on an entire array at once, element-by-element.
Note that that the multiplication operator is not a matrix multiply (there is a new operator in
python 3.5+, @, to do matrix multiplicaiton.
Let’s create a simply array to start with
[11]: a = np.arange(12).reshape(3,4)
print(a)

[[ 0 1 2 3]
[ 4 5 6 7]
[ 8 9 10 11]]
Multiplication by a scalar multiplies every element
[12]: a*2

[12]: array([[ 0, 2, 4, 6],

[ 8, 10, 12, 14],
[16, 18, 20, 22]])

adding two arrays adds element-by-element

[13]: a + a

53
[13]: array([[ 0, 2, 4, 6],
[ 8, 10, 12, 14],
[16, 18, 20, 22]])

multiplying two arrays multiplies element-by-element

[15]: print(a)
a*a

[[ 0 1 2 3]
[ 4 5 6 7]
[ 8 9 10 11]]

[15]: array([[ 0, 1, 4, 9],

[ 16, 25, 36, 49],
[ 64, 81, 100, 121]])

We can think of our 2-d array a was a 3 x 5 matrix (3 rows, 5 columns). We can take the transpose
to geta 5 x 3 matrix, and then we can do a matrix multiplication
[16]: print(a)
b = a.transpose()
b

[[ 0 1 2 3]
[ 4 5 6 7]
[ 8 9 10 11]]

[16]: array([[ 0, 4, 8],

[ 1, 5, 9],
[ 2, 6, 10],
[ 3, 7, 11]])

[17]: a @ b

[17]: array([[ 14, 38, 62],

[ 38, 126, 214],
[ 62, 214, 366]])

We can sum along axes or the entire array

[18]: print(a)
a.sum(axis=0)

[[ 0 1 2 3]
[ 4 5 6 7]
[ 8 9 10 11]]

[18]: array([12, 15, 18, 21])

54
[19]: a.sum()

[19]: 66

Also get the extrema

[20]: print(a.min(), a.max())

0 11

3.0.1 universal functions

Up until now, we have been discussing some of the basic nuts and bolts of NumPy; now, we will
dive into the reasons that NumPy is so important in the Python data science world. Namely, it
provides an easy and flexible interface to optimized computation with arrays of data.
Computation on NumPy arrays can be very fast, or it can be very slow. The key to making it
fast is to use vectorized operations, generally implemented through NumPy’s universal functions
(ufuncs). This section motivates the need for NumPy’s ufuncs, which can be used to make repeated
calculations on array elements much more efficient. It then introduces many of the most common
and useful arithmetic ufuncs available in the NumPy package.
universal functions work element-by-element. Let’s create a new array scaled by pi
[21]: b = a*np.pi/12.0
print(b)

[[0. 0.26179939 0.52359878 0.78539816]

[1.04719755 1.30899694 1.57079633 1.83259571]
[2.0943951 2.35619449 2.61799388 2.87979327]]

[22]: c = np.cos(b)
print(c)

[[ 1.00000000e+00 9.65925826e-01 8.66025404e-01 7.07106781e-01]

[ 5.00000000e-01 2.58819045e-01 6.12323400e-17 -2.58819045e-01]
[-5.00000000e-01 -7.07106781e-01 -8.66025404e-01 -9.65925826e-01]]

[23]: d = b + c

[24]: print(d)

[[1. 1.22772521 1.38962418 1.49250494]

[1.54719755 1.56781598 1.57079633 1.57377667]
[1.5943951 1.64908771 1.75196847 1.91386744]]

3.1 Array Slicing: Accessing Subarrays

Just as we can use square brackets to access individual array elements, we can also use them to
access subarrays with the slice notation, marked by the colon (:) character. The NumPy slicing

55
 syntax follows that of the standard Python list; to access a slice of an array x, use this:
x[start:stop:step]
If any of these are unspecified, they default to the values start=0, stop=size of dimension,
step=1. We’ll take a look at accessing sub-arrays in one dimension and in multiple dimensions.
[26]: ironman = np.arange(1000)
ironman
even = ironman[0:995:2]
print(even)

[ 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70
72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106
108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142
144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 174 176 178
180 182 184 186 188 190 192 194 196 198 200 202 204 206 208 210 212 214
216 218 220 222 224 226 228 230 232 234 236 238 240 242 244 246 248 250
252 254 256 258 260 262 264 266 268 270 272 274 276 278 280 282 284 286
288 290 292 294 296 298 300 302 304 306 308 310 312 314 316 318 320 322
324 326 328 330 332 334 336 338 340 342 344 346 348 350 352 354 356 358
360 362 364 366 368 370 372 374 376 378 380 382 384 386 388 390 392 394
396 398 400 402 404 406 408 410 412 414 416 418 420 422 424 426 428 430
432 434 436 438 440 442 444 446 448 450 452 454 456 458 460 462 464 466
468 470 472 474 476 478 480 482 484 486 488 490 492 494 496 498 500 502
504 506 508 510 512 514 516 518 520 522 524 526 528 530 532 534 536 538
540 542 544 546 548 550 552 554 556 558 560 562 564 566 568 570 572 574
576 578 580 582 584 586 588 590 592 594 596 598 600 602 604 606 608 610
612 614 616 618 620 622 624 626 628 630 632 634 636 638 640 642 644 646
648 650 652 654 656 658 660 662 664 666 668 670 672 674 676 678 680 682
684 686 688 690 692 694 696 698 700 702 704 706 708 710 712 714 716 718
720 722 724 726 728 730 732 734 736 738 740 742 744 746 748 750 752 754
756 758 760 762 764 766 768 770 772 774 776 778 780 782 784 786 788 790
792 794 796 798 800 802 804 806 808 810 812 814 816 818 820 822 824 826
828 830 832 834 836 838 840 842 844 846 848 850 852 854 856 858 860 862
864 866 868 870 872 874 876 878 880 882 884 886 888 890 892 894 896 898
900 902 904 906 908 910 912 914 916 918 920 922 924 926 928 930 932 934
936 938 940 942 944 946 948 950 952 954 956 958 960 962 964 966 968 970
972 974 976 978 980 982 984 986 988 990 992 994]

[27]: a = np.arange(9)
a

[27]: array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

Now look at accessing a single element vs. a range (using slicing)

Giving a single (0-based) index just references a single value

56
[28]: a[3]

[28]: 3

[29]: print(a[2:3])

[2]

[30]: a[2:4]

[30]: array([2, 3])

[31]: a[:]

[31]: array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])

3.2 Multidimensional Arrays

Multidimensional arrays are stored in a contiguous space in memory – this means that the columns
/ rows need to be unraveled (flattened) so that it can be thought of as a single one-dimensional
array. Different programming languages do this via different conventions:
Storage order:
• Python/C use row-major storage: rows are stored one after the other
• Fortran/matlab use column-major storage: columns are stored one after another
The ordering matters when
• passing arrays between languages (we’ll talk about this later this semester)
• looping over arrays – you want to access elements that are next to one-another in memory
– e.g, in Fortran:
– in C
In python, using NumPy, we’ll try to avoid explicit loops over elements as much as possible
Let’s look at multidimensional arrays:
[32]: a = np.arange(15).reshape(3,5)
a

[32]: array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4],

[ 5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]])

Notice that the output of a shows the row-major storage. The rows are grouped together in the
inner [...]
Giving a single index (0-based) for each dimension just references a single value in the array

[ ]: a[1,1]

57
 Doing slices will access a range of elements. Think of the start and stop in the slice as referencing
the left-edge of the slots in the array.
[33]: a[0:2,0:2]

[33]: array([[0, 1],

[5, 6]])

Access a specific column

[34]: a[:,1]

[34]: array([ 1, 6, 11])

Sometimes we want a one-dimensional view into the array – here we see the memory layout (row-
major) more explicitly

[35]: a = a.flatten()
print(a)

[ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14]
we can also iterate – this is done over the first axis (rows)

[36]: print (a)

for r in a:
print(r)
a = np.arange(15).reshape(3,5)
print(a)

[ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
[[ 0 1 2 3 4]
[ 5 6 7 8 9]
[10 11 12 13 14]]

58
 or element by element
[37]: for e in a.flat:
print(e)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

[ ]: help(a.flatten())

4 Boolean Indexing
There are lots of fun ways to index arrays to access only those elements that meet a certain condition
[38]: import numpy as np
a = np.arange(12).reshape(3,4)
a

[38]: array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],

[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])

Here we set all the elements in the array that are > 4 to zero
[39]: a[a > 4] = 0
a

[39]: array([[0, 1, 2, 3],

[4, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0]])

and now, all the zeros to -1

[40]: print(a)
a[a == 0] = -1

59
 a

[[0 1 2 3]
[4 0 0 0]
[0 0 0 0]]

[40]: array([[-1, 1, 2, 3],

[ 4, -1, -1, -1],
[-1, -1, -1, -1]])

[41]: a == -1

[41]: array([[ True, False, False, False],

[False, True, True, True],
[ True, True, True, True]])

if we have 2 tests, we need to use logical_and() or logical_or()

[42]: a = np.arange(12).reshape(3,4)
print(a)
a[np.logical_and(a > 3, a <= 9)] = 0.0
a

[[ 0 1 2 3]
[ 4 5 6 7]
[ 8 9 10 11]]

[42]: array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],

[ 0, 0, 0, 0],
[ 0, 0, 10, 11]])

Our test that we index the array with returns a boolean array of the same shape:
[43]: a > 4

[43]: array([[False, False, False, False],

[False, False, False, False],
[False, False, True, True]])

5 Avoiding Loops
Python’s default implementation (known as CPython) does some operations very slowly. This is
in part due to the dynamic, interpreted nature of the language: the fact that types are flexible, so
that sequences of operations cannot be compiled down to efficient machine code as in languages like
C and Fortran. Recently there have been various attempts to address this weakness: well-known
examples are the PyPy project, a just-in-time compiled implementation of Python; the Cython
project, which converts Python code to compilable C code; and the Numba project, which converts
snippets of Python code to fast LLVM bytecode. Each of these has its strengths and weaknesses,

60
 but it is safe to say that none of the three approaches has yet surpassed the reach and popularity
of the standard CPython engine.
The relative sluggishness of Python generally manifests itself in situations where many small oper-
ations are being repeated – for instance looping over arrays to operate on each element.
In general, you want to avoid loops over elements on an array.
Here, let’s create 1-d x and y coordinates and then try to fill some larger array
[44]: M = 32
N = 64

xmin = ymin = 0.0

xmax = ymax = 1.0

x = np.linspace(xmin, xmax, M, endpoint=False)

y = np.linspace(ymin, ymax, N, endpoint=False)

print(x.shape)
print(y.shape)
x

(32,)
(64,)

[44]: array([0. , 0.03125, 0.0625 , 0.09375, 0.125 , 0.15625, 0.1875 ,

0.21875, 0.25 , 0.28125, 0.3125 , 0.34375, 0.375 , 0.40625,
0.4375 , 0.46875, 0.5 , 0.53125, 0.5625 , 0.59375, 0.625 ,
0.65625, 0.6875 , 0.71875, 0.75 , 0.78125, 0.8125 , 0.84375,
0.875 , 0.90625, 0.9375 , 0.96875])

we’ll time out code

[45]: import time
import numpy as np
M = 32
N = 64

x = np.linspace(0.0, 1.0, M, endpoint=False)

y = np.linspace(0.0, 1.0, N, endpoint=False)

[46]: t0 = time.time()

g = np.zeros((M, N))

print(g)

for i in range(M):
for j in range(N):

61
 g[i,j] = np.sin(2.0*np.pi*x[i]*y[j])
print(g)
t1 = time.time()
print("time elapsed: {} s".format(t1-t0))

[[0. 0. 0. … 0. 0. 0.]
[0. 0. 0. … 0. 0. 0.]
[0. 0. 0. … 0. 0. 0.]
…
[0. 0. 0. … 0. 0. 0.]
[0. 0. 0. … 0. 0. 0.]
[0. 0. 0. … 0. 0. 0.]]
[[ 0. 0. 0. … 0. 0.
0. ]
[ 0. 0.00306796 0.00613588 … 0.18605515 0.18906866
0.1920804 ]
[ 0. 0.00613588 0.01227154 … 0.365613 0.37131719
0.37700741]
…
[ 0. 0.08885355 0.17700422 … -0.75520138 -0.69397146
-0.62725182]
[ 0. 0.09190896 0.18303989 … -0.62005721 -0.54532499
-0.4659765 ]
[ 0. 0.0949635 0.18906866 … -0.46325978 -0.37700741
-0.28734746]]
time elapsed: 0.011719465255737305 s

[ ]:

5.1 NumPy Standard Data Types

NumPy arrays contain values of a single type, so it is important to have detailed knowledge of
those types and their limitations. Because NumPy is built in C, the types will be familiar to users
of C, Fortran, and other related languages.
The standard NumPy data types are listed in the following table. Note that when constructing an
array, they can be specified using a string:
np.zeros(10, dtype='int16')
Or using the associated NumPy object:
np.zeros(10, dtype=np.int16)

Data type Description

bool_ Boolean (True or False) stored as a byte
int_ Default integer type (same as C long;
normally either int64 or int32)

62
 Data type Description
intc Identical to C int (normally int32 or
int64)
intp Integer used for indexing (same as C
ssize_t; normally either int32 or int64)
int8 Byte (-128 to 127)
int16 Integer (-32768 to 32767)
int32 Integer (-2147483648 to 2147483647)
int64 Integer (-9223372036854775808 to
9223372036854775807)
uint8 Unsigned integer (0 to 255)
uint16 Unsigned integer (0 to 65535)
uint32 Unsigned integer (0 to 4294967295)
uint64 Unsigned integer (0 to
18446744073709551615)
float_ Shorthand for float64.
float16 Half precision float: sign bit, 5 bits
exponent, 10 bits mantissa
float32 Single precision float: sign bit, 8 bits
exponent, 23 bits mantissa
float64 Double precision float: sign bit, 11 bits
exponent, 52 bits mantissa
complex_ Shorthand for complex128.
complex64 Complex number, represented by two
32-bit floats
complex128 Complex number, represented by two
64-bit floats

More advanced type specification is possible, such as specifying big or little endian numbers; for
more information, refer to the NumPy documentation. NumPy also supports compound data types,
which will be covered in Structured Data: NumPy’s Structured Arrays.

5.1.1 Aggregates
For binary ufuncs, there are some interesting aggregates that can be computed directly from the
object. For example, if we’d like to reduce an array with a particular operation, we can use the
reduce method of any ufunc. A reduce repeatedly applies a given operation to the elements of an
array until only a single result remains.
For example, calling reduce on the add ufunc returns the sum of all elements in the array:
[47]: x = np.arange(1, 9)
print(x)
np.add.reduce(x)

[1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8]

63
[47]: 36

Similarly, calling reduce on the multiply ufunc results in the product of all array elements:
[48]: np.multiply.reduce(x)

[48]: 40320

If we’d like to store all the intermediate results of the computation, we can instead use accumulate:
[49]: np.add.accumulate(x)

[49]: array([ 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36])

[50]: np.multiply.accumulate(x)

[50]: array([ 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320])

[ ]:

64