CHAPTER 28: PUBLIC POLICY AND PRIVATE MARKET IMPERFECTIONS

Monopoly – describes a market situation where one company owns all the market share and can control
prices. It is a market structure where a single seller is the sole supplier of unique products and services in
a market. These products are difficult to replace in the market resulting to limiting available substitutes
for its product and creates barriers for competitors to enter the marketplace.

The usual cause of monopoly:

 Ownership of key resource – it is someone that has an exclusive control of a resource. For
example, diamonds. If there is only one diamond mine in a country, that certain business will
achieve monopoly. In terms of our city, Capelco and Metro Roxas Water District is one of the
best examples of monopoly. Without their existence, the people in the city would definitely not
have electricity and water as they are the only one in our city that provides that kind of product
and services.
 The failure of supply and demand to operate normally because of declining average cost that
allows a single firm to dominate.

Natural Monopoly – when a single company can produce and offer to sell a product or service at a lower
cost than its competitors can.

For example: PLDT, a telecommunication company was once a monopoly, it was regarded the
only telecommunications company in the Philippines. However, as the years goes by, and the
country began developing, there are a lot of companies started offering products just like they
offer but in a low cost and more advanced services, therefore, they began to have a lot of
competitors like Globe, DITO, and Smart.

Unnatural Monopoly – a private firm creates a new product. This may be completely different from
whatever is on the market.

For example: a new medical drug, that can reverse the effects of Alzheimer’s. Nothing else is
available to the consumer. So, this drug has a monopoly within the market.

Market imperfections – refers to not meeting the rigorous standards of a hypothetical perfectly or
purely competitive market, due to government policies that provide high protection for some industries
in the form of tariffs and other policies that resulted to artificial monopolies. We only have one
dominant seller that can influence the prices of goods or services they produced; therefore, buyers are
left without many choices.

For example: monopolies, public goods and non-clearing markets.

Public Goods – these are goods that are made available for the benefit of the public that are paid
collectively through taxation.

For example: public transportation, infrastructure, national defence, police service, and etc.
Tariffs – are used to restrict imports as it increases the price of goods and services purchased from
another country, making them less attractive to domestic consumers. Governments impose tariffs to
raise revenue, protect domestic industries, or exert political leverage over another country.

How do tariffs affect the economy?

- tariffs raise prices and reduces the economic growth.

Artificial Monopoly – occurs when a company has exclusive control over a market or industry through
means other than natural advantages. It is characterized by a lack of competition in the market, which
allows the company to set prices at whatever level it chooses. This can lead to higher prices for
consumers, as companies may raise prices to increase profits.

In a natural monopoly, the company is able to produce goods or services at a lower cost than any
potential competitors due to inherent advantages in the market. In contrast, an artificial monopoly
arises from anti-competitive practices or other means of preventing potential competitors from entering
the market. Additionally, unnatural monopoly is a private firm creates a new product that may be
completely different from whatever is on the market.

Contestability – means that the existing firm is face with the potential prospect of competition. A
company can be challenged or contested by rival companies looking to enter the industry or market.

Barriers to Competition

1. Structural Barriers – refers to barriers that cannot be prevented but occur naturally.

For example: economies of scale, sunk costs, absolute cost advantage, large capital
requirements, inadequate infrastructure.

2. Behavioral Barriers – are actions that market participants undertake to reduce competition or to
exercise their market power. This will help firms respond in particular patterns of behavior within the
market.

For example: excess capacity, product differentiation and advertising, horizontal restraints,
vertical restraints, foreclosure and exclusion, and tactics to increase the costs of rivals.

3. Governmental barriers – requires compliance with particular behavior like special permits to operate,
following product standards, and specification on the use of particular inputs in production.

For example: special permits, licenses, etc. prior to business operation, specification of product
standards, regulations that require the use of special inputs, tariffs, quotas, and other non-tariff trade
barriers, anti-dumping and countervailing duties, and discriminatory trade practices (exclusionary lists
and ownership restrictions).

Relationship of Public Policy and Market Imperfections

Public policy can be used to address market imperfections to create the need for policy, and at
the same time, public policy can also benefit from market imperfections as it could improve its laws and
provide more laws to keep the order inside the market.
CHAPTER 29: COMPETITION, MONOPOLY AND PHILIPPINE INDUSTRIALIZATION

Industrialization – The word “industrialization” refers to an extensive shift of society from being a
manually driven economy to a machinery-driven economy. This means that products being produced in
the industry were no longer made solely by hand but by machines. This led to increased production and
efficiency, lower prices and faster and effective production.

Industrialization in the Philippines started in 1930 but from the 1960s it began to process slowly.

Philippine Industrialization began with early success but sputtered later. In the long run, however, many
immediate neighbors in Asia have become more successful. A major reason for the lag in performance is
rooted in the problems of monopoly and high costs.

Tax credit and investment incentives

The government can provide incentives for the new industries including reduced taxes, law
interest credits and preferential laws.

The trade protection system

1. Nominal Protection – is the protection rate that is directly derived from the schedule of tariffs, and
other import taxes. It includes other taxes and impositions (like normal trade markups and fees) that add
to the cost of the import.

For example: If an imported item is 20% ad valorem, it means that for an imported item worth
1,000 pesos, the rate of duty is 20 percent of that value or 200 pesos. The domestic value of the product
then becomes 1,200 pesos.

Ad valorem tax – means “according to value” is a tax based on the assessed value of an item,
such as real estate or personal property.

2. Effective Protection – is the protection rate on the value added of the product.

Value added – is the difference in the value of the output after deducting all the costs of inputs
that are bought from other suppliers.

Constitutional restriction – a rule in the constitution that stops the government from having too much
power.

Import substitution – is when countries try to become less dependent on foreign trade and boost
economic growth by building their own industries, thus promoting urban manufacturing hubs.

Domestic Resource Cost (DRC) – is an indicator that is widely used in developing countries to measure
comparative advantage and guide policy reforms.
ASEAN

The Philippines is one of the original five of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) member
countries. There was a growth of trade cooperation in this association. The reduction of trade barriers
among member countries is called for by the ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (AFTA). The AFTA promises
to produce an expansion of ASEAN-wide free trade agreement with other large economies. With the
advent of greater regional economic cooperation, the Philippine market for goods and services can no
longer be seen as being only Philippine in character. As the economic cooperation deepens, an
integrated ASEAN market will come into being. This will be achieved through the competition among the
domestic firms of the 10 members.

10 members of ASEAN

1. Brunei
2. Cambodia
3. Indonesia
4. Laos
5. Malaysia
6. Myanmar
7. Philippines
8. Singapore
9. Thailand
10. Vietnam

5 Original Members of ASEAN

1. Indonesia
2. Malaysia
3. Philippines
4. Singapore
5. Thailand

Advantages of ASEAN in the Philippines

 Lower cost of living – The ASEAN Economic Community wants to eliminate if not lessen the
taxes exporting between countries, which will lower the prices of goods. This open flow of goods
and services means that your money will go much further as products become cheaper.
 Improved job opportunities and general well-being – Products or goods not previously available
in the country will be easier to access. A good example would be the availability of items like
chocolates, clothes and fruit products not native to the local country. Before ASEAN, these items
i.e apples, oranges and chocolate are hard to come by and expensive. One has to import to avail
 these hence, taxes are imposed. Now apples and chocolates have become more common than
the average mangoes or bananas thanks to the agreements signed by ASEAN members. Service
providers like air transport and healthcare are encouraged to setup foreign offices which means
for us easier access to travel or healthcare. Increasing foreign investments have always been the
goal of the ASEAN in order to be a power house in the world economy which would mean
removing limitations and applying proven international business operations to the whole region.
The more options the more choices citizens have to improve their quality of life.
 Better job opportunities and education abroad – The exchange of free information and skills is
essential to the development of the ASEAN charter. Nationals can work abroad increasing
productivity thus more job opportunities for the Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs). Facilitation
of visas and employment passes for skilled labor will ensure protection for the workers. It will
not be limited to the workers but to the students as well. ASEAN universities are allowing more
foreign students to study in their campus thus increasing mobility for them in the region. It will
give the opportunity for the young people to open up to new cultures and expand their horizons.
Giving them a fresh perspective to what would be their goal in life. Allowing them to be more
confidence in coursing the future of their home countries.
 Less hassle in traveling – ASEAN integration has made it possible to travel to other countries and
in the process tourism has grown exponentially. It has given more opportunities for the tourism
industry to promote the local scenery and earn more revenue. Traveling to the other ASEAN
countries will enable the nationals to realize that they are not alone in the road to economic
success but together as one whole Asian region they can make a difference in world policy. To
aspire for the ASEAN unity.

ASEAN + Other Countries

Due to their relative success of cooperation within ASEAN, other countries are left out of the
larger areas of free trade arrangements want to expand their trade access to ASEAN countries. China,
Japan, South Korea, the United States, and the European Union have been concerned and are seeking
access to preferential trading arrangement with ASEAN.

ASEAN + China

China sought to have a free trade arrangement with ASEA. The agreement to develop an “ASEAN
+ China” free trade has potentially enlarged the scope of the ASEAN free trade area. ASEAN and China
have agreed to implement this new agreement in the future, promising a major enlargement of free
trade in the Asian region.

APEC

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a loose cooperation framework among a large
group of countries located in a broadly defined area of Asia and the Pacific region. Its major component
activity is the regular meetings of the heads of states to review problems and progress in economic
cooperation among member states. It includes major trading nations like:
APEC members:

1. Japan
2. China
3. United States
4. Thailand
5. Australia
6. Philippines
7. Vietnam
8. Canada
9. Hongkong
10. Malaysia
11. Chile
12. Mexico
13. Korea
14. Russia
15. Indonesia
16. Peru
17. Singapore
18. New Zealand
19. Brunei
20. Taiwan

WTO

World Trade Organization (WTO) was organized to introduce rules in the world trade of
commodities and services. It was the product of years of international negotiations that centered on the
reduction of tariffs in international trade.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established instead of the world trade body
to help the new world economic system. GATT contained only a limited number of powers and its
included only member countries. On 1 January 1948, GATT entered into force. The 23 founding members
were: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, China, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, France,
India, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Southern Rhodesia, Syria,
South Africa, United Kingdom and the United States.

Non – tariff barriers are measures that are not in the nature of imposing duties on goods but are
nonetheless adopted by countries to restrict trade. For example: rules on quarantine goods (often used
for public health and other reasons), rules on participation by foreign suppliers in the contracts involving
procurement of goods and services, and most of all, quantitative restrictions on the volume of goods to
be bought.
Liberalization – refers to the removal of restrictions in order to promote economic development.

Advantages of Liberalization

Increased Competition – Liberalization promotes competition among businesses, which can lead to
lower prices for consumers and improved products and services.

Economic Growth – Liberalization can lead to increased foreign investment and economic growth,
creating jobs and boosting the overall economy.

Consumer Choice – Liberalization allows for more choice and variety in products and services, giving
consumers greater options and the ability to make informed decisions.

Improved Efficiency – Liberalization can lead to increased efficiency in industries, as companies must
strive to improve in order to stay competitive.

Global Integration – Liberalization can facilitate greater integration and cooperation between countries,
leading to a more interconnected and interdependent global economy.

Disadvantages of Liberalization

Job Loss – Liberalization can lead to increased competition and automation, resulting in job loss for
certain industries and workers.

Increased Inequality – Liberalization can exacerbate income and wealth inequality, as those with more
resources and education may benefit more from the increased competition and economic growth.

Loss of Cultural Identity – Liberalization can lead to the homogenization of culture as multinational
corporations and foreign influences become more prominent.

Environmental Damage – Liberalization can lead to increased industrialization and resource extraction,
leading to environmental degradation and pollution.

Dependence on Foreign Investment – Liberalization can lead to a dependence on foreign investment

and multinational corporations, leaving countries vulnerable to shifts in global economic conditions.

CHAPTER 30: MONOPOLY REGULATION AND COMPETITION

Public utility – is an entity that provides goods or services to the general public. It also refers to an
enterprise that sells a product or a service that is considered an essential good or service to the general
citizenry.

3 forms of public utility

1. State ownership or direct control – a state corporation is allowed to render the services. It sets
the fees and other charges for the services that it provides.
 For example: Government owned and controlled corporations, like Land Bank of the PH, Public
Transportation (MRT & LRT), Social Security Systems, and Overseas Filipino Banks.

2. Public utility regulation – regulation, not ownership and control, is the other common model for
the government policy toward public utilities. This policy allows private ownership of the utility,
but a specific franchise or permit from government has to be obtained before a utility is allowed
to operate.

For example: Meralco , PLDT, Waterworks Regulation (Metropolitan Manila Waterworks and
Sewerage System or MWSS), The electricity industry reform (National Power Corporation),
Monopoly and competition in telecommunications, Transportation industry)

3. Mixture of public ownership and public regulation – aims to control the benefits of public
ownership such as long-term planning and stability, while using regulation to prevent abuse of
monopoly power.

For example: National Power Corporation, Manila Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS),
Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA), and National Irrigation Administration (NIA).

Principles of public utility regulation

1. Marginal cost pricing – the practice of setting the price of a product to equal the extra cost of
producing an extra unit of output. By this policy, a producer charges, for each product unit sold, only the
addition to total cost resulting from materials and direct labor.

2. Permitted rate of return – is a form of price setting regulation where governments determine the fair
price which is allowed to be charged by a monopoly. With the use of permitted rate of return, the
monopoly price is set according to a schedule that would allow a specified and reasonable rate of return
on the invested capital of the firm.

Regulation – are rules made by a government or other authority in order to control the way
something is done or the way people behave.

Regulator – a professional organization, independent from pressure, but able to make a

judgment on the pricing of services on the basis of known principles to be applied.

3. Unbundling of Assets into Competitive, Separate Enterprises –

Unbundling, or breaking up, of the assets into parts that can be made operationally independent
or sold will help create opportunities for greater operational efficiencies of the various operational parts
of a large company.

Vertical unbundling – means separating separate stages of operation.

Horizontal unbundling – means breaking up the various power-generating assets of the public
utility into separate competing companies.
Lumpy investment – are long-term investments that are difficult to liquidate, such as real estate,
machinery, or infrastructure. They are called "lumpy" because they are large and indivisible, meaning
that they are not easily divided or sold in parts.

Privatization – is the transfer of ownership, property, or business from the government to the private
sector.

State Monopoly – a monopoly which government agency or government corporation is the sole provider
of a particular good or service and competition is prohibited by law. It is an organization owned by a
government which supplies all of a particular product or service, with no competitors, or a situation in
which this happens:

Fair rate of return – refers to rate of return that state governments allow a public utility to earn on its
investments and expenditures. Public utility companies, like Capelco or Water District, for example, are
regulated in most countries. There is a limit on how much they charge their customers for their services.

Declining cost industry – refers to that industry where expansion in a firm's output reduces the
production costs. The primary reason for a decreasing-cost industry is that an increase in demand
triggers lower production cost and a downward shift of the long-run average cost curve as new firms
entering the industry force down the prices of key resources. This could be because a key resource is
able to take advantage of economies of scale or decreasing average cost in it is own production and
supply. The entry of new firms into the cable television industry might, for example, enable lower cost of
using communication satellites. The entry of new firms into the manufacturing industry in a given city
might enable a lower cost of electricity.

CHAPTER 31: LABOR AND WAGES

Labor force – The labor force is the sum of employed and unemployed persons.

Labor supply – is the number of hours people are willing and able to supply at a given wage rate.

Factors that affect the size of labor supply

1. Size of the population – the first determinant of the labor force. The initial size of the population
and the rate of growth of that population determine how large is the supply of labor that needs
to be employed in an economy.
2. Labor participation rate – to estimate the size of the labor force, statisticians first make a count
of the members of the population who are old enough to be potentially in the labor force. It is
the proportion of the working-age population that is either working or actively looking for work.
This rate is an important labor market measure because it represents the relative amount of
labor resources available for the production of goods and services.
The labor participation rate is dependent on a number of factors:

1. Age distribution – the definition of the working age population varies, but some consider individuals
above 15 years old as part of the labor force if economically active. Participation rates are highest for age
groups of 18 to 60.

2. Effect of school enrollment – when the children and young adults are in school, they are not
considered part of the labor force. During the summer school break, the labor participation rate goes up,
because students join the labor market.

3. Role of women – traditionally, women working within the household are not part of the labor force,
but this is changing as more women seek employment. Men generally have higher labor force
participation rates than women. Men have higher labor force participation rates than women.

Philippi Labor Emplo Underemp Unempl

nes Force yment loyment oyment
Partici Rate Rate (%) Rate
pation (%) (%)
Rate
(%)
2019f 61.3 94.9 13.8 5.1
2020f 59.5 89.7 16.2 10.3
2021f 63.3 92.2 15.9 7.8
p
2022 64.7 94.6 14.2 5.4
60.5 93.6 14.9 6.4
January
f

63.8 93.6 14.0 6.4

Februar
yf
65.4 94.2 15.8 5.8
Marchf
63.4 94.3 14.0 5.7
Aprilf
Mayf 64.0 94.0 14.5 6.0
Junef 64.8 94.0 12.6 6.0
Julyf 65.2 94.8 13.8 5.2
66.1 94.7 14.7 5.3
Augustp
65.2 95.0 15.4 5.0
Septem
berp
64.2 95.5 14.2 4.5
October
p

67.5 95.8 14.4 4.2

Novemb
erp
66.4 95.7 12.6 4.3
Decemb
erp
2023p 64.8 95.4 12.9 4.6
 64.5 95.2 14.1 4.8
January
p

66.6 95.2 12.9 4.8

Februar
yp
66.0 95.3 11.2 4.7
Marchp
65.1 95.5 12.9 4.5
Aprilp
Mayp 65.3 95.7 11.7 4.3
Junep 66.1 95.5 12.0 4.5
Julyp 60.1 95.2 15.9 4.8
Labor surplus economy – The Philippines, with its high population growth and slower economic growth,
exhibits characteristics of a labor surplus economy. The supply of labor is almost unlimited at a
subsistence wage rate until labor scarcity prompts higher wages. A significant increase in demand for
labor is needed to raise wage rates.

Demand for Labor – demand for labor matters a lot in determining how jobs will be generated.

Factors affecting demand for labor:

1. Level of income in the economy – the initial basis of demand in an economy is the level of
income. The demand for goods would be large in an economy with a high level of income. This
means that the demand for labor would also be high in a high-income economy compared to a
low-income economy.
2. Growth of the economy – when the economy’s output grows fast, there is a high demand for
labor. Although an economy that grows slowly would also demand more labor, that demand
would be at a lower magnitude than the fast-growing economy. An economy with a higher rate
of growth output absorbs more additional employment than a slower growing economy.
3. Investment spending – the demand for capital goods also translates into demand for labor.
When the level of investment expenditure arises, an increase in employment also happens. If all
investments end up as productive, increases in investment expenditure even predict a much
higher level of employment growth in the future.
a. Labor-intensive investments – lead to a higher labor demand.
b. Capital-intensive investments – focuses more on capital expenditure.
4. Internal production structure – an economy with interconnected sectors experiences strong
demand for labor. The demand for labor is strong when many sectors of the economy are highly
linked through business transactions. Increases in demand in one sector leads to additional
demand for labor in other related activities. Higher wage incomes resulting from increased
employment can stimulate the growth of the other.

Employment – individuals that are already employed

Underemployment – individuals that are employed but not full-time. (They only work part time)

Kinds of underemployment –

1. Visible underemployment – individuals working less than 40 hours per week but desiring longer
work hours.
 2. Full-time underemployment –individuals working 40 hours per week but seeking longer hours.

Unemployment – individuals that are not employed. They are capable of working and actively seeking
for a job but unable to find any work.

Kinds of unemployment

1. Disguised unemployment – refers to a situation where an individual is employed but not

productively engaged in any economic activity. For example: painters, plumbers, and electricians.

Minimum wage – the smallest amount of money that employers are legally allowed to pay someone
who works for them

National minimum wage –

Regional minimum wage – The current daily minimum wage rates in Western Visayas (Region 6), which
took effect on June 5, 2022, range from P410 to P450. Wages for the non-agriculture sector went up
from ₱310-₱395 to ₱420-₱450. Agricultural sector pay went up from ₱315 to ₱410. The regional
minimum wage allowed competition in wage-setting by regional jurisdictions (based on the
administrative regions of the country in which government and provinces are grouped).

Labor welfare legislation – refers to the legislation specifying responsibilities and rights in employment,
particularly the responsibilities of the employer and the rights of the employee.

Unionism – the policies and practices of labor unions, particularly those concerned with protecting and
furthering the rights of workers.

Militant Unionism – leads to strike, disrupting industrial peace, and deterring foreign capital. It is the
propensity of a trade union or group of workers to engage in strike action and other forms of industrial
action.

Tripartite system of industrial relations – Tripartism can be understood as policy of decision making
related to industrial relations to where all the three key players i.e., employers, workers and
governments plays an equal and fair role.

Nearly all industrial relations system is tripartite i.e., they are made of three parties. They are:

 The employers
 The employees
 The government

Population growth – The current population of Philippines in 2023 is 117,337,368 at mid-year. The
Philippines population is equivalent to 1.46% of the total world population. the Philippines ranks number
13 in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population.
Infinitely elastic labor supply – Refers to goods that have a price elasticity of supply value equal to
infinity. This essentially means that any amount of a good will be supplied at the prevailing price, but
nothing is supplied below this prevailing price.

Contingent employment contracts – allows employers to hire people to complete work for them
without offering them employment, such as hiring a freelancer. Since contingent workers are not
considered employees, it means that many of the benefits of employment, such as health benefits, are
not extended to them.

OFW – The Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) is a term used for Filipino migrants and individuals with
Filipino citizenship who have lived and worked outside the Philippines for a limited period of
employment.

Labor unions – It is an organization formed by workers in order to negotiate for better workers' rights,
including better pay, safer working conditions, and better benefits. It chooses representatives to
negotiate on its behalf with the employer. Levels of labor union are: Local Unions, National Unions, and
Federation.

Objectives of labor unions:

1. Increase collective bargaining – is a process by which a labor union deals with management to
negotiate outstanding labor-management issues.
2. Support moves to raise standards of work, including minimum wages –
3. Reduce the supply of labor –

Trade union – is an organization made up of members (a membership-based organization) and its

membership must be made up mainly of workers. It also refers to an organization of workers with a
common set of skills, without regard for their place of work. It is also known as labor union.

Industrial union – is a form of union organizing in which all of the workers in a particular industry
organize in the same union without regard for the skill or trade of each worker.

Company union – is a trade union created and/or controlled by the company itself, which responds to its
own interests instead of those of the workers. In some countries, it is referred to as a ‘yellow’ union.
Companies use this form of union to take control of works councils as a means of eliminating conflicts
and ensuring that measures are approved without opposition.

Returns to investment in education – educational investment, such as higher schooling, increases a

worker’s income. Early studies in the Philippines have shown high rates of returns to education.
Educational investment is crucial for higher living standards and finding productive employment.

Countervailing force – is the balancing of the power of one group by another group. In marketing
terminology, countervailing power refers to the power of the large buyers (trade unions/ stockist etc.) to
create competition between its potential suppliers.

Lobby – any attempt by individuals or private interest groups to influence the decisions of government;
in its original meaning it referred to efforts to influence the votes of legislators, generally in the lobby
outside the legislative chamber. Lobbying in some form is inevitable in any political system.
Closed-shop arrangement – is a contract between an employer and a labor union that stipulates that the
employer will only hire workers from a specific union and those workers can only remain with that
employer while they are a part of the union that the agreement covers.

Strike – means the union members leave their work and picket the premises, by holding demonstrations,
completed with notices of the strike. All these efforts are often made to attract public opinion in their
favor or to close the plant’s operation until their demands are met. It is organized and intentional
stoppage or slowdown of work by employees, intending to make the employer comply with the
demands of the employees. For example, a strike may seek higher pay, better benefits, or safer working
conditions.

Lockout – is the refusal of the employer to grant the employees access to the workplace. This means
that the employees are not able to render their services and, as a result, will not be paid.

Compulsory arbitration – is one of the peaceful methods applied for the settlement of a collective
labour dispute which arises between a trade union and an employer. Compulsory arbitration is a process
in which a third party takes place to function in lieu of the will of the parties to the dispute.

Westen versus Japanese union model –

In the western model of labor unionism, industrial disputes are settled in a confrontational
manner. When collective bargaining fails, strikes, lockouts, and dismissal of striking union members are
some of the weapons used by one side or the other. The Japanese company union is less confrontational
in character, owing in large part to the strong elements of Japanese culture in the employer-employee
relationships within the enterprise.

Trade Unions Congress of the Philippines (TUCP) – is the organization through which national unions
voluntarily settle any jurisdictional process among themselves. It is also the largest “voice” of the labor
sector in the Philippines.
The income that OFWs contributed to the Philippine economy in terms of dollars is amounting to $36.14
billion.

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