Aim: To study the working of Automatic

Street Light

An introduction:

It needs no manual operation for switching ON and OFF. When there

is a need for light it automatically switches ON. When darkness rises to
a certain level then the sensor circuit gets activated and switches ON
and when there is another source of light i.e. daytime, the street light
gets OFF. The sensitiveness of the street light can also be adjusted. In
our project we have used four L.E.D as a symbol of street lamp, but for
high power switching one can connect Relay (electromagnetic switch)
at the output of pin 3 of I.C 555 that will make easy to turn ON/OFF
any electrical appliances that are connected through relay.

Principle:
This circuit uses a popular timer I.C 555. I.C 555 is connected as a
comparator with pin-6 connected with positive rail, the output goes
high(1) when the trigger pin 2 is at lower then 1/3rd level of the supply
voltage. Conversely the output goes low (0) when it is above 1/3rd level.
So a small change in the voltage of pin-2 is enough to change the level of
output (pin-3) from 1 to O and 0 to 1. The output has only two states
high and low and can not remain in any intermediate stage. It is
powered by a 6V battery for portable use. The circuit is economical in
power consumption. Pin 4, 6 and 8 is connected to the positive supply
and pin 1 is grounded. To detect the presence of an object we have used
LDR and a source of light.
LDR is a special type of resistance whose value depends on the
brightness of the light which is falling on it. It has resistance of about 1
mega ohm when in total darkness, but a resistance of only about 5k
ohms when brightness is illuminated. It responds to a large part of the
light spectrum. We have made a potential divider circuit with LDR and
100K variable resistance connected in series. We know that voltage is
directly proportional to conductance so more voltage we will get from
this divider when LDR is getting light and low voltage in darkness.
This divided voltage is given to pin 2 of IC 555. Variable is so adjusted
that it crosses the potential of 1/3rd in brightness and falls below 1/3rd
in darkness. Sensitiveness can be adjusted by this variable resistance. As
soon as LDR gets dark the voltage of pin 2 drops 1/3rd of the supply
voltage and pin 3 gets high and the LED or buzzer which is connected
to the output gets activated.
 Circuit Diagram of Automatic Street Light

Component used:

1. 9v Battery with strip

2. Switch
3. L.D.R (Light Depending Resistance)
4. I.C NE555 with Base
5. L.E.D (Light Emitting Diode) 3 to 6 pieces.
6. Variable Resistance of 47 K
7. P.C.B (Printed Circuit Board of 555 or Vero board
COMPONENTS:

a)Battery :
For 9v power supply we can use 6pcs dry cell or 6F22 9v single piece
battery.

b) Switch:
Any general purpose switch can be used. Switch is used as a circuit
breaker.

c) L.D.R: (Light Depending Resistance)

It is a special type of resistance whose value depends on the brightness
of light which is falling on it. It has resistance of about Omega ohm
when in total darkness, but a resistance of only about 5k ohms when
brightness is illuminated. It responds to a large part of the light
spectrum.

d) L.E.D: (Light Emitting Diode)

A diode is a component that only allows electricity to flow one way. It
can be thought of as a sort of one way street for electrons. Because of
this characteristic, diodes are used to transform or rectify AC voltage
into a DC voltage. Diodes have two connections, an anode and a
cathode. The cathode is the end of the schematic with the point of the
triangle pointing towards a line. In other words, the triangle points
toward that cathode. The anode is, of course, the opposite end. Current
flows from the anode to the cathode.
Light emitting diodes, or LEDs, differ from regular diodes in that when
a voltage is applied, they emit light. This light can be red (most
common), green, yellow, orange, blue (not very common), or infrared.
LEDS are used as indicators, transmitters, etc. Most likely, a LED will
never burn out like a regular lamp will and requires many times less
current. Because LEDs act like regular diodes and will form a short if
connected between + and -, a current limiting resistor is used to prevent
that very thing. LEDs may or may not be drawn with the circle
surrounding them.

e) Variable resistance: (Potentiometer)

Resistors are one of the most common electronic components. A
resistor is a device that limits, or resists current. The current limiting
ability or resistance is measured in ohms, represented by the Greek
symbol Omega. Variable resistors (also called potentiometers or just
"pots") are resistors that have a variable resistance. You adjust the
resistance by turning a shaft. This shaft moves a wiper across the actual
resistor element. By changing the amount of resistor between the wiper
connection and the connection (s) to the resistor element, you can
change the resistance. You will often see the resistance of resistors
written with K (kilo ohms) after the number value. This means that
there are many thousands of ohms. For example, 1K is 1000 ohm,2K is
2000 ohm, 3.3K is 3300 ohm, etc. You may also see the suffix M (mega
ohms). This simply means million. Resistors are also rated by their
power handling capability. This is the amount of heat the resistor can
take before it is destroyed. The power capability is measured in W
(watts) Common wattages for variable resistors are 1/8W, 1/4W, 1/2W
and 1W. Anything of a higher wattage is referred to as a rheostat

f) PCB (Printed Circuit Board):

With the help of P.C.B it is easy to assemble circuits with neat and
clean end products. P.C.B is made of Bakelite with surface pasted with
copper track-layout. For each component's leg, a hole is made, a
Connection pin is passed through the hole and is soldered.
WORKING:

When light falls on the LDR then its resistance decreases which results
in an increase of the voltage at pin 2 of the IC 555, IC 555 has a
comparator inbuilt, which compares between the input voltage from
pin 2 and 1/3rd of the power supply voltage. When input falls below
1/3rd then output is set high otherwise it is set low. Since in
brightness, input voltage rises, we obtain no positive voltage at output
of pin 3 to drive the relay or LED, besides in poor light conditions we
get output to energise.
Precautions:

a) Use a Sensitive LDR. You can test it using a multimeter.

b) I.C should not be heated too much while soldering. excess heat can
destroy it. For safety and easy to replace, use of I.C base is suggested.
While placing the I.C pin no 1 should be made sure at the right hole.
c) Opposite polarity of battery can destroy I.C so please check the
polarity before switching ON the circuit. One should use diode in series
switch for safety since diode allows flowing current in one direction
only.
d) LED glows in forward bias only so incorrect polarity of L.E.D will
not glow. Output voltage of our project is 7.3 volt therefore 4 LED in
series can be easily used without resistance
e) Each component should be soldered neat and clean. We should check
for any dry solder.
f) LDR should be so adjusted that it should not get light from the
streetlight itself.
 Aim: To study working of logic gates
(OR, NOT, NAND, AND, NOR, XOR, XNOR)
by practical realisation circuits and verification using truth
tables.

IMPORTANT TERMS

Boolean Operation:-
We are conversed with the four fundamental mathematical operations
viz. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Whenever
Boolean algebra Binary decision is involved, we use Boolean operation,
A Boolean is a statement giving the relation between the output and
certain input variables. It may be clear that the input variables can only
have two values namely "1" & "O" like "+", "-", "X","/" are used in
ordinary algebra; we use the operators AND, OR and NOT in Boolean
algebra.

Binary Decision:
The decision that results in either 'YES' or 'NO' is called a Binary
Decision. In our daily life we come across situations which demand
logical decisions can be taken by electronic circuits. Thus depending
upon the requirement a lift in a multistoried building can be made to
operate in a number of ways. Similarly traffic lights can be operated to
give red, yellow and green signals in a set pattern.

Binary Algebra: -
George Boole invented Boolean Algebra which deals with logical
statements having only two values: True or False. In this system of
algebra we make use of only two digits, i.e., 0 &1 to represent any
number. Any number greater than 1 can be written by suitable
combinations of digits 0 &1 as shown below:
Decimal Binary system Decimal Binary system
numbers numbers

0 0000 8 1000

1 0001 9 1001

2 0010 10 1010

3 0011 11 1011

4 0100 12 1100

5 0101 13 1101

6 0110 14 1110

7 0111 15 1111
 SYNOPSIS

The experiment deals with designing & working of LOGIC GATES

emphasising especially on OR, NOT & NAND gates along with a little
information on all other logical gates.
The experiment also deals with the practical realisation of the logic
gates.

The behaviour of each Logic gate is summed up in a table known as

'Truth Table' showing all possible input output combinations in terms
of O's & 1's i.e. high or low. These Logic Gates could be devised using
semiconductor devices.

The experiment thus aims at design, development & testing of

'NAND', 'OR' & 'NOT Gates. The experiment was successfully
completed & required output is obtained.
 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL
ELECTRONICS:

DIGITAL CIRCUITS:
Circuits which can make logical decisions based on input conditions are
called digital circuits. It is an electronic circuit in which the current &
voltage signals have only two levels (either on or off). Thus in digital
circuits only two values are represented by 0 & 1 of input & output
voltage.

Such circuits find applications in controlling traffic lights, in digital

computers, electronic counting systems & in telephone switching
systems.

LOGIC GATES:
DEFINITION:
A Gate is simply an electronic circuit which operates on one or more
signals. Depending on the requirement of the application, Logic Gates
can be classified as

● AND Gate:- Multiplication.

● OR Gate :- Addition.

● NOT Gate :- Inverse function.

● NOR Gate :- Inverse of addition product.

● NAND Gate :- Inverse of multiplication product.

● XOR Gate :- Sum of product of inputs.

● XNOR Gate: - Inverse of sum of inputs.

OR GATE
 (K=A+B)

OR Gate is the logic gate which signifies the " addition" operation.
It requires two or more input signals. If any of the input signals is"1"
(high), this gate gives the output"1" i.e. high. This gate is symbolised as
follows:

The Truth Table is as follows :

A B Y(OR)

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

Circuit diagram for Practical Realisation of 'OR' GATE

In the above circuit :
A,B & K= Boolean Expression
D1 & D2= Junction Diodes
Where , K=A+B

As shown in the circuit diagram and truth table the negative terminal
of the battery is grounded corresponds to the O state & the positive to
the 1 state.

When both A & B are connected to 0, no current passes through the

diode and therefore no voltage develops across the resistor & the output
is 0. When A is connected to O & B to 1, the diode D2 is forward
biassed & the current through it is limited by a current limiting
resistance. This current causes a potential drop across resistance (equal
to the input voltage), assuming the diode to be ideal, this gives an
output 1. Similar is the case when A is connected to 1 & B to 0. When
A & B are connected to 1, D1 & D2 conduct & so output is 1.

NOT GATE
(K=A')
No conveys the sense of negativity. It is a logic gate which operates on
only one input to give one output. It produces as output, the negative
of the variable at the input. It is also called the ‘INVERTER’. Its
symbol is

The truth table is as follows :

A K(NOT)

0 1

1 0

Practical Realisation of Not Gate

NOT Gates cannot be realised by diodes & we have to use a transistor .
circuit is as shown above. R1 and R2 are chosen such that when a
voltage is applied at the base, large collector current flows, the voltage at
K drops & the base collector junction becomes forward biassed . when
A is connected to 0, the collector-base is reverse biassed & the base-
emitter is not forward biassed. So the base current is zero & hence the
collector current is zero. The circuit is then said to be in the “cut off
mode” & voltage at y is maximum which corresponds to 1st state.
When A is connected to 1 , the transistor goes to saturation, voltage
drop across R2 is maximum & the output Y is 0.

:- In the above circuit:-

B-transistor; E- Emitter ; C-collector ; A-input;
Y-output ; R1=-resistance ; R2-resistance (box)

AND Gate
(y=A* B)
AND Gate symbolises multiplication operation Boolean Algebra. It can
be practically realised by using diodes. Practical realisation of it is
mentioned in realisation of the NAND Gate.
Its symbol is:-
y= (A*B)

Truth table is as follows:

A B Y (AND)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Practical realisation of AND Gate

In the above circuit:
A&B = Boolean expression
D1 & D2= Junction Diodes
y = Output, where y = A*B

The working of the circuit is just the reverse of the working of AND
gate. The voltage drop procedure is just the same except for the fact
that it results in high voltage only and only if the inputs are high, i.e. 1,
otherwise for all other cases the output of the circuit is low, ie, in the
case of both low inputs or that of the case one low and one high input.
The working of the diode is just the opposite of a gate. The output of
the is a product of the inputs which may have the binary value, either 0
or 1.

Other Logic Gates

Some other logic gates are given with corresponding output if input is
A&B

NAND GATE
NAND Gate is the inverter of AND Gate. AND Gate signifies the
multiplication operation. When NOT Gate is connected with AND
Gate the resultant obtained by AND is inverted & this combination is
called NAND Gate. It also consists of two or more inputs but only one
output

Its symbol is:

The truth table is as follows :

A B C Y (NAND)

0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

NOR GATE
(Y=A+B)
It is an equivalent to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate i.e. all the
outputs of the OR gate are inverted. The Truth Table for NOR gate is
just opposite of OR gate
Its symbol is as follows:

The truth table is as follows:

A B Y(NOR)
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

XOR GATE
K=(AB’+A’B)
The XOR Gate is the abbreviation of Exclusive OR Gate.
Its symbol is as follows:

A
B Y

The truth table is as follows:

A B Y(XOR)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

X-NOR GATE
K=(A’B+AB’)
It is the inverse gate of XOR gate i.e. a combination of XOR gate &
NOT gate.
The symbol of this gate is as follows:-

A
B K

The truth table is as follows:

A B Y(XOR) K(XNOR)
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

SYNOPSIS
The experiment deals with designing & working of LOGIC GATES
emphasising especially on OR, NOT & NAND gates along with a little
information on all other logical gates.
The experiment also deals with the practical realisation of the logic
gates.

The behaviour of each Logic gate is summed up in a table known as

'Truth Table' showing all possible input & output combinations in
terms of O's & 1's i.e. high or low. These Logic Gates could be devised
using semiconductor devices.

The experiment thus aims at design, development & testing of

'NAND', 'OR' & 'NOT Gates. The experiment was successfully
completed & required output is obtained.

Result: All the gates have been successfully realised through truth
table and have been realised practically through circuits

Conclusion
Automatic Street Light uses very few components and is of a great use.
It can be used for illuminating streets and highways. It consumes less
energy. It is very easy and useful circuit for the project work of a
student and can be made easily by anyone

Logic gates are the building blocks of digital circuits in which diodes
and transistors are used to perform switching functions. They form the
heart of digital electronics. In this project, all the logic gates have been
practically realised through truth tables and circuits

TEACHER’S REMARKS
THE ADITYA BIRLA PUBLIC
 SCHOOL

Session 2023-24

TOPIC: Automatic Street Light and Logic Gates

Submitted to: Dr. Sunil Srivastava (H. O. D. PHYSICS)

Submitted by: Nishant Kumar Kushwaha (XII A)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to

Dr. Sunil Srivastava for his invaluable guidance and
encouragement in making this project

I am also grateful to Mrs. Smita Sahi , Principal, The Aditya Birla

Public School, Renukoot, for her kind hospitality and cooperation
during our stay in the department. I am highly indebted to my
parents and colleagues who directly or indirectly provided me with
their intense support and encouragement in my project.

-Nishant Kumar Kushwaha

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “Study of Logic
Gates” and “Automatic Street Light” has been successfully
completed by “Nishant Kumar Kushwaha” of class 12th Science of
“The Aditya Birla Public School “

He duly completed the undertaken project in time with perfection.

His work and conduct was found satisfactory in all respect.

SIGNATURE

Dr. Sunil Srivastava

(H. O. D. PHYSICS)

Index
● To study the working of Automatic Street Light

● To study the basic logic gates(viz. OR, NOT, NAND, AND,

NOR, XOR & XNOR) by their practical realization
circuits and verification using truth tables.