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Water Sampling Methods
&
Analysis
Chem 4240
Paper IV (Applied Analytical Chemistry)
Sampling Flow Chart
Sampling
Planning
Water
Sampling Storage
Preparation
Sampling at
Transportation Analyses
the Sites
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Sampling Methods
If an environmental domain was completely homogeneous, a single
sample would adequately represent it. However, we seldom come across
such a situation, as the environment is highly heterogeneous.
A static system is one which does not change much with time. It must
be sampled so that the sample reflects all the inhomogeneity of the system. If a
field is to be tested for a longlived pesticide in the soil, that could be considered
to be a relatively static system.
A dynamic system is one whose content changes with time. Most
regions which we wish to characterize by taking samples are dynamic to some
extent, and show both spatial and temporal variation. When a river or a waste
effluent stream is to be characterized, its concentration will probably change
over a period of minutes, days, or hours.
Sampling Patterns
Systematic,
Random,
Judgmental (nonstatistical),
Stratified,
Haphazard
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Systematic Sampling
For example,
The area to be analyzed may divided by a grid, and a sample taken at each point of
the grid.
For air pollution studies, an air sample might be taken at fixed intervals of time, say
every three hours.
This approach does not require the prior knowledge of pollutant distribution, is easy
to implement, and should produce unbiased samples. However, systematic sampling
may require more samples to be taken than some of the other methods.
Random Sampling
Typically, the area to be sampled is divided into triangular or rectangular areas with a
grid. Three dimensional grids are used if the variation in depth (or height) also needs
to be studied. The grid blocks are given numbers. A random number generator or a
random number table is then used to select the grid points at which samples should
be collected. If a waste site contains numerous containers of unknown wastes and it
is not possible to analyze every container, a fraction of the containers are selected at
random for analysis.
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Judgmental Sampling
In the lake samples might be collected just around the outfall point. This type of
judgmental sampling introduces a certain degree of bias into the measurement.
For example, it would be wrong to conclude that the average concentration at these
clustered sampling points is a measure of the concentration of the entire lake.
However, it is the point which best characterizes the content of the waste stream. In
many instances, this may be the method of choice, especially when purpose of the
analysis is simply to identify the pollutants present. Judgmental sampling usually
requires fewer samples than statistical methods, but the analyst needs to be aware of
the limitations of the samples collected by this method.
Stratified Sampling
The strata in a stratified scheme do not necessarily have to be obviously different. The
area may be divided into arbitrary subareas. Then a set of these are selected randomly.
Each of these units is then sampled randomly.
For example, a hazardous waste site can be divided into different regions or units.
Then, the soil samples are collected at random within each region or within randomly
selected regions. Stratification can reduce the number of samples required to
characterize an environmental system, in comparison to fully random sampling.
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Haphazard Sampling
A sampling location or sampling time is chosen arbitrarily. This type of sampling is
reasonable for a homogeneous system. Since most environmental systems have
significant spatial or temporal variability, haphazard sampling often leads to biased
results. However, this approach may be used as a preliminary screening technique to
identify a possible problem before a full scale sampling is done.
Continuous Monitoring
An ideal approach for some environmental measurements is the installation of
instrumentation to monitor levels of pollutants continuously. These real time
measurements provide the most detailed information about temporal variability.
If an industrial waste water discharge is monitored continuously, an accidental
discharge will be identified immediately and corrective actions can be implemented
while it is still possible to minimize the damage.
Continuous monitoring is often applied to industrial stack emissions. Combustion
sources, such as incinerators, often have CO monitors installed. A high CO
concentration implies a problem in the combustion process, with incomplete
combustion and high emissions. Corrective action can be triggered immediately.
Continuous monitoring devices are often used in workplaces to give early warnings of
toxic vapor releases.
At present, a limited number of continuous monitoring devices are available. Monitors
are available for gases such as CO, NO2, and SO2 in stack gases, and for monitoring
some metals and total organic carbon in water. These automated methods are often less
expensive than laboratory analyzed samples, because they require minimal operator
attention. However, most of them do not have the sensitivity required for trace level
determinations.
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Types Of Samples
Grab sample: A grab sample is a discrete sample which is collected
at a specific location at a certain point in time. If the environmental
medium varies spatially or temporally, then a single grab sample is not
representative and more samples need to be collected.
Composite sample: A composite sample is made by thoroughly
mixing several grab samples. The whole composite may be measured or
random samples from the composites may be withdrawn and measured.
Sampling Requirements to Conduct
Different Analysis
physical and aggregate samples
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Metals
Inorganics / non-metallic
