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Computer network
A computer network is a set of computers sharing resources located on or provided by network nodes.
Computers use common communication protocols over digital interconnections to communicate with each
other. These interconnections are made up of telecommunication network technologies based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of
network topologies.

The nodes of a computer network can include personal computers, servers, networking hardware, or other
specialized or general-purpose hosts. They are identified by network addresses and may have hostnames.
Hostnames serve as memorable labels for the nodes and are rarely changed after initial assignment.
Network addresses serve for locating and identifying the nodes by communication protocols such as the
Internet Protocol.

Computer networks may be classified by many criteria, including the transmission medium used to carry
signals, bandwidth, communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network size, the topology,
traffic control mechanisms, and organizational intent.

Computer networks support many applications and services, such as access to the World Wide Web,
digital video and audio, shared use of application and storage servers, printers and fax machines, and use
of email and instant messaging applications.

History
Computer networking may be considered a branch of computer science, computer engineering, and
telecommunications, since it relies on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines.
Computer networking was influenced by a wide array of technology developments and historical
milestones.

▪ In the late 1950s, a network of computers was built for the U.S. military Semi-
Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) radar system[1][2][3] using the Bell 101
modem. It was the first commercial modem for computers, released by AT&T
Corporation in 1958. The modem allowed digital data to be transmitted over
regular unconditioned telephone lines at a speed of 110 bits per second (bit/s).
▪ In 1959, Christopher Strachey filed a patent application for time-sharing and
John McCarthy initiated the first project to implement time-sharing of user
programs at MIT.[4][5][6][7] Stratchey passed the concept on to J. C. R. Licklider at
the inaugural UNESCO Information Processing Conference in Paris that year. [8]
McCarthy was instrumental in the creation of three of the earliest time-sharing
systems (the Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, the BBN Time-Sharing
System in 1962, and the Dartmouth Time Sharing System in 1963).
▪ In 1959, Anatoly Kitov proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organisation of the control of
the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of
computing centres.[9] Kitov's proposal was rejected, as later was the 1962 OGAS
economy management network project.[10]

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▪ In 1960, the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business

research environment (SABRE) went online with two connected mainframes.
▪ In 1963, J. C. R. Licklider sent a memorandum to office colleagues discussing the
concept of the "Intergalactic Computer Network", a computer network intended
to allow general communications among computer users.
▪ Throughout the 1960s, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently developed
the concept of packet switching to transfer information between computers over
a network.[11][12][13] Davies pioneered the implementation of the concept. The
NPL network, a local area network at the National Physical Laboratory (United
Kingdom) used a line speed of 768 kbit/s and later high-speed T1 links (1.544
Mbit/s line rate).[14][15][16]
▪ In 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that
implemented computer control in the switching fabric.
▪ In 1969, the first four nodes of the ARPANET were connected using 50 kbit/s
circuits between the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford
Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the
University of Utah.[17] In the early 1970s, Leonard Kleinrock carried out
mathematical work to model the performance of packet-switched networks,
which underpinned the development of the ARPANET.[18][19] His theoretical work
on hierarchical routing in the late 1970s with student Farouk Kamoun remains
critical to the operation of the Internet today.
▪ In 1972, commercial services were first deployed on public data networks in
Europe,[20][21][22] which began using X.25 in the late 1970s and spread across
the globe.[14] The underlying infrastructure was used for expanding TCP/IP
networks in the 1980s.[23]
▪ In 1973, the French CYCLADES network, directed by Louis Pouzin was the first to
make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than this
being a centralized service of the network itself.[24]
▪ In 1973, Peter Kirstein put internetworking into practice at University College
London (UCL), connecting the ARPANET to British academic networks, the first
international heterogeneous computer network.[25][26]
▪ In 1973, Robert Metcalfe wrote a formal memo at Xerox PARC describing
Ethernet, a networking system that was based on the Aloha network, developed
in the 1960s by Norman Abramson and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. In
July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper "Ethernet:
Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks" [27] and collaborated
on several patents received in 1977 and 1978.
▪ In 1974, Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine published the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) specification, RFC 675 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/htm
l/rfc675), coining the term Internet as a shorthand for internetworking.[28]
▪ In 1976, John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a token-passing
network first used to share storage devices.
▪ In 1977, the first long-distance fiber network was deployed by GTE in Long
Beach, California.
▪ In 1977, Xerox Network Systems (XNS) was developed by Robert Metcalfe and
Yogen Dalal at Xerox.[29]
▪ In 1979, Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. [30]
▪ In 1980, Ethernet was upgraded from the original 2.94 Mbit/s protocol to the
10 Mbit/s protocol, which was developed by Ron Crane, Bob Garner, Roy

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Ogus,[31] and Yogen Dalal.[32]

▪ In 1995, the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s
to 100 Mbit/s. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of 1 Gbit/s.
Subsequently, higher speeds of up to 400 Gbit/s were added (as of 2018). The
scaling of Ethernet has been a contributing factor to its continued use. [30]

Use
Computer networks extend interpersonal communications by electronic means with various technologies,
such as email, instant messaging, online chat, voice and video telephone calls, and video conferencing. A
network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may access and use resources
provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer or use of a
shared storage device. A network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving
authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network. Distributed
computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.

Network packet
Most modern computer networks use protocols based on packet-
mode transmission. A network packet is a formatted unit of data
carried by a packet-switched network.

Packets consist of two types of data: control information and user

data (payload). The control information provides data the network
needs to deliver the user data, for example, source and destination
network addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing
information. Typically, control information is found in packet Network Packet
headers and trailers, with payload data in between.

With packets, the bandwidth of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the
network were circuit switched. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets
from other users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link is not
overused. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that
case, the packet is queued and waits until a link is free.

The physical link technologies of packet networks typically limit the size of packets to a certain maximum
transmission unit (MTU). A longer message may be fragmented before it is transferred and once the
packets arrive, they are reassembled to construct the original message.

Network topology
The physical or geographic locations of network nodes and links
generally have relatively little effect on a network, but the topology
of interconnections of a network can significantly affect its
throughput and reliability. With many technologies, such as bus or
star networks, a single failure can cause the network to fail entirely.
In general, the more interconnections there are, the more robust the
network is; but the more expensive it is to install. Therefore, most Common network topologies
network diagrams are arranged by their network topology which is
the map of logical interconnections of network hosts.

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Common topologies are:

▪ Bus network: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium.
This was the layout used in the original Ethernet, called 10BASE5 and 10BASE2.
This is still a common topology on the data link layer, although modern physical
layer variants use point-to-point links instead, forming a star or a tree.
▪ Star network: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the
typical layout found in a small switched Ethernet LAN, where each client
connects to a central network switch, and logically in a wireless LAN, where each
wireless client associates with the central wireless access point.
▪ Ring network: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such
that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by
traversing nodes left- or rightwards. Token ring networks, and the Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), made use of such a topology.
▪ Mesh network: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbors in
such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other.
▪ Fully connected network: each node is connected to every other node in the
network.
▪ Tree network: nodes are arranged hierarchically. This is the natural topology for a
larger Ethernet network with multiple switches and without redundant meshing.

The physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an
example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring, but the physical topology is often a star, because all
neighboring connections can be routed via a central physical location. Physical layout is not completely
irrelevant, however, as common ducting and equipment locations can represent single points of failure due
to issues like fires, power failures and flooding.

Overlay network
An overlay network is a virtual network that is
built on top of another network. Nodes in the
overlay network are connected by virtual or
logical links. Each link corresponds to a path,
perhaps through many physical links, in the A sample overlay network
underlying network. The topology of the overlay
network may (and often does) differ from that of
the underlying one. For example, many peer-to-peer networks are overlay networks. They are organized as
nodes of a virtual system of links that run on top of the Internet.[33]

Overlay networks have been around since the invention of networking when computer systems were
connected over telephone lines using modems before any data network existed.

The most striking example of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Internet itself was initially built
as an overlay on the telephone network.[33] Even today, each Internet node can communicate with
virtually any other through an underlying mesh of sub-networks of wildly different topologies and
technologies. Address resolution and routing are the means that allow mapping of a fully connected IP
overlay network to its underlying network.

Another example of an overlay network is a distributed hash table, which maps keys to nodes in the
network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually
a map) indexed by keys.

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Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through quality of
service guarantees achieve higher-quality streaming media. Previous proposals such as IntServ, DiffServ,
and IP multicast have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all routers in
the network. On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running
the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The overlay network
has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it
can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its
destination.

For example, Akamai Technologies manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content
delivery (a kind of multicast). Academic research includes end system multicast,[34] resilient routing and
quality of service studies, among others.

Network links
The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the
physical medium) used to link devices to form a computer network
include electrical cable, optical fiber, and free space. In the OSI
model, the software to handle the media is defined at layers 1 and 2
— the physical layer and the data link layer.
Network links
A widely adopted family that uses copper and fiber media in local
area network (LAN) technology are collectively known as
Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over
Ethernet are defined by IEEE 802.3. Wireless LAN standards use radio waves, others use infrared signals
as a transmission medium. Power line communication uses a building's power cabling to transmit data.

Wired
The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking.

▪ Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems,

office buildings, and other work-sites for local area
networks. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits
per second to more than 500 million bits per second.
▪ ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial
cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed
local area network.
▪ Twisted pair cabling is used for wired Ethernet and other
standards. It typically consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling
that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. Fiber optic cables are
The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce used to transmit light
crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission from one
speed ranges from 2 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s. Twisted pair computer/network
cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) node to another.
and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in
several category ratings, designed for use in various
scenarios.

▪ An optical fiber is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data via
lasers and optical amplifiers. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires
are very low transmission loss and immunity to electrical interference. Using

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dense wave division multiplexing, optical fibers

can simultaneously carry multiple streams of data
on different wavelengths of light, which greatly
increases the rate that data can be sent to up to
trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be
used for long runs of cable carrying very high
data rates, and are used for undersea
communications cables to interconnect
continents. There are two basic types of fiber 2007 map showing submarine
optics, single-mode optical fiber (SMF) and multi- optical fiber telecommunication
mode optical fiber (MMF). Single-mode fiber has cables around the world
the advantage of being able to sustain a coherent
signal for dozens or even a hundred kilometers.
Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate but is limited to a few hundred or even
only a few dozens of meters, depending on the data rate and cable grade. [35]

Wireless
Network connections can be established wirelessly using radio or
other electromagnetic means of communication.

▪ Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave

communication uses Earth-based transmitters
and receivers resembling satellite dishes.
Terrestrial microwaves are in the low gigahertz
range, which limits all communications to line-of-
sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 40
Computers are very often
miles (64 km) apart. connected to networks using
▪ Communications satellites – Satellites also wireless links.
communicate via microwave. The satellites are
stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous
orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems
are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.
▪ Cellular networks use several radio communications technologies. The systems
divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area is served by
a low-power transceiver.
▪ Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless LANs use a high-frequency
radio technology similar to digital cellular. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum
technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area.
IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave
technology known as Wi-Fi.
▪ Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for
communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits
the physical positioning of communicating devices.
▪ Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves and optical
means, the Interplanetary Internet.[36]
▪ IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool's Request for Comments, issued
as RFC 1149 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1149). It was implemented
in real life in 2001.[37]

The last two cases have a large round-trip delay time, which gives slow two-way communication but does

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not prevent sending large amounts of information (they can have high throughput).

Network nodes
Apart from any physical transmission media, networks are built from additional basic system building
blocks, such as network interface controllers, repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, modems, and
firewalls. Any particular piece of equipment will frequently contain multiple building blocks and so may
perform multiple functions.

Network interfaces
A network interface controller (NIC) is computer hardware that
connects the computer to the network media and has the ability to
process low-level network information. For example, the NIC may
have a connector for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless
transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry.

In Ethernet networks, each NIC has a unique Media Access

Control (MAC) address—usually stored in the controller's
permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network An ATM network interface in
devices, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers the form of an accessory card.
(IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The A lot of network interfaces are
size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets. The three most built-in.
significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers.
These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely
assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce.

Repeaters and hubs

A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise and
regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other side of obstruction so that
the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted-pair Ethernet configurations,
repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens
or even hundreds of kilometers apart.

Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model but still require a small amount of time to
regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay that affects network performance and may affect
proper function. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters used in a network,
e.g., the Ethernet 5-4-3 rule.

An Ethernet repeater with multiple ports is known as an Ethernet hub. In addition to reconditioning and
distributing network signals, a repeater hub assists with collision detection and fault isolation for the
network. Hubs and repeaters in LANs have been largely obsoleted by modern network switches.

Bridges and switches

Network bridges and network switches are distinct from a hub in that they only forward frames to the
ports involved in the communication whereas a hub forwards to all ports.[38] Bridges only have two ports
but a switch can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating
a star topology for devices, and for cascading additional switches.

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Bridges and switches operate at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model and bridge traffic between
two or more network segments to form a single local network. Both are devices that forward frames of
data between ports based on the destination MAC address in each frame.[39] They learn the association of
physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames and only forward
the frame when necessary. If an unknown destination MAC is targeted, the device broadcasts the request
to all ports except the source, and discovers the location from the reply.

Bridges and switches divide the network's collision domain but maintain a single broadcast domain.
Network segmentation through bridging and switching helps break down a large, congested network into
an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks.

Routers
A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets
between networks by processing the addressing or routing
information included in the packet. The routing information is
often processed in conjunction with the routing table. A router uses
its routing table to determine where to forward packets and does
not require broadcasting packets which is inefficient for very big
networks.
A typical home or small office
Modems router showing the ADSL
telephone line and Ethernet
Modems (modulator-demodulator) are used to connect network network cable connections
nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or
for wireless. To do this one or more carrier signals are modulated
by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be tailored to give the required properties for
transmission. Early modems modulated audio signals sent over a standard voice telephone line. Modems
are still commonly used for telephone lines, using a digital subscriber line technology and cable television
systems using DOCSIS technology.

Firewalls
A firewall is a network device or software for controlling network
security and access rules. Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks and potentially insecure external
networks such as the Internet. Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in
network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in
Firewalls
cyber attacks.

Communication protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over a network. Communication
protocols have various characteristics. They may be connection-oriented or connectionless, they may use
circuit mode or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing.

In a protocol stack, often constructed per the OSI model, communications functions are divided up into
protocol layers, where each layer leverages the services of the layer below it until the lowest layer controls

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the hardware that sends information across the media. The use
of protocol layering is ubiquitous across the field of computer
networking. An important example of a protocol stack is
HTTP (the World Wide Web protocol) running over TCP over
IP (the Internet protocols) over IEEE 802.11 (the Wi-Fi
protocol). This stack is used between the wireless router and
the home user's personal computer when the user is surfing
the web.
The TCP/IP model and its relation to
There are many communication protocols, a few of which are
common protocols used at different
described below.
layers of the model

Common protocols

Internet protocol suite

The Internet protocol suite, also called TCP/IP, is the

foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less
and connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable
network traversed by datagram transmission using Internet
protocol (IP). At its core, the protocol suite defines the
addressing, identification, and routing specifications for
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next
Message flows between two devices
generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing
(A-B) at the four layers of the TCP/IP
capability. The Internet protocol suite is the defining set of
model in the presence of a router
protocols for the Internet.[40] (R). Red flows are effective
communication paths, black paths
are across the actual network links.
IEEE 802

IEEE 802 is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local

area networks and metropolitan area networks. The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse
set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at layers
1 and 2 of the OSI model.

For example, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning
Tree Protocol. IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Access
Control protocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs[41] (but it is
also found in WLANs[42]) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a "wireless access
key".

Ethernet

Ethernet is a family of technologies used in wired LANs. It is described by a set of standards together
called IEEE 802.3 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably
the most well-known member of the IEEE 802 protocol family for home users today. IEEE 802.11 shares
many properties with wired Ethernet.

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SONET/SDH

Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous

Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols
that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using
lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode
communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to
support circuit-switched digital telephony. However, due to its SONET & SDH
protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH
also was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) frames.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for

telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous time-division
multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This
differs from other protocols such as the Internet protocol suite or
Ethernet that use variable-sized packets or frames. ATM has
similarities with both circuit and packet switched networking. This
makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both
traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, low-latency
content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented
model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two Asynchronous Transfer Mode
endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.

ATM still plays a role in the last mile, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and
the home user.[43]

Cellular standards

There are a number of different digital cellular standards, including: Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution-Data
Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital
AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).[44]

Routing
Routing is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many
kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks.

In packet-switched networks, routing protocols direct packet forwarding through intermediate nodes.
Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or
switches. General-purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though because they
lack specialized hardware, may offer limited performance. The routing process directs forwarding on the
basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Most
routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of
multiple alternative paths.

Routing can be contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that
similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table

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entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large

networks, the structured addressing used by routers outperforms
unstructured addressing used by bridging. Structured IP addresses
are used on the Internet. Unstructured MAC addresses are used for
bridging on Ethernet and similar local area networks.

Geographic scale
Networks may be characterized by many properties or features,
such as physical capacity, organizational purpose, user
authorization, access rights, and others. Another distinct
classification method is that of the physical extent or geographic
Routing calculates good paths
scale.
through a network for
information to take. For
example, from node 1 to node
Nanoscale network 6 the best routes are likely to
be 1-8-7-6, 1-8-10-6 or
A nanoscale network has key components implemented at the
1-9-10-6, as these are the
nanoscale, including message carriers, and leverages physical
shortest routes.
principles that differ from macroscale communication
mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to
very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also tends to operate in
environments that would be too harsh for other communication techniques.[45]

Personal area network

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computers and
different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in
a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and video game
consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10
meters.[46] A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and FireWire connections while technologies
such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN.

Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical
area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Wired LANs are
most commonly based on Ethernet technology. Other networking technologies such as ITU-T G.hn also
provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and
power lines.[47]

A LAN can be connected to a wide area network (WAN) using a router. The defining characteristics of a
LAN, in contrast to a WAN, include higher data transfer rates, limited geographic range, and lack of
reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies
operate at data transfer rates up to and in excess of 100 Gbit/s,[48] standardized by IEEE in 2010.

Home area network

A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices
typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as

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printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a
broadband service through a cable Internet access or digital subscriber line (DSL) provider.

Storage area network

A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block-level
data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and
optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the storage appears as locally attached devices to the
operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible
through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early
2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium-sized business
environments.

Campus area network

A campus area network (CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical
area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, Cat5 cabling,
etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant or owner (an enterprise, university, government,
etc.).

For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings to connect
academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls.

Backbone network
A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of
information between different LANs or subnetworks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within
the same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area. When designing a network backbone,
network performance and network congestion are critical factors to take into account. Normally, the
backbone network's capacity is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it.

For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are
located around the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the
network backbone. Another example of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is a massive,
global system of fiber-optic cable and optical networking that carry the bulk of data between wide area
networks (WANs), metro, regional, national and transoceanic networks.

Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that interconnects users with computer
resources in a geographic region of the size of a metropolitan area.

Wide area network

A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city,
country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines
many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and airwaves. A WAN often makes use of
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies
generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and

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the network layer.

Enterprise private network

An enterprise private network is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office
locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they can share computer resources.

Virtual private network

A virtual private network (VPN) is an overlay network in which some of the links between nodes are
carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by
physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the
larger network. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a
VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for
example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with
strong security features.

VPN may have best-effort performance or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the
VPN customer and the VPN service provider.

Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile users across an arbitrary number of
wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off
communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession
of terrestrial wireless LANs.[49]

Organizational scope
Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use
a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has
no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity.

Intranet
An intranet is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity. An intranet
typically uses the Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications.
The administrative entity limits the use of the intranet to its authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet
is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least one web server to provide
users with organizational information.

Extranet
An extranet is a network that is under the administrative control of a single organization but supports a
limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an organization may provide access to
some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers. These other entities are
not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. The network connection to an extranet is often, but not
always, implemented via WAN technology.

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Internet
An internetwork is the connection of multiple different types of
computer networks to form a single computer network using
higher-layer network protocols and connecting them together using
routers.

The Internet is the largest example of internetwork. It is a global

system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate,
public, and private computer networks. It is based on the
networking technologies of the Internet protocol suite. It is the
successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States
Department of Defense. The Internet utilizes copper
Partial map of the Internet
communications and an optical networking backbone to enable the
based on 2005 data.[50] Each
World Wide Web (WWW), the Internet of things, video transfer,
line is drawn between two
and a broad range of information services.
nodes, representing two IP
addresses. The length of the
Participants on the Internet use a diverse array of methods of
lines indicates the delay
several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols
between those two nodes.
compatible with the Internet protocol suite and the IP addressing
system administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability
of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh
of transmission paths.

Darknet
A darknet is an overlay network, typically running on the Internet, that is only accessible through
specialized software. It is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted
peers — sometimes called friends (F2F)[51] — using non-standard protocols and ports.

Darknets are distinct from other distributed peer-to-peer networks as sharing is anonymous (that is, IP
addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fear of governmental
or corporate interference.[52]

Network service
Network services are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to provide some functionality
for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate.

The World Wide Web, E-mail,[53] printing and network file sharing are examples of well-known network
services. Network services such as Domain Name System (DNS) give names for IP and MAC addresses
(people remember names like nm.lan better than numbers like 210.121.67.18),[54] and Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address.[55]

Services are usually based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of messages
between clients and servers of that network service.

Network performance

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Bandwidth
Bandwidth in bit/s may refer to consumed bandwidth, corresponding to achieved throughput or goodput,
i.e., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The throughput is affected
by processes such as bandwidth shaping, bandwidth management, bandwidth throttling, bandwidth cap
and bandwidth allocation (using, for example, bandwidth allocation protocol and dynamic bandwidth
allocation).

Network delay
Network delay is a design and performance characteristic of a telecommunications network. It specifies
the latency for a bit of data to travel across the network from one communication endpoint to another.
Delay may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific pair of communicating endpoints.
Engineers usually report both the maximum and average delay, and they divide the delay into several
components, the sum of which is the total delay:

▪ Processing delay – time it takes a router to process the packet header

▪ Queuing delay – time the packet spends in routing queues
▪ Transmission delay – time it takes to push the packet's bits onto the link
▪ Propagation delay – time for a signal to propagate through the media

A certain minimum level of delay is experienced by signals due to the time it takes to transmit a packet
serially through a link. This delay is extended by more variable levels of delay due to network congestion.
IP network delays can range from less than a microsecond to several hundred milliseconds.

Quality of service
Depending on the installation requirements, network performance is usually measured by the quality of
service of a telecommunications product. The parameters that affect this typically can include throughput,
jitter, bit error rate and latency.

The following list gives examples of network performance measures for a circuit-switched network and
one type of packet-switched network, viz. ATM:

▪ Circuit-switched networks: In circuit switched networks, network performance is

synonymous with the grade of service. The number of rejected calls is a measure
of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads. [56] Other types
of performance measures can include the level of noise and echo.
▪ ATM: In an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network, performance can be
measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time,
stability, technology, modulation technique, and modem enhancements. [57]

There are many ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and
design. Performance can also be modeled instead of measured. For example, state transition diagrams are
often used to model queuing performance in a circuit-switched network. The network planner uses these
diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally
designed.[58]

Network congestion

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Network congestion occurs when a link or node is subjected to a greater data load than it is rated for,
resulting in a deterioration of its quality of service. When networks are congested and queues become too
full, packets have to be discarded, and so networks rely on re-transmission. Typical effects of congestion
include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of new connections. A consequence of these latter two
is that incremental increases in offered load lead either to only a small increase in the network throughput
or to a reduction in network throughput.

Network protocols that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems
in a state of network congestion—even after the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally
induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can exhibit two stable states under the
same level of load. The stable state with low throughput is known as congestive collapse.

Modern networks use congestion control, congestion avoidance and traffic control techniques to try to
avoid congestion collapse (i.e. endpoints typically slow down or sometimes even stop transmission
entirely when the network is congested). These techniques include: exponential backoff in protocols such
as 802.11's CSMA/CA and the original Ethernet, window reduction in TCP, and fair queueing in devices
such as routers. Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing
priority schemes so that some packets are transmitted with higher priority than others. Priority schemes
do not solve network congestion by themselves, but they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for
some services. An example of this is 802.1p. A third method to avoid network congestion is the explicit
allocation of network resources to specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free
Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed (up to
1 Gbit/s) Local area networking over existing home wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables).

For the Internet, RFC 2914 (https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2914) addresses the subject of

congestion control in detail.

Network resilience
Network resilience is "the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of
faults and challenges to normal operation."[59]

Security
Computer networks are also used by security hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer worms on
devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the network via a denial-of-
service attack.

Network security
Network Security consists of provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent and
monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network-
accessible resources.[60] Network security is the authorization of access to data in a network, which is
controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them access to
information and programs within their authority. Network security is used on a variety of computer
networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses,
government agencies, and individuals.

Network surveillance

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Network surveillance is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the
Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of
governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may
or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency.

Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or
could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity.

Surveillance is very useful to governments and law enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and
monitor threats, and prevent/investigate criminal activity. With the advent of programs such as the Total
Information Awareness program, technologies such as high-speed surveillance computers and biometrics
software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now
possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens.[61]

However, many civil rights and privacy groups—such as Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic
Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union—have expressed concern that increasing
surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance society, with limited political and personal
freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T.[61][62] The
hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers
"draconian surveillance".[63][64]

End to end encryption

End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data
traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party encrypting data so only the
intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-end encryption prevents
intermediaries, such as Internet service providers or application service providers, from discovering or
tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both confidentiality and
integrity.

Examples of end-to-end encryption include HTTPS for web traffic, PGP for email, OTR for instant
messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio.

Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can
only guarantee the protection of communications between clients and servers, not between the
communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger,
Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example, LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described
themselves as offering "end-to-end" encryption when they do not. Some systems that normally offer end-
to-end encryption have turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of the encryption key
between the communicating parties, for example Skype or Hushmail.

The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the endpoints of the
communication themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number
generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to things such as the
identities of the endpoints and the times and quantities of messages that are sent.

SSL/TLS
The introduction and rapid growth of e-commerce on the World Wide Web in the mid-1990s made it
obvious that some form of authentication and encryption was needed. Netscape took the first shot at a new
standard. At the time, the dominant web browser was Netscape Navigator. Netscape created a standard
called secure socket layer (SSL). SSL requires a server with a certificate. When a client requests access to

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an SSL-secured server, the server sends a copy of the certificate to the client. The SSL client checks this
certificate (all web browsers come with an exhaustive list of CA root certificates preloaded), and if the
certificate checks out, the server is authenticated and the client negotiates a symmetric-key cipher for use
in the session. The session is now in a very secure encrypted tunnel between the SSL server and the SSL
client.[35]

Views of networks
Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share
printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic
location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to keep that network
up and running. A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area and should be
thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate
via peer-to-peer technologies.

Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical
perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers,
bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks,
called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a
common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a
common subnet, using VLAN technology.

Both users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics of a
network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of interest under
private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g.
employees).[65] Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited
connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside
of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers).[65]

Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by
Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and
aggregates of subnets, that share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the
reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable
names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the
Domain Name System (DNS).

Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-
to-consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the
communications are apt to be protected by some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets
and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users
and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology.

Journals and newsletters

▪ Open Computer Science (https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/comp) (open access
journal)

See also
▪ Comparison of network diagram software
▪ Cyberspace

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▪ History of the Internet

▪ Information Age
▪ Information revolution
▪ ISO/IEC 11801 – International standard for electrical and optical cables
▪ Minimum-Pairs Protocol
▪ Network simulation
▪ Network planning and design
▪ Network traffic control
▪ Cloud
▪ Network on a chip

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Further reading
▪ Shelly, Gary, et al. "Discovering Computers" 2003 Edition.
▪ Wendell Odom, Rus Healy, Denise Donohue. (2010) CCIE Routing and Switching.
Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Press
▪ Kurose James F and Keith W. Ross: Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach
Featuring the Internet, Pearson Education 2005.
▪ William Stallings, Computer Networking with Internet Protocols and Technology,
Pearson Education 2004.
▪ Important publications in computer networks
▪ Network Communication Architecture and Protocols: OSI Network Architecture 7
Layers Model
▪ Dimitri Bertsekas, and Robert Gallager, "Data Networks," Prentice Hall, 1992.

External links
▪ Networking (https://curlie.org/Computers/Software/Networking/) at Curlie
▪ IEEE Ethernet manufacturer information (http://standards-oui.ieee.org/oui/oui.tx
t)
▪ A computer networking acronym guide (https://www.ciena.com/insights/acronym
-guide/)

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