BUILDING UTILITIES 3

Lecture 1 – Waves and Sound Waves

VIBRATIONAL MOTION PRINCIPLES

resting position forced vibration

STEPS TO A VIBRATION
Disturbance caused by a force
Restoring force brings it back to its original position
Inertia keeps it moving past its original position
Friction slows it and stops it- damping.
 BUT WHAT IS A WAVE?
A wave can be described as a DISTURBANCE
that travels through a MEDIUM, transporting energy
from ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER location. Each
individual particle of the medium is temporarily displaced
and then returns to its original equilibrium positioned.
A single disturbance moving through a medium from
one location to another location is called a pulse.
The repeating and periodic disturbance that moves
through a medium from one location to another is
referred to as a wave.
CATEGORIES OF WAVES
ON THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
– A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the
medium move in a direction perpendicular to the direction
that the wave moves.
– A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of the
medium move in a direction parallel to the direction that the
wave moves.
– A surface wave is a wave in which particles of the medium
undergo a circular motion. Surface waves are neither
longitudinal nor transverse.
ON THE ABILITY TO TRANSMIT ENERGY THROUGH A
VACUUM
– An electromagnetic wave is a wave that is capable of
transmitting its energy through a vacuum (i.e., empty
space); is produced by the vibration of charged particles.
– A mechanical wave is a wave that is not capable of
transmitting its energy through a vacuum; requires a
medium in order to transport their energy from one location
to another.
THE PROPERTIES OF A WAVE
A crest (or a peak) is a high
point on a wave, and a
trough is a low point on a
wave.
The amplitude of a wave
refers to the maximum
amount of displacement of a
particle on the medium from
its rest position. In a sense,
the amplitude is the distance
from rest to crest. This
distance is abbreviated with
the Greek letter λ (lambda).
The wavelength of a wave is
simply the length of one such
complete spatial repetition,
also known as wave cycle.
For a transverse wave, the
wavelength can be measured
as the distance from crest to
crest or from trough to
trough.
– In fact, the wavelength of a
wave can be measured as the
distance from a point on a
wave to the corresponding
point on the next cycle of the
wave.
A region where the coils are
pressed together in a small
amount of space is known as
compression.
– A compression is a point on a
medium through which a
longitudinal wave is traveling
that has the maximum density.
A region where the coils are
spread apart, thus maximizing
the distance between coils, is
known as rarefaction.
– A rarefaction is a point on a
medium through which a
longitudinal wave is traveling
that has the minimum density.
The frequency of a wave
refers to how often the
particles of the medium vibrate
when a wave passes through
the medium.
– Given this definition, it is
reasonable that the quantity
frequency would have units of
cycles/second, waves/second,
vibrations/second, or
something/second.
– Another unit for frequency is
the Hertz (abbreviated Hz)
where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1
cycle/second.
The period of a wave is the
time for a particle on a medium
to make one complete
vibrational cycle.
– Period, being a time, is
measured in units of time such
as seconds, hours, days or
years.
The time necessary for one
complete wavelength to pass
a given point is the period,
abbreviated T.
The number of wavelengths
that pass a given point in
one second is the frequency,
abbreviated f.
Combining this information with
the equation for speed
(speed=distance/time), it can be Speed = Wavelength * Frequency
said that the speed of a wave is
also the wavelength/period.

v=λ*f
 BEHAVIOR OF WAVES
As a wave travels through a
medium, it will often reach the
end of the medium and
encounter an obstacle or
perhaps another medium
through which it could travel.
The interface of the two media
is referred to as the boundary
and the behavior of a wave at
that boundary is described as
its boundary behavior.
Reflection, refraction and diffraction are all boundary
behaviors of waves associated with the bending of the
path of a wave.
Reflection occurs when there is a bouncing off of a barrier.
– Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection.
– Reflection of waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of
the waves at a focal point.
Refraction is the change in direction of waves that occurs when
waves travel from one medium to another.
– Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change.
Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles and
openings.
– The amount of diffraction increases with increasing wavelength.
NATURE OF A SOUND WAVE
Sound is a Mechanical Wave
Sound as a Longitudinal Wave
Sound is a Pressure Wave
SOUND PROPERTIES AND THEIR
PERCEPTION
A sound wave, which is not
impeded by another object,
propagates (or spreads) out
from the source as a sphere.
If the sound source is oscillating
at a constant rate, it generates a
pure tone and the source can be
described in terms of a single
frequency, or rate of oscillation.
This frequency is usually
described in terms of units of
cycles (of oscillations) per
second, also labeled as hertz
(Hz).
The frequency of sound is thus
described as the number of
times that a complete cycle of
compression and rarefaction of
air occurs in a given unit of time.
Some sound waves
are periodic, in that the
change from equilibrium
(average atmospheric
pressure) to maximum
compression to maximum
rarefaction back to equilibrium
is repetitive. The 'round trip'
back to the starting point just
described is called a cycle.
The amount of time a single
cycle takes is called a period.
FREQUENCY RANGE OF AUDIBLE SOUND
The ability of humans to
perceive pitch is associated
with the frequency of the
sound wave that impinges
upon the ear.
The sensation of a frequency
is commonly referred to as
the pitch of a sound.
– A high pitch sound
corresponds to a high
frequency sound wave and a
low pitch sound corresponds
to a low frequency sound
wave.
When two sounds with a
frequency difference of greater
than 7 Hz are played
simultaneously, most people
detect the presence of a
complex wave pattern resulting
from the interference and
superposition of the two
sound waves.
Wave interference is the phenomenon
that occurs when two waves meet while
traveling along the same medium.
The principle of superposition is stated as
follows: “When two waves interfere, the
resulting displacement of the medium at
any location is the algebraic sum of the
displacements of the individual waves at
that same location.”
SOUND INTENSITY AND DISTANCE
The amount of energy that is
transported past a given area of
the medium per unit of time is
known as the intensity of the
sound wave.
Intensity is the energy/time/area.
Typical units for expressing the
intensity of a sound wave are
Watts/meter2.
INVERSE SQUARE RELATIONSHIP
The mathematical relationship
between intensity and distance
is sometimes referred to as an
inverse square law.
The intensity varies
inversely with the square of
the distance from the
source. Distance Intensity
The surface area A (in 1m 160 units
meters squared) of a
sphere having radius r (in 2m 40 units

meters) is given by: 3m 17.8 units

A = (4 pi) r 2
4m 10 units
THRESHOLD OF HEARING & DECIBEL SCALE
The faintest sound that the typical human ear can detect has an intensity
of 1*10-12 W/m2.
– This corresponds to a sound that will displace particles of air by a mere one-
billionth of a centimeter.
This faintest sound that a human ear can detect is known as the
threshold of hearing (TOH).
The most intense sound that the ear can safely detect without suffering
any physical damage is more than one billion times more intense than
the threshold of hearing.
The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel scale.
The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound level of 0 decibels
(abbreviated 0 dB).
‒ This sound corresponds to an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2.
The intensity of a sound is a very objective quantity; loudness of a
sound is more of a subjective response that varies with a number of
factors.
 # of Times
Source Intensity Intensity Level Greater Than
TOH
Threshold of Hearing (TOH) 1*10-12 W/m2 0 dB 100
Rustling Leaves 1*10-11 W/m2 10 dB 101
Whisper 1*10-10 W/m2 20 dB 102
Normal Conversation 1*10-6 W/m2 60 dB 106
Busy Street Traffic 1*10-5 W/m2 70 dB 107
Vacuum Cleaner 1*10-4 W/m2 80 dB 108
Large Orchestra 6.3*10-3 W/m2 98 dB 109.8
Walkman at Maximum Level 1*10-2 W/m2 100 dB 1010
Front Rows of Rock Concert 1*10-1 W/m2 110 dB 1011
Threshold of Pain 1*101 W/m2 130 dB 1013
Military Jet Takeoff 1*102 W/m2 140 dB 1014
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 1*104W/m2 160 dB 1016
THE SPEED OF SOUND
Two essential types of properties that affect wave speed -
inertial properties and elastic properties.
– Elastic properties are those properties related to the tendency of a
material to maintain its shape and not deform whenever a force or
stress is applied to it.
– Inertial properties are those properties related to the material's
tendency to be sluggish to changes in its state of motion.
The speed of a sound wave in air depends upon the properties
of the air, mostly the temperature, and to a lesser degree, the
humidity.
At normal atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 20O
degrees Celsius, a sound wave will travel at approximately
v = 343 m/s.
SPEED OF SOUND PROPAGATION in
VARIOUS MEDIA
Speed
Medium
Meters/second Feet/second

Air 344 1130

Water 1410 4625

Wood 3300 10825

Brick 3600 11800

Concrete 3700 12100

Steel 4900 16000

Glass 5000 16400

Aluminum 5800 19000

BEHAVIOR OF SOUND WAVES
The interference of waves causes the
medium to take on a shape that results
from the net effect of the two individual
waves upon the particles of the medium.
‐ If two upward displaced pulses with the
same shape meet up with one another
along a medium, the medium will take
on the shape of an upward displaced
pulse with twice the amplitude of the
two interfering pulses. This type of
interference is known as constructive
interference.
‐ If an upward displaced pulse and a
downward displaced pulse having the
same shape meet up with one another
along a medium, the two pulses will
cancel each other's effect upon the
displacement of the medium and the
medium will assume the equilibrium
position. This type of interference is
known as destructive interference.
The interference of sound
waves causes the particles of Locations along the medium where
the medium to behave in a constructive interference continually occurs
are known as anti-nodes.
manner that reflects the net
effect of the two individual
waves upon the particles.
If a compression (high pressure) of one
wave meets up with a compression (high
pressure) of a second wave at the same
location in the medium, then the net effect
is that that particular location will
experience an even greater pressure.
This is a form of constructive
interference. Locations along the medium where
If two sound waves interfere at a given destructive interference continually occurs
location in such a way that the are known as nodes.
compression of one wave meets up with
the rarefaction of a second wave,
destructive interference results.
Destructive interference of sound Interference of sound waves has
waves becomes an important issue widespread applications in the world of
music.
in the design of concert halls and
auditoriums.
One means of reducing the
severity of destructive
interference is by the design of
walls, ceilings, and baffles that
serve to absorb sound rather
than reflect it.
Beats are the periodic and repeating fluctuations heard in the
intensity of a sound when two sound waves of very similar
frequencies interfere with one another.
A beat pattern is characterized by a wave whose amplitude is changing
at a regular rate.
The beat frequency refers to the rate at which the volume is heard to be
oscillating from high to low volume.
The beat frequency is always equal to the difference in frequency of the
two notes that interfere to produce the beats.
THE DOPPLER EFFECT and SHOCK WAVES
The Doppler effect is a phenomenon observed whenever the source
of waves is moving with respect to an observer.
The Doppler effect is described as the effect produced by a moving source of
waves in which there is an apparent upward shift in frequency for the observer
and the source are approaching and an apparent downward shift in frequency
when the observer and the source is receding.
The Doppler effect can be observed to occur with all types of waves - most
notably water waves, sound waves, and light waves.
The Doppler effect is observed because the distance between the source of
sound and the observer is changing.
‐ If the source and the observer are approaching, then the distance is decreasing
and if the source and the observer are receding, then the distance is increasing.
‐ The source of sound always emits the same frequency. Therefore, for the same
period of time, the same number of waves must fit between the source and the
observer. if the distance is large, then the waves can be spread apart; but if the
distance is small, the waves must be compressed into the smaller distance.
SHOCK WAVES and SONIC BOOMS
If a moving source of sound moves at
the same speed as sound, then the
source will always be at the leading
edge of the waves that it produces.
This phenomenon is known as a
shock wave.
If a moving source of sound moves
faster than sound, the source will
always be ahead of the waves that it
produces. A sonic boom occurs as
the result of the piling up of
compressional wavefronts along the
conical edge of the wave pattern.
These compressional wavefronts pile
up and interfere to produce a very
high-pressure zone.
REFLECTION OF SOUND
Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a
barrier. The reflection of sound follows the law "angle of incidence equals
angle of reflection", sometimes called the law of reflection. The same
behavior is observed with light and other waves.
The reflected waves can interfere with incident waves, producing patterns of
constructive and destructive interference. Since the reflected wave and the
incident wave add to each other while moving in opposite directions, the
appearance of propagation is lost and the resulting vibration can lead to
resonances called standing waves in rooms.
It also means that the sound intensity near a hard surface is enhanced because
the reflected wave adds to the incident wave, giving a pressure amplitude that
is twice as great in a thin "pressure zone" near the surface.
FORMATION of STANDING WAVES
A standing wave pattern is a vibrational pattern created within
a medium when the vibrational frequency of the source causes
reflected waves from one end of the medium to interfere with
incident waves from the source.
‐ This interference occurs in such a manner that specific points along
the medium appear to be standing still.
Such patterns are only created within the medium at specific
frequencies of vibration.
‐ These frequencies are known as harmonic frequencies, or merely
harmonics.
EXAMPLES OF REFLECTION
PLANE WAVE REFLECTION "The angle of incidence
is equal to the angle
of reflection" is one way
of stating the law of
reflection for light in a
plane mirror.

Sound obeys the same law

of reflection .
POINT SOURCE OF SOUND REFLECTING
FROM A PLANE SURFACE
When sound waves from a point
source strike a plane wall, they
produce reflected spherical
wavefronts as if there were an
"image" of the sound source at the
same distance on the other side of
the wall.

If something obstructs the direct

sound from the source from
reaching your ear, then it may
sound as if the entire sound is
coming from the position of the
"image" behind the wall. This kind
of sound imaging follows the same
law of reflection as your image in a
plane mirror.
REFLECTION FROM CONCAVE SURFACE
Any concave surface will tend
to focus the sound waves
which reflect from it. This is
generally undesirable
in auditorium
acoustics because it produces
a "hot spot" and takes sound
energy away from surrounding
areas.
Even dispersion of sound is
desirable in auditorium design,
and a surface which spreads
sound is preferable to one
which focuses it.
REFRACTION OF SOUND
Refraction is the bending of waves when they enter a medium where
their speed is different. Refraction is not so important a phenomenon
with sound as it is with light, but bending of sound waves does occur
and is an interesting phenomena in sound.
Direction of sound is altered when sound waves encounter changes
in medium conditions that are not extreme enough to cause reflection,
but are enough to change the speed of sound.
Sound refracts through outdoor areas where temperature changes.
Because the speed of sound is faster in warmer air, sound waves
bend when they encounter cooler temperatures.
Similar sound bending occurs with wind currents, with sound waves
traveling farther than expected when traveling with the wind, and
generating shadow zones when sound waves are traveling against
the wind.
If the air above the earth is warmer than
that at the surface, sound will be bent
back downward toward the surface by
refraction.
Sound propagates in all directions from a point source. Normally,
only that which is initially directed toward the listener can be
heard, but refraction can bend sound downward.
Normally, only the direct sound is received. But refraction can add
some additional sound, effectively amplifying the sound. Natural
amplifiers can occur over cool lakes.
DIFFRACTION OF SOUND
Diffraction: the bending of waves
around small obstacles and the
spreading out of waves beyond small
openings.
The principle of diffraction limits the
sound reduction effectiveness of any
open-plan office partition or outdoor
noise barrier. Sound waves bend
around and over these types of walls,
independent of their material.
DIFFRACTION OF SOUND
If sound did not diffract, it would go
over an obstacle along a straight line
path – like light, which produces an
optical shadow behind the obstacle.
The degree of bending of sound
around an obstacle is a function of
the sound’s wavelength. Low
frequency sounds bend by a greater
amount than high frequency sounds.
The long wavelength sounds of the bass drum will diffract
around the corner more efficiently than the more directional,
short wavelength sounds of the higher pitched instruments.
PASSAGE OF SOUND THROUGH OPENINGS
Diffraction effect also occurs when sound travels through an
opening. This is due to the bending of sound at the
opening’s edges.
The diffracted sound (as a %age of the total sound passing
through an opening) increases as the opening size is
reduced. The smallest opening has the largest %age of
diffracted sound. Through an extremely small opening, most
of the sound passes by diffraction.
RELEVANCE OF ACOUSTICAL SHADOWS
An acoustical shadow has an
unfavorable effect on hearing and
listening conditions in lecture and
concert halls.
Although an acoustical shadow is
undesirable for listening and hearing,
it is useful in the design of barriers to
protect buildings and neighborhoods
from traffic noise.
DIFFUSION OF SOUND
When a sound wave reflects off a convex or uneven surface, the energy is spread
evenly rather than being limited to a discrete reflection. This phenomenon is known
as diffusion, which is equivalent to the diffusion of light from a frosted bulb, rather
than a clear bulb.
Acoustic sound diffusion keeps sound waves from grouping, so there are no hot
spots or nulls in a room. In fact, sound diffusion greatly widens the "sweet spot" and
lends a strong, 3D sense of openness to a room, making it easier to hear "into" a
mix.
Diffusion obliterates standing waves and flutter echoes without simply removing
acoustic energy from the space or greatly changing the frequency content of the
sound.
Sound diffusion is one of the important acoustical requirements for rooms used for
musical performances. A room with a few large specularly reflecting surfaces, and
which does not contain adequate surface irregularities to diffuse sound, produces
harsh reflections, known as acoustic glare – an undesirable effect for music.
With adequate diffusion in the room, the listener receives sound from various
directions and has the feeling of being “enveloped” by music – a desirable sensation
for music
DIFFUSION OF SOUND
Excessive diffusion, on the other hand, deprives the listener of source localization,
since in a diffuse field, the sound appears to come from all directions. Excessive
diffusion is to be avoided in rooms meant for speech, since in these rooms, the
sound must appear to come from the speaker.
Sound diffusion is a function of room geometry. Rectangular rooms with flat parallel
walls have poor diffusion. Even a slight splay (1:20) in one of the walls improves
diffusion. The more irregular the room shape, the greater the sound diffusion in the
room.
Size of the room is another factor that affects diffusion. Diffusion is more easily
obtained in a large room than in a small room.
Reflective room surfaces increase diffusion in the room. The more reflective the
surfaces, the greater the diffusion. Conversely, the provision of sound absorption
decreases diffusion. Even when only one surface of the room is highly absorbing,
sufficient diffusion is difficult to obtain unless other means of increasing diffusion are
incorporated.
Convex reflective surfaces increase diffusion. They do so by scattering sound. A
concave surface, on the other hand, tends to focus sound into one direction and
location, starving other locations of adequate sound. Thus, a dome or similar
concave surface provides poor acoustics for an auditorium, unless the dome has
deep coffers to scatter sound.
SOUND FIELDS IN ENCLOSED SPACES
• Near field
– Generally within one wave length of the lowest frequency of sound produced by
the source
– Within this distance, sound pressure level measurements vary widely and are
not meaningful
– Maximum wave length of a human male voice is about 3 meters
• Reverberant field
– Close to large obstructions, such as walls, is dominant and approaches a
diffuse condition
– In well-designed music auditoriums, this field predominates and sound
pressure level remains relatively constant beyond the free field area
• Free (far) field
– Exists between the near and reverberant fields
– Intensity varies directly with pressure and inversely with distance squared
– Sound pressure level drops 6dB with each doubling of distance from the source
– It is in this field that meaningful sound pressure level measurements can be
made with respect to a specific source.
TYPES OF SOUND
Before sound control is discussed, we must distinguish the classification of sound.
• Most sounds in buildings are airborne sounds
– Sounds generated by human conversation and musical instruments
– Sounds produced by fans, motors, machinery, vehicles, airplanes are airborne
sounds
• Structure-borne sound is produced by an impact of some sort on building elements
– floors, walls, roofs, etc. Thus, a structure-borne sound originates in an impact or
vibration producing source that is in contact with a building component.
– The impact causes the building elements to vibrate, and as they vibrate, they
radiate sound.
– Since it is impact-related, structure-borne sound is also referred to as impact
sound
– When a nail is hammered on a wall, or a person walks on a suspended floor or
knocks on a door, structure-borne sound is produced
– Once the structure-borne sound is produced by a building component, it
become airborne sound and reaches the receiver as such.
• Although most sources produce either one, several sources produce both.
SOUND CONTROL
• Controlling sound is often assumed that we are referring to the
reduction of sound.
• There are cases that we want to preserve the sound energy, and
control its spatial spreading characteristics.
• Primary ways to reduce sound are through absorption and insulation.
– Absorption may eliminate unwanted sound reflections, but poses
the possibility of some people hearing the sound coming from a
source
– Redirection and diffusion can have favorable acoustic results for
even sound distribution
ABSORPTION
• Converts sound energy into heat energy and is used to reduce sound levels within
rooms.
• It is not effective in reducing sound between rooms
• When sound energy impinges on a material, part of that energy is reflected and the
rest is absorbed.
• Materials are neither perfect reflectors nor perfect absorbers
• The term used to define the material’s sound absorption characteristic is coefficient
of absorption.
• The theoretical limits are 1 and 0. if a material absorbs all sound incident upon it, its
absorption coefficient is 1.
• Absorption coefficients vary with frequency. Typical absorptive materials have
absorption coefficients that increase with frequency.
• These materials are ineffective for lower frequencies, especially below 250Hz
• To describe the absorption characteristics of a material, a value has been defined
using a single number and incorporating multiple-frequency components. This value
is called Noise Reduction Coefficient.
• NRC values should be used only when the sound sources of interest are within the 250-
to 2kHz range.
NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT
ABSORPTION
• Useful in reducing or eliminating unwanted reflections off surfaces
• Standing waves can be eliminated by covering one of the parallel surfaces with
absorptive material
• Can also be used to eliminate echoes
• Rear walls of auditoriums are installed with absorptive materials since rear walls
have the greatest potential to cause echoes.
• Most common use is to control reverberation
• Reverberation is the build-up of sound within the room, resulting from repeated
sound wave reflections off all of its surfaces
• Reverberation can increase sound levels within a room by up to 15 dBA, as well
as distort speech intelligibility.
• Reverberation is desirable for rooms in which music is being played to add a
pleasant elongation of tones. Therefore, there are different reverberation
characteristics that would be appropriate for different room uses.
REVERBERATION
• Described by a parameter known as the reverberation time (RT60)
• RT60 can be defined physically and mathematically
• Physically, RT60 is the time (in seconds) that it takes for a sound source to
reduce in sound pressure level (within a room) by a factor of 60 dB, after the
sound source has been silenced.
• Mathematically, (known as Sabine Equation), RT60 is directly proportional to the
volume of the room and inversely proportional to the absorption of the materials
in the room.
• Two ways to control RT60
• Change the room size
• Change the amount of absorption on its surfaces
• Since absorption changes with frequency, so does RT60.
• Lower RT60 values are desirable for rooms used mainly for human speech,
higher values for rooms used mainly for music.
• A room with low value is a dead room, while a room with higher value is a live
room; multi-purpose rooms have values between the live and dead range limits
SOUND-ABSORBING MATERIALS
Sound absorbing materials can be classified based on the
mechanism by which they absorb sound:
• Porous absorbers
– Porosity of the material may be due to the fibrous composition or due to
voids between granules or particles of the material.
– Fiberglass and mineral wool are the most commonly used porous
absorbers. Other materials are rigid mineral fiberboards with fissured or
pierced surfaces – used primarily as ceiling tiles
• Panel or membrane absorbers
– A solid unperforated panel installed against a hard substrate with an
intervening air space
– When a sound wave falls on such a panel, it sets the panel into vibration
and loses some energy by damping
• Volume absorbers
– Consist of a volume of air connected to the general atmosphere through
a small volume of air called neck
– Other terms used for this absorber are: cavity absorber, cavity resonator
or Helmholtz resonator.
OTHER SOUND-ABSORBING MATERIALS
Other sources of absorption in the room are:
‒ Occupancy absorption
‒ Air absorption
• Occupancy absorption
– Consists of absorption provided by the furniture (seats in an auditorium) and human
beings
– Audience absorption is usually the largest contributor (75%) to the total absorption of
an auditorium or concert hall
– Two ways to quantify absorption – per seat or per area of the floor over which the
audience is seated
– Most common is the area method since per seat absorption is greatly influenced by
the density of seats. Sparsely spaced seats provide greater absorption than those
that are closely spaced because of the diffraction effect.
– Some other factors affecting audience absorption are:
Type of upholstery on seats
Type of dress worn by the audience
Slope of the floor
• Air absorption
• Air absorbs sound, but is significant only at high frequencies – 2kHz and above
• Air absorption (Aair) is given by the formula Aair= m V, where V is the volume of the
room in m3 (or ft3), and m is the air attenuation coefficient, expressed in sabins/m (or
sabins/ft).
INSULATION
Sound insulation is similar in many ways to the description of sound
absorption.
‒ As for absorption, there is a transmission coefficient that ranges from the ideal
limits of 0 to 1. Unlike the absorption coefficient though, the limit of 1 is
practically possible ( a transmission coefficient 1 means that all of the sound
energy is transmitted through a partition). Zero value (meaning no sound
transmission) , however, is not practical since some sound will always travel
through a partition.
‒ The principal descriptor for sound insulation is a decibel based on the
transmission coefficient, known as transmission loss (TL).
‒ TL can be loosely defined as the amount of sound reduced by a partition
between a sound source and a listener. TL is the quantity that is reported in a
manufacturer’s literature since it is measured in a laboratory.
‒ TL is frequency dependent; TL values increase with increasing frequency.
‒ The single-number rating for TL that takes into account the entire frequency
spectrum is known as the Sound Transmission Class (STC). STC values are
based on decibels.
‒ Similar to NRC, STC is useful to describe the sound insulation efficiency of a
partition over the human speech frequency range of 500 to 2kHz.
DESIGN GUIDELINES
Eliminating reflections is not always a useful thing to do especially in
rooms where an audience is listening to a performance or a lecture.
‒ It is desirable that the audience hear the sound not only clearly, but without
preference to seating location.
Eliminate sharp echoes by avoiding smooth, flat, reflective surfaces
Install irregular and convex surfaces to diffuse the sound evenly
throughout the audience.
‒ For smaller rooms that require diffusion, special commercial sound-diffusing
panels called QRDs (quadratic residue diffusers) are available
Concave surface shapes should also be avoided.
‒ These surfaces focus sound in certain areas causing hot spots, and defocus
sound from others causing dead spots.
‒ If aesthetics require the need for it, it would be best to install absorptive or
diffusive surface and cover it with acoustically transparent material in the
concave shape.
Reflective surfaces should be avoided for rear walls in auditoriums.
‒ They are beneficial, though, when they are close to the stage and along side
walls
NOISE REDUCTION
• Noise by definition is an unwanted sound
– We, therefore, want to reduce, rather than redirect, noise to
acceptable levels, when we talk about controlling it
• Noise level in a building is a combination of 2 sources: interior
noise – that produced inside the building – and exterior noise
– Primary source of interior noise is the use and occupancy of the
building
• Noise can be controlled at its source, in the path between the
source and the listener, or at the listener
– The most effective control takes place at the source
– If noise can be controlled at its source, it is unnecessary to consider
the path or listener locations
– If the noise can be controlled in the path, it is unnecessary to
consider the listener’s location for noise control measures
Modify Enclosure Enclosure
Redesign Absorption Absorption
Relocate Barrier Relocate
NOISE REDUCTION

Control at the Source Control in the Path Control at the Listener

Maintenance Enclose source Relocate listener

Avoid resonance Install barrier Enclose listener

Have listener use hearing

Relocate source Install proper muffler
protection

Add masking sound at listener's

Remove unnecessary sources Install absorptive treatment
location

Use quieter models Isolate vibrations

Redesign source to be quieter Use active noise control

INTERIOR NOISE CONTROL
BY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
The simplest and most efficient means of controlling interior
noise is through architectural design.
• Rooms where high noise level is expected should be separated
from noise-sensitive rooms. As much as possible, the building
should be zoned into noisy and quiet zones.
– In multistory apartment buildings, bedrooms and study rooms
should be separated from lobbies, corridors and general circulation
areas
– Separation between noisy and noise-sensitive spaces should be
examined both in plan as well as sections
– Noise-sensitive spaces such as auditoriums, assembly halls, concert
halls, etc., should be surrounded by ancillary spaces such as lobbies,
foyers, toilets, etc., in order to isolate them from exterior noise
– Mechanical equipment rooms should be separated from rooms
requiring quiet
– Open spaces and courtyards should be used, whenever possible, to
separate different or similar occupancies to provide acoustical
isolation
SOUND ABSORPTIVE TREATMENT
• Sound-absorbing materials act by reducing the intensity of
reflected sound
– They are effective in reducing reverberant sound only;
addition of sound absorption has no effect on direct sound
– Absorptive material on its own is not effective in reducing
noise; it should be used as part of a multilayered enclosure
on the inside
– Placing absorption close to the source reduces reverberant
sound by a great amount, since the sound gets absorbed
before it becomes part of the reverberant field
– In a small room, sound absorption may be placed on both the
walls and ceiling
– In a large room with low ceiling, the ceiling is the best
location for sound absorption since it is the only surface close
to the source; in a large room with high ceiling, space
absorbers are recommended since they can be hung from the
ceiling and brought closer to the source
– In a manufacturing facility, space absorbers coupled with free
standing partial-height sound absorbing barriers close to the
sources are recommended
– Partial-height sound absorbing barriers are commonly used in
open-plan offices to produce speech-privacy
NOISE SOURCE LOCATION in ROOMS
• In a room with reflective walls, keep noise sources
away from the walls
• theoretically, a noise source near reflective walls increases
the noise level by 3dB as compared to a source in the
center of a room
• A noise source near the edge of a room increases the level
by 6dB; a source placed at the corner of a room increases
the level by 9dB
• Therefore, machines in a manufacturing facility should be
placed away from the walls
NOISE CONTROL THROUGH BARRIERS
A barrier contrasts from an enclosure by being open to the
air on at least one side
• Because of diffraction, noise barriers are limited to 15dB
of noise reduction capability, whatever the material
– This is compromised even more if there are reflective ceilings
above that barrier; therefore, absorptive ceiling should be
installed above them
• It is important to have no air spaces within or under the
barriers
• A barrier must break the line of sight between the sound
source and the listener
– If the sound source is visible, that barrier cannot provide sound
reduction from the source
• A sound-insulating (full-height) barrier between a noisy
environment and the receiving room is, thus, the most
effective means of interior noise control
ENCLOSURES
Enclosures can be effective at reducing noise levels,
provided they are designed properly.
• Enclosure must completely surround the noise source
having no air gaps
– An enclosure with any side open is not an enclosure but a
barrier (barrier effectiveness is limited to 15dB, while an
enclosure’s effectiveness is up to 70dB of reduction
• Enclosures must be isolated from floors or any
structural members of a building
– Chances of the enclosure sides perfectly sealing to the
ground are slim; therefore, air gaps would result
– Vibrations will be carried along the ground or floor since
the source is in direct contact with it
ENCLOSURES
• Enclosures should not consist of only sound-
absorptive material
• Main purpose of absorptive material is to control
reflections within spaces, not to control sound transmission
out of spaces
• Enclosure must consider that some noise sources
require ventilation
• Ventilation systems must be developed that minimize noise
transmission
• Leaving a simple opening for ventilation will severely
compromise the noise control effectiveness of the
enclosure
EXTERIOR NOISE CONTROL
THROUGH SITE PLANNING
Site and town planning principles can be used to control
exterior noise
• Increase distance between noise source and receiver
• Heavy foliage coupled with several rows of trees reduces noise
– Although trees do not absorb much sound, they diffuse sound so
that part falls on the foliage where it gets absorbed
– Heavy foliage absorbs sound to the same degree as an interior
carpet
– One or two rows of trees with no or little ground foliage will not
reduce any more sound than that reduced due to distance
– Trees should not be deciduous types
• Self-protecting building forms can shield noise-sensitive parts
of the building from the noise source
• Building housing noise-sensitive spaces should be laid
perpendicular to the street, and shielded by buildings that can
tolerate noise
THROUGH SITE PLANNING
• If tall buildings have overhanging balconies facing a busy
street, the underside of those balconies should be treated with
sound-absorbing material to absorb sound before it hits the
building facade
• Residential districts and other areas where quiet is needed
should be separated from industrial districts, highways,
railways, airports, etc.
• Road network should be planned in such a way that traffic is
concentrated on a few streets rather than being distributed on
several of them
• Avoid placing objectionable sound source near a still body of
water that lies between the source and receiver; refraction
effects cause the sound to travel across that body of water
with little reduction
• Avoid location noise-sensitive buildings in the prevailing
downwind direction of a noise source
– As with temperature variations, shadow zones are set up upwind
of a noise source and sound travels farther outdoors with the
wind
BY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
• Doors and windows of buildings can, in large measure,
determine the overall transmission loss of a wall
– Since doors and windows have a lower acoustic transmission loss
than the wall in which they are mounted, particular care must be
taken not to degrade performance further with air leaks
– Louvered doors and door undercuts to permit air movement are
useless as sound barriers
– The most important step in soundproofing doors is complete
sealing around the opening; a door in the closed position should
exert pressure on gaskets, making the joints airtight
– When single doors do not provide sufficient reduction, a sound
lock consisting of 2 doors, preferably with sufficient space
between them to permit full door swing; all surfaces In the
sound lock should be covered completely by absorbent material
and the floor carpeted
– Another important consideration with respect to sound intrusion
via doors is the location of a door with respect to sources of
unwanted sound
BY ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
• Windows are critically important to block exterior noise, thus
making them the deciding factor in the composite exterior wall
transmission loss
• As with doors, proper gasketing and sealing are very important
• Double glazing is effective only when the 2 panes are separated by a
wide air gap; small sealed air spaces is desirable only for thermal
insulation because a large space allows convection current to transfer
heat
• Just as sound will pass through the acoustically weakest part of
a composite wall, it will also find parallel or flanking paths, i.e.,
an acoustic short-circuit
• Proper design of door and window location should be observed to
avoid flanking paths