oo ae versity, \ [pues a aa Ce i " Dera ett: cr } Books are | available on Flipkart amazonDiscrete Structures and Graph Theory (Code - CSC302) Semester ILI - Computer Engineering (University of Mumbai) (As per New Syllabus for Academic Year 2020-2021) Usha A. Jogalekar ME. (Computer Engineering) Assistant Professor, PICT, Pune. RecNeS ii) A Sachin Shah VentureDiscrete Structures and Graph Theory Usha A.Jogalekar Semester IN, Computer Engineering (Mumai Universi) ; in a retrieval 4, copied, oF sto Copyright © by Author. All rights reserved, No pat of tis publication may be FePrOUWERA TT bes electronic er Rete istributed oF transmitted in any form or by any means, including PhotocoPy+ ‘mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher. ce, be lent, resold, hired out, of cians in which it is thar binding or cover other neque purchaser and wien This book is sold subject to the condition that otherwise circulated without the publ Published and without a similar condi li shall not, by the way of trade or prior writen consent in any form of inching this condition being imposed on tl ing the rights under copyright reserved above. > Edition : August 2020 Disclaimer ‘This book is presented solely for educational purposes. The Book is prepared as per the latest syllabus copy received by ‘various Engineering Institutes affiliated to University of Mumbai. Due to Covid 19 Pandemic online teaching has already Started according to sjllabus received. Although the Author and Publisher have made every effort to ensure that the information in this book was correct at printing time, the avthor and publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any Liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other-cause. Any changes in latest syllabus copy will be notified on our website. And supplement regarding the same will be provided/made available on our Website. Tech Neo Publications is not associated with any University. ISBN 978.93-90376-27-8 This edition is for sale in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and designated countries in| South-East Asia. Sale and purchase of this book outside ofthese countries is unauthorized by the publisher. Published by Printed at Mr. Sachin S. Shah & Mrs. Nayana S. Shah | Image Offset (Mr. Rahul Shah) -| Permanent Address Dugane Ind. Area Survey No, 28/25, Dhayari Tech-Neo Publications LLP . | Near Pari Company, Sr. No. 38/1, Behind Pari Company, Khedekar | Pune ~ 411041, Maharashtra State, India. Industrial Estate, Narhe, Maharashtra, E-mail : [email protected] Pune-411041. Address For Correspondence Tech-Neo Publications LLP 407-412, 4" floor, Decision Tower, Above Hotel Tiranga, Nr. City Pride Theatre, Pune-Satara Road, Pune-411009, Maharasht,., . ras i Email : [email protected] aRegay aa Website : www.techneobooks.com Mobile : 9145531105 / 8668233261 2Dear Students, 1 am extremely happy to present the book of “Discrete Structures and Graph Theory” for you. It is one of the basic subject of Computer Engineering. I have divided the subject into small chapters so that the topics can be arranged and understood properly. The topics within the chapters have been arranged in a proper sequence to ensure smooth flow of the subject. am thankful to Shri. Sachin Shah for the encouragement and support that they have ‘extended. I am also thankful to the staff members of Tech-Neo Publications and others for their efforts to make this book as good as it is. We have jointly made every possible effort to climinate all the errors in this book. However if you find any, please let me know, because that, will help me to improve further, I am also thankful to my family members and friends for their patience and encouragement. @.Syllabus Mumbai University ‘ 'c' Scheme) Second Year of Computer Engineering (Revise 2019 Discrete Structures and Graph Theory cans Course Code ‘Course Name 7 CSC302 Discrete Structures and Graph Theory Prerequisite : Basic Mathematics Course Objectives 1 2 8 4. Cuttivate clear thinking and creative problem solving. ise common] Thoroughly train in the construction and understanding of mathematical proofs. Exercis ‘mathematical arguments and proof strategies, To apply graph theory in solving practical problems. Thoroughly prepare for the mathematical aspects of other Computer Engineering courses Course Outcomes : On successful completion, of course, learner/student will be able to: Understand the notion of mathematical thinking, mathematical proofs and to apply them in problem] solving. Ability to reason logically. Ability to understand relations, functions, Diagraph and Lattice. to understand and apply concepts of graph theory in solving real world problems. Understand use of groups and codes in Encoding-Decoding Analyze a complex computing problem and apply principles of discrete mathematics to identify} solutions Course Contents Hours 6 11 | Propositional Lope, Prediate Logi, Laws of Logic, Quanier, Nonmal Forms, Inference Theory of Predicate Calculus, Mathematica! Induction. (Refer ehapter 1) 2_/ Relations and Functions 6 2.1 | Basic concepts of Set Theory 22 | Relations: Defnion, Types of Reaton, Representation of Relation, Closures of lations, Warshl's grit, Equivalence relation and Equivatenes Classes 23 | Funetions : Definition, Types of functions, Compos + Composition of functions, Iden Inverse function, : peer hae (Refer chapter 2) 3_| Posets and Lattice ; 5 34 | Partial Order Relations, Pose, Hasse Dia " gram, C d chat of Lattice, Sub atic. "anand Ani chains, Late, Types (Refer chapter 3) @4 | Counting LY 4.1 | Basic Counting Principle-Sum Rule, Product Rule, Inclusion- Exclusion Principle, Pigeonhole Principle 4.2_| Recurrence relations, Solving recurrence relations. (Refer chapter 4) Algebraic Structures S.1 | Algebraic structures with one binary operation: Semi group, Monoid, Groups, Subgroups, Abelian Group, Cyclic group, Isomorphism 5.2_| Algebraic structures with two binary operations: Ring 53 | Coding Theory: Coding, binary information and error detection, decoding and error correction. (Refer chapter 5) Graph Theory ‘Types of graphs, Graph Representation, Sub graphs, Operations on Graphs, Walk, Path, Circuit, Connected Graphs, Disconnected Graph, Components, Homomorphism and Isomorphism of Graphs, Euler and Hamiltonian Graphs, Plantar Graph, Cut Set, Cut_Vertex. (Refer chapter 6) ©)‘=> Chapter 1: ‘=> Chapter 2: Relations and Functions... 2-1 to 2-66 MODULE 3 ‘=> Chapter 3: Posets and Lattice .... seed to 3-18 MODULE 4 BRN ‘=> Chapter 4: Counting... 4-1 to 4-57 ‘=> Chapter5: Algebraic Structures... MODULE 6 =» Chapter6: Graph Theory...1 1.2 Logical Connectives or Logical operations. 1.3 Logical Equivalences.. 1.4 Properties of Logical Connectives or laws of logic... 1.5 WelH-formed Formulae.. v 1.6 Normal Forms ... “Syllabus _] Propositional Logic, Predicate Logic, Laws of Logic, Quantifiers, Normal Forms, Inference Theory of Predicate Calculus, Mathematical Induction. Propositional Logic. 1.4.4 Propositions. 1.21 Truth Tables. 1.3.40 Duality... 1.5.1 Solved Examples. Syllabus Tople : Normal Forms. 1.6.1. Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF). 1.6.2 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) 1.6.3 Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF). 1.64 Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNF) 1.6.5 Relationship betwoen PONF, PCNF,Tautology and Contradiction 1.6.6 Solved Examples on Normal FormLogic Discroto Structuron & Graph Thoory (MU - Som 3-Comy rN Een Ex. 1.64 (MU =. 3(a), May 17, 4 Marks).. UEx. 1.6.5 (MU - Q. 5(d), Dec, 13, 4 Marks)... UEx. 1.6.6 (MU - Q. 6(b), May 14, 6 Marks). UEX. 1.8.7 (MU -Q, 6(¢), Doc. 15, 5 Marks). 1-22 1.7 Prodicate Logic... 122 1.7.4 Prodicato... 1-22 1.7.2 Universal Quantifer.. 1.7.3 Existential Quantifier.ememnonn 1.7.4 Solved Examples on Predicates... Syllabus Topic : Principles of Mathematical Induction... 1.8 Mathematical Induction (Mi). 1.8.1 Solved Examples. Eee UEX.1.8.17 (MU - Q. 2(a), Dec. 13, 4 Marks). UEx. 1.8.18 (MU - Q. 1(2), May 14, 5 Marks)... UEx. 1.8.19 (MU - Q. 1(b), May 16, 6 Marks) UEx. 1.8.20 (MU - Q. 2(b), Dec. 16, 6 Marks)... UEx. 1.8.21 (MU - Q. 1(a), May 17, 5 Marks). oA SUCHE SHAH Veatureuct Logic a iscrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-Comp,) 1 1.1 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC % 1.1.1 Propositions ‘Consider two sentences : ( Wisraining i) Isit raining ? ‘The first sentence is declarative and second on ‘question. If it is really raining then the first sentence is considered as true otherwise it is false. ‘The answer to the second sentence is yes or no, depending on the situation, Consider another sentence “close the door”. It is an instruction whereas “door is closed” is declarative. The sentences like “it is raining’, “door is closed” are known as propositions. They can be either true or false. It is known as truth value of the proposition. Definition : A proposition is a declarative sentence which is either true or false. 2 We generally use lower case alphabets like p, q etc. to represent a proposition. It is written as p : Roseis red ‘True and false are known as truth values of a proposition. A. proposition is called tautology if its truth A proposition is called why value is always true. ‘A proposition is called contradiction, if its truth value is always Tae A proposition which i neither tautology nor Contradiction is called contingency. \ Consider the following propositions : p: There are 31 days in January qi: There are 28 days in February 1: ‘There are 30 days in-March. ‘The proposition p is tautology as itis always true. “The proposition ris contradiction as itis always false. “| ‘The proposition q is true if the year is not leap and it is false, if the year is leap. Thus the proposition q is neither tautology nor contradiction. 2. Itis contingehcy. S DW 1.2 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES OR LOGICAL OPERATIONS We can combine two or more propositions to form new propositions. For example let p and q be two propositions given by, p: lis raining qi Thave an umbrella With these two sentences, we can form different sentences as follows : (@__Itis raining and I have an umbrella. Gi) Ibis raining but I don’t have an umbrella. (ii) have an umbrella but itis not raining. (iv) Whenever it is raining, [have an umbrella (vy) Whenever it rains, don't have an umbrella. (vi) Whenever Ihave an umbrella, it rains. (vii) Whenever I have an umbrella, it does not rain. ‘This isthe case of formation of sentences in English. In the same way, new propositions can be formed using earlier propositions. To combine the propositions, we use logical connectives. The following subsections explain different logical connectives. YW 1.2.1 Truth Tables ‘The connectives can be represented using truth tables, which give truth values for all possible combinations of propositions. For example, if there is one proposition, then it can have truth values either true or false represented as T ot F respectively. If there are two propositions, they can have 4 combinations of truth values, FF, FT, TF and TT. If there are three propositions, they can have 8 ‘combinations of truth values, FFF, FFT, FTE, FIT, TFF, ‘TET, TIF and TTT. ‘Thus in general if the number of propositions is n.then the numt nations of truth values is given by 2” "Fock: Neo Publications Were Authors inspire innovation A SUCHIN SHAH VentareDiscrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-Comp.) Z 4 (A) Disjunction (v)-oR / Definition : The aigundion of two propealions b and q is denoted as pv q,Itis a proposition, which is Definition : The negation of one propos denoted as p orp oF ~ p.It sa proposition which fenoted as 6 or P OF” : true if pis false and it is false if pis true. false. f both p and q are false. Otherwise itis true. ‘The disjunction connective is also known as OR. Following truth table represents disjunction, ‘The negation connective is also known as Nop. Following truth table represents negation. Bor por~p Pj a ipvq T Fel F ; Fi[t|t _ TIF] T It can be observed that p v pis a tautology and p a5 is Tit] tr contradiction. ‘This can also represented as, pip lpve par < FIT T F SE = TIF T F F/F T , (0) Exclusive or -. (®)-EX-OR T|T T Definition : The conjunction of two|propoaiione P| and q is denoted as p » q, Iti a proposition, which i ‘true, ifboth p and q are true. Otherwise itis false. ‘The conjunction connective is also known as AND. Following truth table represents conjunction. . Pla} Ag Flr] F Flr] F tir] F tlt] tT ‘This can also be represented as, 4 ale oT FIF F . P TIF Of (€) Negation (- or 5 or -) NOT Xt is a unary connective. ie. applied on only one proposition. Q Definition : The ‘exclusive or of two propositions P ‘and qis denoted as p @ q | Itis a proposition, which is| ‘true, if truth values of p and are different. Otherwise, itis false. § ‘The Exclusive or connective is also known as EX-OR. Sarre FPP Following truth table represents exclusive or Thee P{a|p@q Fl F tl ir Flr tlt] & 3[afa This can also be represented as, “Tech: Neo Publications Where Author inspire Tonona A SUCHIN SHAH Veatareel Discrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU-Sem 9-Comp.) 1-5, ‘This is shown in the following truth table. plalaplaa] Pare | 1PA9 | @AravtpAd Fle{r{r| oF FE F F[t|tleF| F T T tTlFl eit] T FE T titjelFl F F F (E) Conditional (—-) or implication Q. Definition : The proposition p > q Is read as “if p| then q" or “p implies q”. p> q is false if p is true and ‘The proposition | —> pis called contra positive of p74 It can be noted that p— q is equivalent to @—P), sj abe Oterynee EE ‘This is shown inthe following truth table. The truth table is as follows: Fle alplboa| ae poe aoe bef Peed FlFl{t|r| t T T FLF| 7 Fl[t[r[e| 7 [re | fe. rt EiT| = tlrle[t| e | + [7] F tir] F titlelrL 7 [7 [7 [ tit] tT It can be noied that p —> q is equivalent to 9 p V 4. ‘This is shown in the following truth table. p|alap|apya a]a[=|= s[=[3[> aizla|a a|a|3]5 For the proposition, p > q we have corresponding propositions. ‘The proposition q —> pis called converse of p—> q ‘The proposition j) —> Gis called inverse of p—> 4 All these are shown in the following truth table F) Biconditional (#,5) ue “ive both pad qhave same truth value. “The truth table iss follows. pea P F F T T a|a|a fa T It can be noted that p | 4 @2MAG> | PA). 4PA | ADVOPA 4 @ |4 2 ») a aq saa | Flr[r[r| F T t | T F T T F[t[ tr] tr F TF F FE FE F tlelr[r[ 7 E Fit F FE FE EF tit[F[F| F T t[t T T FE T TTech-Neo Pablications Where Authors inspire inoraton wl SOHN SAH VentureBl ovscroto stwctures & Graph Theory (MU- Sem 3-Comp.) WI 1.3. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES ‘ o ‘Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent, if P also be read as, p tautologically implies q, siti In the previous section we have seen 6 different connectives for propo: negation are called basic connectives. This is because, the rem: ‘connectives only. ‘Thus the following equivalences hold. P>a=4pva @AIDVGPA® @ADVGPATD If we have two propositions p and q, then there are four c Logic 16. as p = 4. Itean qis a tautology: Itis represented a8 P i junction and disjunction, con} js. Ou of cen sin hese ng three connectives caf combinations of truth values. With these four se of truth ions of values. Witl val at i i.e. 2') different propositions. = Tl Tae leatl a te ff 6 a 8] 9 [10] 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 BS “ Flel/rlelelelelelelel[t{t{[ ti tite -: Fi[tlFlelelel[tirit{tleleleletti tit tTlelFlFltitiFl[Fi[titielel[t{ ti Fl ei{ tit title[tieltieltielt[ itil tei tie it 1, Itis contradiction p A Borq A @ Example 2. paq 3 pa 4p 5. GP 6 4 7 p@q 8 pva 9 PVG 10. peg I. 44 12 q>P 3. 4p 14. pq 1s. PAG 16. Itis tautology p V Borg VG ‘Any given proposition with two propositions p and q ccan be simplified to one of these 16 propositions. WW 1.5.1 Duality The connectives disjunction and conjunctions are called vals of each other. The truth values.‘ are duals of each other. = Q_Definition + Two propositions A and A* are called duals if one can be obtained by replacing v by a, by) “a, Tby F and F by T in another statement. TFech-Noo Publications Where Authors inspire ianoration pV q is dual of p Aq, (p Aq) V Fis dual of @vayar ™ Note : Duals.are not equi If two propositions A and B are equal then their duals ‘At and B* are also equal. DI 1.4 PROPERTIES OF LOGICAL ‘CONNECTIVES OR LAWS OF LOGIC In this section, we study the properties’ of logical ‘connec *s. One can observe the similarities between the properties of logical connectives with that of set operations discussed in section 1. We can find the resemblance between, V and U, A and a, ‘The universal set U, resembles ie. T and the null set 6, i ie, to the truth value true Tesembles to the truth value false Following are the properties of lo 1 be propositions, sod SACHIN SHAH Ventorefel Discrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU- Sem 3.Comp,) 1. | Double negation 7 law 2, | Cumulativelaw | PYq=4vp pAQ= aap p®q=q@p 3. | Associative law, PYQ@VD=@VQvr~ BAAN =(pAQ)Ar P@qO)=(POqer 4, | De Morgan's law pva a v = 21 Ka = 5. | Distributive law BY(GANE OYAABYD PAQVIE DAVIDA 17 oe 10. | Operations with | PV F= p—identity law truth value F p AF =F- Domination law ; pOF =p F =T—Negation law Fop poF 11.| Operations with | p VT = T~Domination law truth value T p AT= p-identity law pot T = F-Negation law Top poTsT 6. | Idempotent law pYp=p — PAp=p = 7._| Absorption law PY @AQ=py PA (YQ) =P ¥ 8. | Operations F—Domination aw generating uth | » 5 = F—Negation law. value F. —_= - p®p=F pPop=F Riou All these are contradictions. 9. | Operations = T- Domination law generating truth ‘T—Negation law value T = All these are tautologies. 12.| Exporiationlaw [PG 9= AQF D1 1.5 WELL-FORMED FORMULAE When we write propositions with many connectives, it becomes difficult to evaluate and simplify them, with the priorities of the connectives. Thus it is necessary to represent a proposition in a standard form. This representation is known as well-formed formula (wf). Here wwe consider a proposition p without any connectives as a statement variable, Definition : A well formed formula can be produced! Using the following rules. R,: A statement variable p is a wif. R,: If pis wif then is also wef. Ry: If p and q are wff, then (p V q),(p A q), (p> q) and (p69) are also wif. Ry: A string of statement variables, connectives and parentheses i.¢. ‘(* and ‘)’ is said to be wff, if and only if it can be produced by applying rules R,, Ry and Ry finite number of times. For Example (pAG), (PV GAT). > 4) G oMan)arewit. "Feck-Neo Publications —— Where Authors inspire ianoation A SACHIN SHAH VentareDiscrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU- Sem. PIGQPYDA np>(qvn, pvaan not wil ‘These can be converted to wif if they are written 88, PIN, VDA 1. >GVO. (PVE respectively. %® 1.5.1 Solved Examples Ex. 1.5.1: To describe the various restaurants in the cit We let p denote the statement, “The food is good” q denote the statement, “The service is good", and r denote the statement, “The rating is three-star”. Write the following statements in ‘symbolic form. (@) Either the food is good, or the service is ‘good, or both. Either the food is good or the service is good, but not both. ‘The food is good while the service is poor. tis not the case that both the food is good and the rating is three-star. If both the food and services are good, then the rating will be three-star. (Its not true that a three-star rating always means good food and good service. &) © @ © 1 somn.: Given: p: The food is good. 4: The service is good. + The rating is three-star. (@) pva & pea © pag © PAF © wager © 1 ero a Where dutory "Tech-Neo Public teme! denote the sta ca sing’, and denote the statement The interesting”> | : verti are challenging”. and t denote the = ment, The course is enjoyable”. Write the statement, following statements in symbolic form : @ ex. 1.52! «al is interesting and the The material is exercises are challenging material is uninteresting, the exercises The course is not >) are not challenging and the c enjoyable. (©) If the material is exercises are not challenging, then the is not interesting and the course is not enjoyable. ‘The material is interesting means the ‘exercises are challenging, and conversely. @ (e) Either the material is interesting or the exercises are not challenging, but not both. D son: Given: 1: The material is interesting 4: The exercises are challenging. 1: The course is enjoyable. @ PAG WBRATAT O©@ADIT Map @peq . eer oes EX.153: Write the following statements in symbolic form: (@) The sun is bright and the humidity i di we imidity is not If finish my homework before dinner and it does not rain, then I will gi to the ball game, 0) (©) Ifyou do not see me tomorrow, have gone to Chicago, it means is mae Ost Boes up or the request for computer nits i8 denied, then a ne" we can aie be purchased if and only if fallen ary ett he Curent comput indeed not adequate A SACHIN SHAH VestBL vscrote Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Som 3-Comp,) © son. Given: (@) pSunis bright 4: Humidi PAG 1p: finish my homework before dinner is not high ) 4g: trains +: will go to the ball game (Aare (©) _p: You see me tomorrow q : Ihave gone to Chicago Pog @ : Utility cost goes up * 4: Request for additional funding is denied New computer will be purchased Current computing facilites are not adequate (@Va>Des Write the converse, inverse and contra positive of the following : (@ Ifyou are honest then you will succeed. p: You are honest q : You will succeed (©) Ifyou work hard then you will be rich. Pp: You work hard q: You will be rich (© you are healthy then you can be wealthy 1: You are healthy 4: You can be wealthy Soin. : (@) Ifyou are honest then you will succeed. p: You are honest q: You will succeed Given: 4 Converse : If you succeed then you are honest (q—> p) Inverse : If you are not honest then you will not succeed (§ +4) Contra positive : If you do not succeed then you are not honest, @ - 5) (@) Ifyou work hard then you will be rich. p:Youwork hard q: You will be rich “Tech-Noo Publications Where Authors inspire innovation 1-9 Logic Given : pq Converse : If you are rich then you worked hard. a>p Inverse : If you do not work hard, then you will not be rich > G) Contra positive : If you are not rich then you did not work hard. @ — B) (©) Ifyou are healthy then you can be wealthy p: You are healthy q: You can be wealthy Given: p +4 Converse : If you are wealthy then you can be healthy. @>p) Inverse : If you are not healthy then you cannot be wealthy.@ — 4) Contra positive : If you cannot be wealthy then you are not healthy. Z Ex. ff p is true and Qs false, find the truth values of tevin propositions.p:T'q:F @ @oaqarp ® GADEr © @>aeqG>p) @ @AQ>PIeR VO © ~ @ a) AP ® ~@egv~~pP @ som. : @ @eoaar e(Ponat =@ORHAT =TAT =T ) PADOP eta For STANT =TOT =T A SACHIN SHAH Venture© P>Qeq—sp) =T Hers) SPOT =F @ (A > NOG vq HTARHIHT vA/ =FaNeFVA =TorF =F (©) ~ @eqap =~ (TenHat ~FAT =TAT =T © ~@egv~~p (Tonv~~T =~FVT stvt/ + If p and q are true and r is false then find the /{wuth values of the following statements p:T q:T r:F @ 99eG>0 © © PAN VGEH (©) G@eT)APyvy @ PINE 7G) @ ~wegar © wsMeleDad soln. @ PI9eG> ie ToNeToN =TOF @ @Anrae? aranoteh =FOF sT © Gerry ? ar ek aatyh =TODAT =TAT =T @ 0790079) =T>HeT>T) =Fe(T>F) =FOF =T © ~@eMar =~(T@ T)AF =~()AF =FAF =F © ©9627) An SToNelT 9TH =TO(TIRAB =TOFAR =TOF =F Ex 18.7; Let p denote the statement “the ‘weather is nice” and q denote the statement, “we have a picni ‘Translate the following it is i eae wing in English and simpli © PAT ©) perg ©q>p @ pag Picnic, : The is ni Weather is nice and we do not bt? —A SACHIN SHAHIB Discrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-Comp,) apicnic. aot nice. 41 Logic (b) pq: Ifand only if the weather is nice then we have = (TAR)VF Substitute for p and q = PVF (©) 4-93: If we do not have a picnic then the weather is F . Fa a, Ex, 1.5.11: Given that the value of p — q is true, can you Ex. 1.58: Write a compound statement that is tre, when | \_/ determine the value of BV (p © @)? exactly two of the three statements p, q, r are ore s U1 soin.: Given: pqis tre © son: ‘The compound statement is formed using 3 statements p,q and r. It must be true if exactly any two of these are toe. - The compound statement is true if any one of the following are satisfied. (@__p.qare true and ris false, this gives p Aq A as tru. (Bp, rare true and q is false, this gives p [email protected] tue. (Gi) 4, are true and p is false. This gives B A q Aras true. +. The compound statement is, (AGAT)V@AGADVG Aqan, Ex.1.5.9 : Write a compound statement that is true when none, or one, or two of the three statements p, grave tue. © son. : The problem says that the compound statement is false, if all statements p, q, rare true. *. The compound statement is BV qVF Ex. 1.5.10 in that the value of p —> q is false, determine the value of (6 vq) 4. 2 somn.: Given : p— q is false. <. p=T andq=F To find value of 6 vq) q @va)>4a CFF) va from definition of -» = (PAq)vq De Morgan’s law Tofind: Value of v (pq) Pv ee@ = Bvle>gaq>p)) From definition of ¢ = BYITAG> pl = bv@>p) Py@vp) @vpva = TVG Substitute for p> q ---Associative law =T Ex. 1.5.12 Construct the truth tables for the following statements. Find whether they are tautology, contradiction or contingency. a pop ». @varve c pe@vq) 4 G95) 3039 & @agaap) £ p01 ~399 & 0749745059) Soln.: a pop Pip>p| | FLT TT | This tautology. ‘Teck-Neo Publications... Where Authors iapire innovation =A SACHIN SHAH VentareP| @_| pv Tl r{ Tt T T{[F|F i Fi[Tr| tT T — ee ee t itis contingency: Iti is tautology. 5499) 249099) © Pe va aH arfa>en| ©4459) oe ae] janefeoaale seahea Fists la] ava |poova! | aap [el r ejeittr} + E Fler]? | 7 [rf + 1 FITI TIE Z E ritlele| + [rt] + 7 tilr[rl[r t a, elrit]+| + |r| 7 1 ti[tlFlr F F tlefe] + | + [el + 1 thes] +] + [r[ + |. + Itis contingency. ter LF 5 4@ @33)3059 tToithr t+ trl + T a a Se Itis tautology. PI Ql5 1a [ap [P49] G7) 050 ; Fle[tit] + | 7 F Ex. 1.5.13 Prove distributive law and De Morgan’s law, using truth tables. F[t{tlF] 7 [7 T ° © soin. : Distributive law. tlelr[r] r | F T TI|T{F[F] T T T PY@AN = Pv@A@vn Itis tautology. PAQV®) = (PAgv(pan Par) qar|py@Ar)| py vr vq@Awy e Gawaa>p) pvalpvr| (p a (pv P| 4/5] a |paa|*PP|Ga@aqsp)| ||FFF| F F Fl eF F F[T F FLFIT|T FFT| F F Fld = F[t[tl/F| t | F F ote TIF/F|T] F T F F T F F tlt{FlFl & | 7 F FTT| T T T/1 7 7 tis contradiction. TFF| F ise 5 7? £. Poa >nlle> 971) TFT] F T ali 7 fase |ps@n|e>9|@595| 5 qsny | ||TTF| F 5 pn, Lt joan! |g) op T Fle[Fl T tT [oF F T tle 7 Flelt] 1 t[ T z FlrfFl T TF F Columns A 5 s e|rjr| 1 | _t_| 7] T Proved, and B are equal distributive law # Foci New Publications Where Authors inspire innovation A SACHIN SHAH Vest"(Bl ocr srr & Grph Tino, MU Semone 1-13 Logic — — Module -lavelpaGvn|paalpar| adv@as)| | E1545: Wihout consietions th Ubles, rove that pai vefpnceo pages ene Se ome ering F F FFT] tT] F FF F © soin.: FTF] T F FIFE F Pd). ert] tT] F {FIFE E = Rv (vq) From definition of > TFF| F F F F FE _ cer] tT | te IT T = (pvp) va Associative law. TTF] T T TIF T =Tvq tr 7t| 7 [t{t T a c D D> (p—>a)is a tautology. a ee Columns C and D are equal. 16: Without constructing truth tables. Prove that the following statements are contradictions. +. Distributive law is proved. With above two truth @ 3@vaalP)>49) tables, both equations in the distributive law are proved. ee = Ex. 1.5.14: Prove De Morgan's law using truth tables. © (5a) A(q>P) © pap Zi soin.: De Morgan's law is = v4 @ [(p34)4@79] 9079 pee © vara PAGavay)¥ Paq = Pva Gpara) pa |r| pag. EB a son: ee, | OF 5 T T @ 3(@v@alp) a) * Fr[7t| F Fl oF =1G (@vaarpPva) mit Fr tT] F =1(G @vMvaaPva) TT] TI| F FE EB =3(@par@veva) i i =3(@pypv@aGavev@) + Columns A and B are equal. =a (TAT) pa |avr| pya |p i Baeeltova sa (Tsh FF F T T T T 1 Itis contradiction. rr{ er {| t | r{r}| tf ) (Fra) acap) TF F T F T T ote pe ee = (sna) aCave) B =(paana)v (Grane) Columns C and D are equal. = RYE «De Morgan’s law is proved. aF ‘Tech-Neo Publ Where Authors inspire innovation =A SACHIN SHAH Venture .Discrote Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-Comp, Wis contradictory. © Poa oP = pve Sp Froméefinition of > = (pag) vp Fromdefinition of > = py(avp) Associative law = pv(pva) Commutative aw = Gove) va Associative law =Tvq =T Pq —pisatautology. @ [(p>a)aq>n] >@30 = [Gva)a(ave)] (pvr) From definition of > = (Gea)a Gor) )v Gee) From definition of w= (pva) v Cave) v (pvr) De Morgan's aw = (pad) Cant) v(pvr) | De Morgan's law = T = (ova levi) Ga) Gv) v(Gve) Distributive law =(pvavave) a(pvtvavr) a(avivevr) .- Distributive law =TaTaT=T + [(p>4)a@>9] > @ isa tautology. © @v@arGPaGavin)v(4Ppara) vGparz) = @vda(pvr (a4v46))v(4pan 4) VGipArr) De Morgan’s law 14 Logie pyaanyy (a parayy PAT) = yaa De Morgan’s law = [ova aprapyanwvely(para)y apart) Distributive law T T a =[lpvavapalevavraalpAey a aev ova] vaqpaar) Distributive law T T = (pyevqavag) » (pyrvyavat) =TAT=T Prove the following without construct tables. a (va) s(praan=paa b. pa(aar)v(daryv(par)=r OH somn. a (iva) oipagarv=pag uis = (pva) (pagar) From definition of > = (paq)v(paqar) De Morgan's law Assume that pa.q=K. IS = Kv(Kar) Bva) v(pagary Absorption law Hence proved. b paCGar)v(qaryv(paryer LS =a (Gar)v(qaryvipar) =(Gaa)ar) v(avp)ar) - Distributive law [Eom At Distributive law = (Gad) va) vp) Ar Associative la¥ 7 Tech-Neo Publications —— Where Authors inspire innovation =A SACHIN SHAH VentoBLoiscw ‘Structures & Graph Thoory (MU - Sem 3-Comp,) -[L va) Cava) ] vel ar Distributive law =((pva)vp)ar=((ivp) va) ar Tvq)ar=Tarsr RHS 15. Logic Module %_ 1.6.2 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) A proposition, in which if all connectives are cither negation oF disjunction, then it is known as fundamental disjunction. For example: p, pv 1apv¥a PYavre 1p. PY Ip are all fundamental disjunctions Syllabus Topic : Normal Forms D1 1.6 NORMAL FORMS In the previous section, we have seen that a proposition can be writen in different forms. Thus it very difficult to check the equivalence of two propositions every time. ‘Therefore there is a need for standardizing the propositions. In this section, we see two types of such standardizations. Principal Disjuctive Normal Form (PDNF) and Principal Conjunetive Normal Form (PCNF). But before that, it is necessary to understand few basic concepts of normalization or standardization; they are Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF), Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF), minterm, and maxterm etc. Following subsections explain all these with examples. %. 1.6.1 Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF) A proposition, in which if all connectives are either negation or conjunction, then it is known as fundamental conjunction. Forexample, p,pala, pag pagal, palpl p are all fundamental conjunctions. Definition : A Proposition is said to be in Disjunctive| Normal Form (DNA) if it has fundamental conjunctions connected with disjunctions. 2 For Example ‘ ppala(para)v(prla) pyaar in disjunctive normal form. paCavrh (py4) A (PYF) are not in __ normal form, but they éan be converted to DNF as follows. pa(avr) = (pag)v(par)— DNF (pya)a(pye) = (pap)y (par) sjunctive v(qap)¥(qar) DNF Q__ Definition : A proposition is said to be in Conjunctive ‘Normal Form (CNA, if it has fundamental disjunctions connected with conjunctions. Forexample p pala @vY@MA@v Iq. Pvg arin conjunctive Normal Form. PV (@AD, @ AQ) vA Fate not in Conjunctive ‘Normal Form, but they can be converted to CNF as follows : PYG@AN = (@YQA@VN—>CNF aadviPan= WvPAve Alavp)a (avi) >CNF. It can be observed that some propositions are both in DNF and CNF. For example, p, pV q, Pq, P are both CNF and DNF. This is because. (@ p> pisconsidered as fundamental conjunction. siti in DNB. pis also considered as fundamental disjunction. «: Itisin CNF, Gi) pya> @v@isin DNF. (vq) isin CNF. Gi) pag (@AWisinCNF (©) 4 @ isin DNF, ‘Thus there is a need for unique standard. YA. 1.6.3 Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF) ‘A fundamental conjunction that has all as “min term”. If there are n statements then the number of possible minterms is 2", 8 cones Where Authors inspire innovation =A SUCHIN SHAH VentureStructures & Graph The y example, if p and q are the statements, then there are 2° = 4 minterms, They are PAG. DAG PAg. pag. If p,q and r are the statements, then there are 2° minterms. They are PAGAT, BAG Ar, pAGAT. PAGAN PAG AT. PAGAT,pAGAT, pagar. Remember that in all the minterms, the order of statements is same, p followed by q, followed by r ie. p Aq r should not be written as q Ar A p even though they are equal. Every minterm is associated with a number, which is equal to the binary representation of the minterm. Every statement is represented as 1 and its negation is represented 5 0, thus resulting to a binary number. The minterm is represented as m, where k is decimal equivalent of that binary number, For example, consider two statements, p and q. The following table gives the number representation‘ of each ‘minterm. |Minterm) Binary = | | Representation | Eqt Baa * oe o1 1 M, ow 10 2 M, pag 1 3 M; ‘Thus for two statements, the decimal equivalents range from 0 to 3. Similarly if there are .n statements, the decimal equivalents range from 0 to 2" GQ. Befinition : A proposition is said to be in Principal © Disjunctive Normal Form, “if and “only if it has disjunction of minterms. Rey For example, the following are in PDN. @arav (pra) (pagar) v(Gngae now that minterms can be TePreseed i Ue ra A PDNF is represented as the sum oj fecimal numbers. - aa rumbers, arranged in ascending order. _ =22,3. ic apy (pad) = MyM 1110 (onantv @ rand @ saa7) orn =o (0,1 =NsvM;vM, 51,35 in be converted to its 101 ‘Any given proposition cai equivalent PDNF. Following are the steps to do so. Convert the proposition to DNF, i.e. disjunction of conjunction. Gi) In every fundamental conjunction include the missing statements if any. ie. if the fundamental conjunction is p, and there is one more statement ‘q’ to be included, then p can be converted as follows. p =pa(qva) qvq =TandpaT=p =@agv(Pva) Distributive law =MvM, =22,3 Example : Convertp v (qa1) v(paq) to PDNE Given proposition is, Pva@anv(paq) = pvanny(pag) Here pq ar, pa are fundamental Include (4, 1), p, and minterms, conjunctions. in them to convert them to pa(qva) (Pra)v (pag) = Conaalsve))v((pna) (v7) quder aps include q. ~~ SUCHIN SHAH Veatoreigorote Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Som 3-Comy ) wgnanov(onani)v (enter) v(pagai pid trio 10d 100 = M;vMgvMsv My = 545,67 Now consider, qar = @ana(pvi) include p = (qarap)y (qarap) arrange in order (pagardy (Pagar) Pit oud MVM, 23,7. Now consider, paa = (pag) (ryt) include r (ondar) vQonanz 101 100 MyM, 24,5 = PDNFforpv (qar)v(pvq) is given by 23,4,5,6,7 = Gagas) v(prgaz)v (naar) v(paaaz) vipagan 1.6.4 Principal Conjanctive Normal Form (PCNF) A fundamental disjunction that has all statements or their negations. Under consideration is known as “Maxterm’, If there are n statements, then the number of possible ‘maxterms is 2". For example, if p and q are the statements, then there are. 2? =4 maxterms, They are, Pva. bya. va, py If p,q and r are the statements, then there are 2 smaxterms. They are, bya vt. pva ve pyavE .pyave. PYG YF, pvave.pvavi pyar Remember that in all maxterms, the order of statements is same, p followed by q, followed by r. ie. pvq_v F should not be writen as q v pv r even though they are same. Every maxterm is associated with a number, which is qual to the binary representation of the maxterm. Every statement is represented as 0 and its negation is represented as 1, thus resulting to a binary number. The maxterm is represented as M, where k is the decimal equivalent of that binary number. For example, consider two statements, p and q. The following table gives the number representation of each maxterm. [Minterm]~ Binary Minterm /Representation| Equivalent | Representation ye 11 M, bya 5 ea 10 2 M, z o1 1 M, pad pA 00 0 My ‘Thus for two statements, the decimal equivalents range from 0 103, Similarly if these are n statements, the decimal equivalents range from 0 to 2* (Definition : A proposition is sald to be in Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNA) if and only if it has conjunction of maxterms. For example, the following are in PCNF. a (pva) « @va) Tech-Neo Publications... Where Authors inspire inaoration =A SACHIN SEAH VentureDis ict 360m nae rato Ty Se Tgvavon(ov & (ovavi) aovave)a(Gvave) ‘AS we know that maxterms can be represented with ‘decimal numbers. A PCNF is represented as the product of these numbers, arranged in ascending order. ie. (ova). G va) =M,AMy=IT 1,3 (ovavi) A(ovave)aGGvavi) =M, AM, M,=111,2,5 Any given proposition can be converted to its ‘equivalent PCNF, Following are the steps to do so. © Convert the proposition to CNEF, i.e. conjunction of disjunctions. Gi) In every fundamental disjunction include the missing statements if any. ice. if the fundamental disjunction is p, and there is one ‘more statement ‘q’ to be included, then p can be converted as follows : P = pv(qva) qag =FandpvF=p = @vaa(pva) Distributive law = MAM, =IT0,1 Example Convert p v (aan) (pva) toPCNF Given proposition is, PY@ADV@Aq =[@vMr@vH]v@Arg) Distributive law = @VaVP)A@VaY@AYIVP)A@YFVvg) Distributive law =@VMAGVAYOYDARVaVE) =@VDA@VNAVAYH) Here, p vq, pvt, are fundamental disjunctions, pvqvrismaxterm. Include r in p vq and q in p Vr so that they become maxterms. apva = evay (raz) include r My AM, = 10,1 4 Now consider, vow (ava) qvevaya (pvave) Amange incre include g pyr MyaMs = 10,2 “LPCNFforp v(qQanv (pad) isgiven by 110,12 = @vavoa(ovavi) -(pvave) 5 Relationship between PDNF, at PCNF,Tautology and Contradiction In the previous two sections, we have found the PDNF and PCNF for the proposition, pv (qa) v (pag). The PDNF = ©3,4,5,6,7, and ‘The PCNF = 70, 1,2. It can be observed that the numbers in PCNF are the missing numbers in PDNF. ‘Thus we can find PCNF if PDNF is known and vice versa, without actually solving, i ‘ % 1.6.6 Solved Examples on Normal Form E1617 IFPDNF fora proposiionio If PDNF for a proposition is @r4)v (pva)y Gj) then find PCNF. Soin. Given PDNF is, (ona) v Gara) = MyvM,vM, X0,2,3. There are ‘wo statements p and a “Numbers range from 0 to 3, * The missing number in PDNFis 1. < @aq 0 A SHOT SHA ToDiscrete Structures & Graph Theory (Mi ‘The PCNF is given by TT, = M,=(pva) ‘This can be proved with actually converting PDNF to PCNF. Given PDNF is waa (ova) vna) = L@ravea(@nave) |v @ a4) distributive law = Lovmar@vaalva) alga) Iv aa) distributive law =[paevaa(pva) ]vG@ a) =(pvi )a(ova)a(evave )alovava) a(pvave ) a(pvava) =(pva) (eva) =(ova) =M, =m, Hence the proof. Consider a proposition, (p va) v (pag) Let us conver it to PDNE. evar G@aa) = pvav (Baa) = paCava)van(pva) v (Gna) Now include the missing statements = waav (ova) vanvry (ani) v aa) Removing repeated terms and arranging i ordér. 18 . ‘Thus it is clear that the PONE of a tautology has all the terms, and PCNF does not exist. Consider a proposition (pv q) a (pAG) Let us convert it to PCNF evan iad) = evanbrnd zipvanpv (and) aay (pap) Include missing statements = van (iva)aGva) (ave) (ave) = pvaava)aova) a(rva) Removing repeated terms and arranging in order = MyAM; 4M; AM, = 1101.23. Now try to solve the given proposition evar Gaa) = (papa) v(qapaq) Distributive law = FvF =F + Itis contradiction. ‘Thus itis clear that the PCNF of a contradiction has all the terms, and PDNF does not exist. Find PDNF for te following : 2 @>9va ») @>ove. 3 [GaGa varovenn]a © [((orave)vQova) ] ar Ex. 1.62: = Mavi MyM 1 sotn.: = £0,1,2,3. : i b+0ve Now try to solve the given proposition teva) ma 7 7 = (Gvaq) v From definition of > (eva (aa) =(evavi)a(vava) eee = TaT=T =pvava Associative aw «. Itisa tautology. =Bva ive “A SOHN SHAT Veatare "Teah-Neo Publications Where Authors inpire innovation ModuleDiscrete Structures & Graph The = Tia(ava) ]vLon(evi)] = Gra) vad) veaap)v (avi) = Ga) vGaa) v(paa) Removing repeated term and arranging in order. Mv My VM, = Lo1,3 ®) @>avp. = Gva) vp From definition of -> = (ve) vq Associative and commutative aw. =Tvq =T Itis a tautology. + PDNF has all four minterms, = £0,1,2,3 = Gna) v Gra) v (pnd) von © [6G vannvenn] aF = [@aaarv@anveoan]ar = Bagarat)v(qarat) v(parar) = FVFVF =F ~. Itis a contradiction. : PDNF does not exist. @ [Caadve)v (ova) ] ar = [LevosGvo]v (ova) ] ar Distributive law = [(pvevpva) a (avrvevb) Jar = [Cevave)a(pvave) ] ar = (pvave) ar = pvov (Gar) viean Tec Nes Publications —— Where Authors inspire ineration (Mu - Som 3-Comp) _t Ly, |-20 Include missing terms “TenanCava)]LCGae)-CorF) | a (pvp) Cava) - para (onraddy Garan)”(ar77) v steapaa) v(rapna)y(reBea) y (108-4) cpnanav(pndar) «@aaar) Gran) Removing repeated terms and arranging in order. = MyvMsvM, v My = 213,57 Ex. 1.6.3: Find PCNF for the following : Ld (pvqv>P & @7ae (47) ce [av(aav) ]a(aa5) a (p>a)v(r>(anp)) © son. : @ (evap = (eva )vb From definition of > = Gara) vp De Morgan's law = (vb) (ava) =5 aGva) = [iv (ana) ] 4 Gva) Include missing term = Gvq) ava) aGva) = Gva)a(5va) = MAM, = 11,3. Remove repeated term ) (p> 9)6 (G5) = (P39)6 (p54) 4B is contra positive of p+4 and they are equal p «> p is A SACHIN SHAH Neatareal Discrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-Comp,) Itisa tautology. . PCNF does not exist. @ [avGian) ]a(aas) e(ava) a(avbyaa ab = Tatavb)a(av (bab) )a(bv (ara) ) Tnclude missing terms. = avb)a(avb)aCanb)a(ova)a(baa) = (avb)a(avb)a(ave)a(ave) = M)AM;, AM, AM, = 110,1,2,3 All terms are present. 4. Itis contradiction Let us verify it by simplifying the given proposition [av (anv) ]a(ans) (antab) v(aabnd ) FVF F «Ibis contradiction. " @ (pravir (aap) = (va) v(FvcaaPy) = Gva) vEGaa) ave) ] From definition of -> Distributive law = (Gvaviva)a(Gvavive) (ivqvi)aT=p vavt Show tal ps COAR)VQARVOANER © sotn.: To prove (~ pa (-QAR))VQAR)VPARVR 5 Proot = CPACQAR))VQARVOAR) 4-21 Logic LE PY QAR) ACOVQAR)) ARV QAR))]V PAR) = [EPVQACPYR)A-Qv@ ACQOVYRARVOAARYRI v@aR) = [CPVQACPVR)ATACQVR) AQVRAR1V PAR) = IE PVOACPVR AG QAD VR)ARIV@AR) = IE PV QACPYR AVR AR) vPAR) = [PVQACPYR)ARAR] V@AR) [-PVQACPYRARIVPAR) | CPVQVAACPVYQVYR A(PVRVP)ACPVYRYR) ARVP)ARVR) = TAC@PVQVR)ATACPVR) A@VR)AR = @PVQVR)ACPYR)APYR)AR = (-PVR)APVRAR =[-PAP)VGPARV RAP) VRARIAR [FV PAR) V@AR)VRIAR (~PARAR)v(PARAR) V(RAR) CPAR)V@ARVR (CPVP)ARYR = (TAR)VR = RvR=R = RHS Hence the proof. —_— UEx. 1.6.5 DECOM Use the laws of logic to show that [(p =) mapnalais tautology 3 son: * To prove [(p > q) A 7q -> 7p] is a tautology. Proof using laws of logic. Consider (p> q) A 74) > 7p. = (Ipvgata 7p = (IpaTq)—> 7p (pva)7a= 747) (e>4=Ipy” ‘eck Neo Publications Where Authors inspire innovation A SACHIN SHAH Ventare Module= 7p Aq) v Ip = (pva)v 7p (De Morgan's law) = @yP)v7p (Commutative law) 4 ¥ (PY 7p) (associate law) 0 qvt =T #@>Q) A714 7p) is tautology RREOCR MU - 0. 6(5). May 14. 6 Marks Use the laws of logic to determine the following expression 48 tautology or contradiction. Ip. (p => q)] =>q. E.somn. : Consider (AP >q))>q = @AMpvq))>q — [p>q=7pval = (Aq) 4 [pA Ip vq) > png] " T(prgya i (7p v 7g) v q {De Morgan's law] ‘Tp v (7q vq) [Associative law) = IpvT =T + @AP>4q)) qs tautology UEx. 1.6.7 DUEERTOR STITT Show that (= q “p= q)) == pis a tautology 1 som.: To prove, (74.4 (p> q))—> Tpis atautology. Proof using laws of logic. Consider (7q 4 (p> q)) > 7p =(7q. (Ipvq))— 7p > 4=%pvq) = (14.0 Tp) > 1974.4 (1p v4) = (14.0 7p)) =7(1qA7p)v Ip . = (4p) v 7p (De Morgan's law) =v (pv Tp\(Associate law) =qvT =T (IgA (PI) — TPs tautology. TA predicate is @ generalization of} denoted by P (x), P (% y). P (x y, 9 n . P is either true g) zare the arguments. P is o SS earoRen the values assigned to th! ax arguments. Consider the following prop Definition : A proposition. It is ions, For example : “apple is sweet” + “grape is sour” “Mango is sweet” “tamarind is sour” Now let there be a predicate P(x) given as, P(x): xis sweet. Now P(x) is true, if ax is ether apple or mango. Ix is grape or tamarind, P(x) is false. Let the following be predicates. @ PG: x+B=10 Gi) Qwy):xty=10 Gi) RG, yz): xty=z The predicate P (x) has only one argument, x, P(x) is true if x=2, otherwise itis false. The predicate Q (x, y) has two arguments, x and y. Assuming that x, y-are integers, Q (x, y) is true for 1 combinations of x and y. They are (0, 10), (1, 9), (2, 8) -ss (10, 0), The predicate R (x, RO y, 2) is true for inf sy, and 2 ¥% 2) has three arguments nite number of combinations of 1 Definition : The method of a variables in a predicate is ky “There are two types of Luniversal and existential, 'ssigning or binding the nOwn as_quantificatio ‘Quantification; they are| od SACHIN SHAH Veato(6,6) Xo oto E1,% 1.23 Logic a Discrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-Comp,) Itis written as,¥, and read as “for all x”, “for every x” cor “for each x”. — For example ()_Letthere be a predicate Pi) : x 20. ‘This is true for any value of x. g wecan write Yeo PQ) is true, (ii) LetP (x): x25 100. This is true if x isin range of - 10 to 10. 2. we can write, ¥,- 10S x 10 P(x) is true, ‘1.7.3 Existential Quantifier Consider a predicate P(x). If it is not true for all possible values of n, but true for some value of x, then x is said to be existentially quantified. 7 It is written as 3, ind read as “for some x” or “there exists a value of x”. For example Thisis tue for x= +1. Thus we can write. 3, ,POdis We can combine both universal and existential quantifiers Ex.: LetP (x, y) bea predicate, given by PQ): xty=8 Here we can put any value in x, and find value for y that satisfy the predicate i ‘Thus it can be written as, ¥,°3, P(x, y) is true or We can nogate a quantifier as follows (¥, POD) = 3, CPO) G,P@)=¥, CPO) P(x) is read as P (x) is false. 23 1.7.4 Solved Examples on Predicates ach Ex.1.7.1: Translate these statements into Eng! given predicates. A(x): xisacat B(x) : x is an animal. Soin. : a ¥,(AG) ABQ) ‘= Forall x is a cat and itis an animal ‘true that every cat is an animal. ce. 3,(A@) 9B @) ‘or some x x is acat implies that x is as animal. ‘There exists a can which is an animal eo Let the following be the predicates. P(x): xisin the class Q(x): can speak Oriya R(@) : xis bom in India has been in NCC. © som. : a. Given expression is ‘Someone in your class can speak Oria. 3(P@))AQ@ b. Given expression is, Everdyone in your class is nonest ¥,(P@) ATO) c. Given expression is, : ‘There is a person in the class who was not bom in India. 3,(P@) A~R@) ¥,73,P (%,y)is tue Teeh-Neo Publications... Where Authors inspire inovation A SHOHIN SHAH Venture Modale elDiscrote Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Som Given expression is, A student in your class has been in NCC. 3,(P()) AS (x) ee Translate these statements into English, Let QC, ¥) = x has sent a letter to y* where universe of discourse for both x and y consist of all students in your class @ 3,3, QGy) 0) 3V,Q6,y). © ¥ 3Q&Y @ 3,3,QKy © 3% KYO ¥,3,Qy) © son: Given Q(x.) =x has senta eter toy. & 3,3, QGy) = There exists a student who has sent a letter to another. b 3, ¥,QG,y). = There exists a student who has sent a letter to all students, © ¥,5,06% = Every student has sent letter to one student. 4,3, Q@%y) : = There exists a student who has received a letter from one student. e 3,¥%, Q&y = There exists a student who has received a letter from all students. ¥, 2.00») = Every student has received a letter from one student, “syllabus Tople : Principles of Mathematical is Pie induction ee 5& Proof techniques In mathematics, when a theoretical concept is presented, it shouldbe supported with the help ofa prof, so that it is universally accepted. There are many techniques to Fock Nes ablations nn Where Author inp inorton sve a theory or formula. In this section, we study differ prove a theo ; proof echniques and example oftheir applications yy) 1.8." MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION (MI) — Mathematical induction is one of the widely used proof techniques. It is very simple, generally used to prove g given equation. ‘Mathematical induction has following three steps. > Step 1: Basis of induction : In this step, the given equation is proved by substituting the basis value number ie. the minimum value for the variable, n. This minimum value will be given in the problem statement, > Step 2: Induction step : In this step the given equation is assumed to be true, fora value K of n. > Step3: Inducting hypothesis step : In this step, the k +1. To do so, we use given equation is proved for the assumption in step 2. — Hence the given equation is true for n= np Ifitis tue forn=k, then itis trie forn=k +1. = Thus as per induction hypothesis, the given equation is true for n> np ice Ibis true for np, my +1, ny +2.. A 1.8.1. Solved Examples re Ex 184: Prove tat 1+2+3+..4n=202D g >} using MI. Mo. : YH som. : Let be the equation 142434... +n= Mt) > Step 1 : Basis step : Forn= 1, we have 1 = 4X03) 1x2 re + Bistueforn=1 > Step Assume that B is true for i= k “14243400442 Mk+D) 2 =A SUCHIN SHAH VestDiscrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU. > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis Prove that Bis true forn=k+1 142434... ¢k+1 242 Dds ey ie, x Prooft LHS = 142+3+..4k+1 = 14243 tk eked kk+1) a eke (rom step 2) = RHS Eistueforn=k+1 0 ¥ . ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis E is true for all n2 1 a 1eneas.ensteD ae ‘Hence the proof. Ex. 1.8. Prove that I+ 2°+...+0 ain ten + n21 by ML © som: avy Let ete equation 5 Proot Ls = 1742+. ++? aPeP tt tk +I = HE ORD (4 18 (From steps 2) _ Kee+ 1) Ok+ 1) + 6k+ 1 - 6 _ #1) e Qk+ 1+ 6+) = 6 k +1) Qk +k+ 6k +6) as a 2K + Tk +6 k+ QR +7k+6)) =2k' + 4k +3k+6 = 6 2k (k +2) + 3k +2) =(k+2) 2k+3) _ G+) +2) 0k+3) 6 +) k++ DOk+DsL = 6 = RHS . Bistrueforn=k+1 ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, E is true for all n> 1 2_n(n+1)Qn+1) a Pete te! esl Hence the proof. Pata ep te noneD > Step 1 : Basis step Forn=1, we have 1x4 Dx@x1+1) _, 6 1 Bis te forn=1 > Step 2: Induction step Assume that Bis true for n =k 2 _ kk+ Oks 1 P+2+..+k 6 >” Step 3: Induction Hypothesis Prove that Bis tne for n=k +1 fh+ 1) ikea 1+ 2k t+) ferry kets (2 (K+ 1)+1) io. 42 Teel-Neo Publications Where Authors inspire ianoration Ex. 1.83: Prove by induction that forn 0, anda# 1 HZ soin.: Let E be the equation l+ata +. tas +20, a41 > Step 1: Basis step Forn= 1, we have ov Ve yea c+ Bis true forn=1 > Step 2: Induction step Assume that Eis true for n =k pe ce ltatatt tate 1-8 TA SICHIN SHAH Veatare> Step 3: Induction hypothesis Prove that E is true forn=k +1 jeltata+..tah! = 55 Proot LHS = at *? From steps 2) + Eistme forn=k+1 ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, Eis true for all n2 1 sltatate n20,a#1 Hence the proof. Ex. 1.8.4: Show that 1 +t won OED Soin. : Let E be the equation F4F de CD en HD (yt 1 > Step 1: Basis step Forn= 1, we have 141 Le tt 2 ©. Eis true forn > Step 2: Induction step ‘Assume that Eis true for n = k 24 FF + HCD > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis Prove that B is true forn=k +1 CoKHD? (-1)* ie. 1 -2+3°-47 &+Dk+1+N keg pe pores d tet oD +1) eat + Ok kee ao Page a tw mde ne 14 DE k-+ 1) (From steps 2) 1 k+1 * ygenenttaaent et Vt (+ 2+ DI -— 2 epkoes k++? = 2k :, Bistrue for ‘Thus as. ve induction Pypotiess Bis true for all n21 " 1 HED Ra ae Hence the proof. Ex.1.8.5: Show that 1? +3°+5?+ ...+(2n—1)° nQn—1)Qn+ 1 © sotn. : Let E be the equation : Pesteste 4 QnA Nene) In this case nis not Biven. By observing the equation we can find that ng= 1 > Step 1: Basis step Forn=1, we have P= Wxt1-Next41) 1x13 3 ae + Bis tue forn > Step 2: Induction step Assume that Bis tue for n =k pre kRk=DOK4 1 3 2 BaP ue VHP ase ga od SACHIN SHAH Veto[b]_oiroe Stuctues& Graph Thooy (MU -Sem3-Comp) 1.27 Logie : 7 m Pages tk De kQk 4 Ok+ 1 +. Bistmue for: ai tethagests 4 (2k—1)-4! > Step 2: Induction step + 1)(2(k + 1)—1) (2Kk-+ 1) 41 Assume that Bis true for n 8 we Pa tt Re (4243 + BP range We know that, 1+243+...+=80 0 LHS = 17434574. 404 1)-17 ae . we get = P4345 Ok D+ K+ D- 1? F345 Ok ~1)74 lk D1) Pats. oe [EDF KQk-VCk+1 2 2 = Fo + 2+ D1) > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis eps 2) , Srna? Prove that Bis true forn=k +1 KQk—1)Qk + 1) +3QK+1 ke tyke 141 = ‘tk+ Ik +141) 3 ie Past ed? rome (2k+ NKOk~ 1) +3QK+1 = © Proot _ Gk+ 2k + 6k+3] LHS = P424..++D? 7 3 ok s 1) OR + 5k49 = PHP +. + ++ 1? +1) Qk + 5k+ . 3 = (Ta (From steps 2) 2k + 5k +3 2a a Ay ° a? e Kk+ iy +4tke+ 1 Ke + 2k + 3k +3 = 2K(k + 1) + 3(k +1) = tke treshe ye es LR sie k+1) (2k +3) 7 _ Ok + N+ Nk +3) = HED Braces 3 + 12K +1) NK) +1) = Ge yy [eemgsteur = 3 = RHS Eis tmeforn=k+1 Thus as per induction hypothesis, E is tue forall n2 1 = MADR NONED 43 P 434 5*+ + @n-1) Hence the proof. RHS 142434..¢Kk+1 Bisteforn=k+1 ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, Eis true forall n> 1 P42 4..¢m = (14243+4..40), 221 Hence the proof, IF 7 Ex,1.8.6: Show that P+2°+..4m (14243 +004 nyn2t © som. : Let Ebe the equation P4Ps ema (142434 0040) > Step]: Basis step For n = I,wehave ri? fi Ex.1.87: Show that 73 +35 +--+ GarnGas n(n +1) 2an+ tn?! © soln. : Let B be the equation . riz n(n +1) 13435 **@n=Den+ 1 220+ 1) > Step 1: Basis step Forn= Tech Neo Pablcations ——. Where Authors inspire innovation =A SACHIN SHAH Venture‘Show that 41 Ex, 1885 RHS = Soxd4 i - zs eael ++ Bis tive for @ soln. > Step 2: Induction step ‘Assume that E is true for n = a 4 2 XW kik +1 13 735 * + @ENakeD “2Ak+N) + Induction Hypothesis Prove that Bis tme forin= +1 ae vo +1) LHS +e D-NRke +0 +4141 RHS 22k+H+1 2. Bistrue for Zz + 435 + * GR D-DOk+D+D et be the equation > Step 2: Induction step ‘Assume that E is true for n =k Z 3. 1)(2k + 1) 1 pan. +1y EN-DERENID > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis _ k&+1) +1 = 20k+1)* @k+N-NA@k+D+H Prove that E is true forn=k +1 From steps 2) a _ kes baa? 12* 237434 k+DKk+T4FD = 202k +1) * k+ Nak+3) k+l ~ 2 “Ferd __ kik + 10k +3) + 21k + 1 - 2(2k + 1(2k + 3) EF Proot _ K+ Ufk(2k +2) + 20k+ 1) oot 1 *. 2(2k + 1)(2k +3) 23 +34 ++ Fa Dkeley 2K + 9k-+2k +2 edt 1 1 + 12K" 4 Be 242) J 2 + ak ke 2 TE" BS TSE RT Ra TaD = Dek + (2k + 3) 2k (k+2) +1 (k+ 2) k 1 =f yo) (e+ OKA IMk+2) wee RST TERETE Fromsep2) + See DOANE? Kk+231 Bao 4] 2 (4A 1)(2k +3) k++ 1+), Take + RUS Eis true forn=k+1 ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, Eis true for all n> 1 2 ° a(n + 1 a. Halal) + Qn—D@n+T =2Qn41)02! * &D0K2) KD Dk+D * Bistueforn=k41 ‘Thus as per induction hy i ; \ypothesis, E is true for all n2! ote ty 12* 33 +3 teen?! Hence the proof —A SACHIN SATO[hp] disco Structures & Graph Theory (MU Som 3.Comp) Ex. 1.8: 129 + Show that Foy sey oy = 24 2k+K +1 Tat ast + aoe eae Qn~ n+) = 2kk+ D+k+D = Okt 4D 2ne1” Bis true for soln. : Let Ebe the equation ait 1 a 13°35 ** Qa @aey “Inet > Step 1: Basic step Forn=1, wehave 11 uns = 7-4 RHS = 51-1 - ns = Dera “37 2. Bistweforn=1 > Step 2: Induction step Assume that E is true for n = k aaa ————— “73 +35+ (k-NQk+ 1) > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis Prove that E is true forn=k+1 1 aed he. 73+35t + De) k++ 1 1 “+O Gk+ 1 *@k+)-+ k++) k 1 2e+1 *CK+N-DOK+D + (From steps 2) k 1 Teel * Qk+NAK+3) KQQk+3)¢1 __ 2 43k41 Bk + 1) AE+H “BNF kat OAD GA NOK+3) 7 Ak+ Fy ~ RNS 2+ 3k4+1 “Teab-Neo Publications. Where Authors inspire inovation ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, Bis true for all n> 1 peepee a ee “73435 te * Gao Gna) ~In+7 M2! Hence the proof. Ex. 1.8.10: Show that 1.23 +234 4345 +.... (n42) =e Dn 20+ 3 7 : D1 sotn. Let E be the equation 123423443454 n(n + Din + 2)(n +3) = 4 > Step 1: Basis step Forn = 1, we have +n(n+t) zl n(n +1) (n+2) 123-6 1x2%3x4 ns ©. Bistmeforn=1 > Step 2: Induction step Assume that Bis true form =k 123423443454 _ kik + 1Nck + 2)k-+3) 7 4 > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis Prove that Bis true forn=k+1 ie. 12342344345 +...4 (K+) (e+ 141) (e+ 142) (+ k-+ 1+ 1k + 142) (e+ 143) . 4 5 Proof LHS = 1.29423.443.454.004(K4 1) (K+ 141) (ke 142) FA2B42944 9.45 4 on MMH 1) (K+ 2) + (K+ 1K #2) C49) K(k + Nik + 2k +3), 4 Kk +1) +2) = #(k+ +243) (From steps2) = kD e+ K+ d[ Ee] _ e+ Mk + e+ IK +A) 4 = Gees ts ike 142 k+143) _ puis A SACHIN SHAH VearareEis tue forn=k+1 ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, Bis true for all n2 1 Hence the proof. Ex, 1.8.11: Show that n° + 2n is divisible by 3 for all n2 1 by induction. Soin. : We need to prove n° + 2n is divisible by 3 > Step 1: Basis step For n= 1, we have n+2n = 1+2x1=3, divisible by3 <. m°42n is divisible by 3 forn=1 > Step 2: Induction step Assume that n° + 2n is divisible by 3 for n =k > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis Consider n’ +2n forn=k+1 iLe(k+1P+2k+1) = +14 3k(e+ 1) +242 K+ 2k +3 +3k'+ 3k (Rearranging terms) 3x43K'43k43 (From step 2) 34K +k+1) 2 (k+ 1+ 2k + 1) is divisible by 3 ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, n° + 21 3 forall n>1 divisible by Ex. 1.8.12: Show that ble by 3 for all n> 2 by induction 1 son. + ‘We need to prove n'— 4n*is divisible by 3 here ng = 2, : Basis step > Step Forn=2, we have 2t-4x2", 16-16 =0, divisible by 3 n*~4n?is divisible, by 3 forn=2 ecko Publications —— Where Authors inspire isoration induction steP 2:0 %, SteP _ artis divisible « sume that 0 as aKa = 3% 2 3xt4k le by 3 forn=k “ Ke 43; Induction Hypothesis ek+l > Step Consider 2 ie. k+ D'-4k + D ; 24142840 +1 #28) 2 nt. for = +14+28) wa e2b +k 4142420 42k+4K 4-4 - 8k = 44420 -4k-3 3x+4+4+2k'— 4k - 3 (From step 2) 44k + 6K + 3x-3 = 4k (2-1) 46k'+3x-3 = 4k (k+ 1) (K-1)4 6K + 3x-3 = 4Gy)+ 6K 43x -3 “2 (k= 1) (kK) (k + 1) is product of 3 consecutive numbers , which is divisible by 3. Assume that (k — 1) k (k +1) =3y = 34y+2K4+x-1) 2 k+1)'-4(k + 1)*is divisible by 3. ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, n‘ — 4 n? is divisible by3 for all n>2 Ex. 1.8.13 : Show that 2" 2" — 1 is divisible by 3 for alln 2 1 by induction. Soln. : We need to prove that 2° 2" —1 is divisible by3 3, divisible by 3 2x2 — Lis divisible by 3 for » Step 2: Induction step Assume that 2° 2° 1 ; at 2° 2" 1 ig divisible by 3 forn=k x2 3x od SACHIN SHAH Veo[i] ovszte sructures& Graph Theory (MU -Sem2:Comp) 1-31 Logic Bx = 341 > Step 3: Induction Hypothesis 4 > sep3+ Indios Hypotnt Wetnow az, ae Consider 2°x2" —1 forn =k +1 k< 2 (from step 2) ie eo im Bal aba! hak k+l < Mel = xD ak - Bx M22 -1 cea chat Inequality is tru if you Gx#Ixa-1 (from step 2) * increase right hand side nee k+l < 22 12x+3=3Cx+1) ap 214211 is aivisible by 3 keh ct ‘Thus as per induction hypothesis, 2°x2" Lis divisible by 3 for all n> 1. Ex, 1.8.14: Show that sum of cubes of three consecutive integers is divisible by q, using induction. Soln. : ‘To prove the sum of cubes of three consecutive integers is divisible by 9, we first consider, three such integers, (a-1),nand(n+1) (we can dlso take n, n + 1, n + 2 but requires more calculations) .. (n — 1)° + n° (n +.1)° is the required product and we should prove that it is divisible by 9. Consider (n-1)°+n° (n+ 1)° 6 = a1-3n4 nto td 43+ Sn = 3n'+6n=3(n"+2n) 2-1) +0? + (n+ 1) =3¢0° + 20) Sum of cubes of three consecutive integers is divisible by 3. To prove that it is divisible by 9, we have to prove that n°\+ 2n is divisible by 3. This is shown in example Ex. 11 o.(a— 1m (041) is di ible by 9 Hence the proof. Ex. 1.8.15: Show that n <2" forall n2 0. © sotn. : We have to prove that forall n20,n <2". > Step 1: Basis step o<2 ne? iste for n=O > Step 2: Induction step Assume that n < 2" forn = For a=0, => 0<1 ie. k<2 “Tech-Neo Publieations Where Authors inpie insoration 2. ne 2Mistrue forn=k+ 1, ++ From induction hypothesis, n <2" forall n 0. Ex. 1.8.16: Show that n® 4. Soln.: We have to prove that 2" 4, Inthis case, n=: (Check for n =3, 2° >31) > Step 1: Basis step Consider n=4 for 2* and nl = 16 4 =24 atc at a M Step 2: Induction step Assume that 2° Step 3 : Induction hypothesis ‘We know that w 1 iduction prove that 1 +a-+a+...a' © sotn. : Let P(n) be o_=a"* Teatate. 401 Got ‘where n>0 Proof of P(n) using mathematical induction, @ Basis step: Letn ‘Then LHS of P(1) = 1 RHS of Pq) =4= ~a + PC) is tue, i) Induction step Assume that P(k) is true, fe ltatats ya! Gi) Induction hypothesis Consider Pk + 1) Veataty =A SACHIN SHAHBL oscote Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-Comp,) Taw +t ae +a wee peat! ken =i- < P(k + 1) istrue, «= From the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true forn 20 sltatat tal Hence the proof. vex. 1.8.20 ITEC Stow that n (0 ~ 1) is divisible by 24, where nis any odd positive integer. OZ son. : Let P(n) be n(n? — i) is divisible by 24 where n is any dd positive number. Proof by mathematical induction. @ Basis step : Consider n = 1. (least odd positive number) then P(1) = 1 (1? ~ 1) = Ois divisible by 24. (i) Induction step ‘Assume that P(k) is tru. ie. K(k’ — 1) is divisible by 24, where k is an odd positive integer. vk (P= 1) = 24a where a2 1 Gii) Induction bypothesis, Consider P(k+2) . (k+2isnext odd number of k) = k+2)k+27-1) 199 gic Sor ales boom Mole 2a + 6 (2x)? ae = UMa+6x4x? =24(a4x4) 4: P(k + 2)is divisible by 24. From the principle of mathematical induction, n(n? — 1) is divisible by 24 where n is an odd positive integer. Ex. 1.8.21 IIUECRTO ETERS Prove using Mathematical Induction 24548 ++ Gn=1)=n(n+ 1/2 OD soin.: Let P(a)be2+5+8+...# n= 1)=2054) Proof by mathematical induction. (Basis step Consider n=,1 Then LHS of Pl) = 3x1-1=2 pais = LGXL#l = LHS = RHS 2. P(a)is true for Induction step ‘Assume that P(n) is true for n +k =EGEtD ie2+548+.. (ii) Induction hypothesis, Consider p(k + 1) = k+I (C44 44k-1) 24548+4...+Gk-D+GK+D-D = (k+2) (+ 4k +3) _k+DGK+D+1 = k+2k+3) +) : 2 = k+2)K+DK+3) uns = EHD, Gk 43-1 = k(k+ 1) e+3)42k+ KH) [Distributive aw) = BORED. Gk +2) = k(k+ 1) k-144) 42+ +3) eee = (+1) k=1) +4 +1) Ss $2 +I k+3) _ 3k) Gk+4) . = k=) +2Kk+1) Ck +k+3) *e 2 = Ma +20 +1)-3(k +) _ k+DGk+ Den _ = Ma+6(k+1)° == 2 =RES ee kaonbiha Fite an odd sami, From the principle of mathematical induction, k++ 1is an even number. POP) in trac for nt Let k+l = & 1245484 0.4 Gn=1) SOR Chapter Ends. aoa Teai-Neo Piblcatons Were Author inp innovation A SHOHIN SHAH VeatareCHAPT! al ER Relations and Functions syllabus Basic concepts of Set Theory, : Relations : Definition, Types of Relations, Representation of Relations, Closures of Relations, Warshall's algorithm, Equivalence relations and Equivalence Classes, Functions : Definition, Types of functions, Composition of functions, Identity and Inverse function 24 Sets. 21.1 Definition. 212 Representation of Sets. 2.1.3 Typesof Sets. 24.4 Number Sets, 24.5 Symbols Used in Sets 22 Venn Diagram. 23 Set Operations... 23.1 Union of Sets - U 23.2 Intersection of Sets -n.... 233 — Complement of a Set Or 234 — Set Difference (-) 23.5 — Symmotric Difference -® or Boolean Sum 23.6 — Cross Product or Cartesian Product : 23.7 Properties of Set Operations or Laws of Set Theory. 238 — Venn Diagram for Set Operations Propertis. 23.9 De Morgan's Law. 2.3.10 Distributive Law .. 24 Solved Examples on Sets.Redations 2 Furi, nay - Bom 3-Comp) 22 ; Discroto Structuros & Graph Theo CA MMU | ex. 2.4.8 (MU @. 6(d), May 10,4 Marke, Q, 3(b), Do0s 10, 6 Marks)... UEx. 2.4.9 (MU-Q. 6(a), May 15, 0 Marks) . UEx. 2.4.10 (MU- Q. 3(0), Dec, 14,4 Marks). 25. Parttion of a Se. 2.6 Introduction to Relations. 26.1 Representation o a Relation. META ES UEX.2.7:7 (MU Q. 5(c), May 18,4 Marks). 27 Solved Examplos on Relation... UEx. 2.7.8 (MU-@. 2(0), May 17, 4 Marks) . UEx. 27.9 (MU Q. 1(¢), May 16, 8 Marks) . ————=——————— 2.8 Terms in Relations. 2.8.1 Domain, 2.82 Rangk 2.8.3 Universal Relation, 2.8.4 Void Relation, 2.9 Solved Examples on Relation... 2.10 Properties and types of a binary Rolation, Y Syllabus Tople : Transitvty Rolation.. UEx. 2.11.7 (MU + Q. 1(b), May 14, 5 Marke UEx. 2.11.8 (MU -Q. 2(b), May 14, 8 Marke) UEx. 2.11.8 (MU + Q. 1(¢), Dec. 14, A SACHIN SHAT Venturepiscreto Structures & Graph Theory (MU-Sem 3-Comp) _2.3. Rotations & Functions UEX. 2.11.10 (MU - Q. 6(¢), Dec. 14, 8 Marks). UEx. 2.11.11 (MU - @. 2(c), May 15, 8 Marks) UEX. 2.11.12 (MU Q, 2(c); Dec. 15, 6 Marks). UEX. 2.11.13 (MU - Q, 5(¢), May 17, 8 Marks) UEx. 2.11.14 (MU - Q, 1(c), May 2014, 5 Marks) UEX. 2.11.15 (MU - Q. 5(¢), May 18,4 Marks) . UEx. 2.11.16 (MU -0, 4(a), Dee, 10,6 Marks) Ex. 2.11.17 (MU - Q. 3(b), May 18,8 Marks) UEX. 2.11.18 (MU~@. 2(¢), Dec. 13, 6 Marks). 2.12 Operations on Relations 2121 Converse of a Relation.. 242.2 Reflexive Closure 2.12.3 Symmetric Closure 2.12.4 Transitive Closure... 212.5 Complement of a Relation... 2.12.6 Composition of Relations.. 2.13. Properties of Relation Matrices and Graphs of Different Types of Relations. 244. Warshalfs Algorithm.. 245 Solved Examples. POEM aes UEx. 2.15.18 (MU- Q, 3(a), May 14, 6 Marks) UEx. 2.15.19 (MU- Q. 3(¢), Dec. 14, 8 Marks) UEx. 2.15.20 (MU @. 3(¢), May 15, 8 Marks) UEx.2.15.21 (MU-Q. 5(b), May 16, 6 Marks) UEx. 2.15.22 (MU-@. 2(a), Dec. 16, 8 Marks). UEx. 2.15.23 (MU - Q. 6(a), May 17, 4 Marks) UEx. 2.15.24 (MU - Q. 2(b), Dec. 17, 6 Marks)... 246 Functions... 2.17 Representation of Functions.. 2.18 Types of Functions... ‘Tech-Neo Publications. Where Authors inspire innovation A SUCHIN SEAT VentareRelations & Function WY Ssyllabus Topic : Surjective Function 2.18.1 Surjective or Onto Function.. ¥ Syllabus Topic : Injective Function 2.18.2 Injective or One-to-One V Syllabus Topic : Biective Functor 2.18.3 Bijective or One-to One Onto V Syllabus Tople : Composition of Functions . 2.19 Composition of Functions Y syllabus Topic : Inverse of a Function 2.20 Inverse of a Function 221 Solved Examples.. 2.21.1 Solved Examples on Functions UEx.2.21.16 (MU-@. 1(c), Dec. 16, 6 Marks). UEx. 2.21.17 (MU ~ Q. 2(d), Dec. 13) UEx 2.21.18 (MU —Q. 3(a), May 14)... UEx. 2.21.19 (MU - Q.5(b), Dec.14)... UEx. 2.21.20 (MU — Dec. 08, Dec. 15) UEx. 2.21.21 (MU — Dec. 05, May 08, May 09, May 12) UEx. 2.21.22 (MU — May 09) UEx. 2.21.23 (MU — Dec. 10).. UEx. 2.21.24 (MU — Dec. 11 UEx. 2.21.25 (MU — Dec. 12)... UEx. 2.21.26 (MU — Dec. 05, May 08, May 09, May 12 UEx 2.21.27 (MU— May 14).. UEx. 221.28 (MU —May 14. EX. 2.21.29 (MU - Q. 5(b), Dec. 15) UEx. 221.30 (MU — Dec. 05, May 08, May 09, May 12) UEx.2.21.31 (MU -May 17) UEx. 2.21.2 (MU - Q. 3(¢), Dec. 18, 8 Marks) UEx. 2.21.33 (MU - Q. 3(c), May 18,4 Marks) UEx. 2.21.95 (MU - Q. 1(4), Dec. 17, 5 Marks). Ex. 221.36 (MU - Q.2(d), Dec. 17, 4 Marks) UEx. 2.21.97 (MU - Q. 3(c), Dec. 17, 4 Mark) © Chapter Ends. Tech-Neo Publications ———.Where Authors inspire innovationRelations & Functions G) biscte Swwtwes & Graph Theory (MU-Sem3-Comp) 26 Introduction ‘This chapter deals with fundamentals of discrete structures. The word discrete indicates individual, separate ‘and distinct. It is opposite to the word continuous. Fig. 1 shows the representation of discrete and continuous. Continuous Fig.1 Syllabus Topic : Sets Set isa collection of distinct elements or objects. ‘The word ‘distinct’ is important, because a set cannot have two copies of same object. For example, we cannot have set of 3 pens. But if we name each pen distinctly, then we can call the same collection as a set ie. collection of 3 pens is not a set, whereas collection of pen-1, pen 2 and pen Bisaset, It is not necessary that there must be always a relation between the objects in a set. There can be a set which consfits of an alphabet A, number 5, a symbol $, a name janga’ etc. YA 2.1.2 Representation of Sets A set can be represented in different ways, using different notations. The simplest way is to write the objects within braces, ie, { }. The sets discussed in section 1.1.1 are represented as follows : {pen 1, pen 2, pen3) ‘This method of set representation is known as listing _ method. If the elements of a set share common characteristics, then they can be represented using either statement form or set-builder notation. In statement form, a set is represented using a sentence that describes the common characteristics of elements. Module For example E (Set A consists of all prime numbers less than 20. “Wi SetB consists of divisors of 60. Using listing method, the above sets are represented as, Li) A= (2,3,5,7,11, 13, 17, 19) (i) B=(1,2,3,4,5,6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60) Ina set builder notation, a set is represented as (x | P(x), where x is considered as an element in the set, and P(x) is the property of x, which is common to all elements in the set. The symbol | is read as such that or where. The sets A.and B discussed above are represented as, 0, Gi Az {x1x<20and x is prime} B= (x16 divisible by x) Syllabus Topic : Countable YA 24.3 Types of Sets Depending on the number of elements present in a set, a setcan be one of the five different types. (Refer Fig. 2.1.1) {i Countabiy infinite set [() Countabie set ee & Bet co vont an pecs est lone a name, usually an uppercé Fig. 2.1 A= (bd) B ={1,2,3,4,5) ‘Tech-Neo Publications ....... Where Authors inspire innovation A SACHIN SHAH Venture70 A set that consists of fixed number of elements. Ext A= 125,792) > Gi) Infinite set ‘When there is no limit to the number of elements in a Finite set set, it is known as infinite set EXN= (1234.00) icate tending to ial set, known as set The three dots .. hhas no end. This example gives, of natural numbers represented by Ny > Gi) Countabiy infinite set It isan infinite set, but there exists a one to one correspondence (or mapping) between the elements of the set and the elements of N, set of natural numbers. Ex. 1: X= {~ 1000, - 100,— 10, 0, 10, 100, 1000, ...) ‘Though this set is infinite, we can map it to N as follows x N 10 + 6 -100 + 1 1000. > 7 -10 + 2 10000 > 8 -10 + 3 Oo-+4 . 0 3 5, Ex.2: Y= 0, 1,4;9, 16, 25, 36, ...} 1s countably infinite because of the following mapping. Y n 7 0 1 16 © blule_iggys ~auaune 36 Relations & Functiong table set > (iy) Cor led count it is finite or countably A sot is calle table, infinite uncountable set > (¥) Uncountably infinite or infinite set, that eannot be mapped with Set of an set, natural numbers. see 2,— 1405 15 2035 Ext: We cannot have one to one correspon and N, because both first and last elements of Z tend to dence between 2 infinity. Ex.2:M=(x10. Remember that # “ AxB ={< p,q>Ipe Aandqe B) AUB = ANB Vv Its clear that A xB1=1A1xIB1 XAB = kus ie. Number of elements in A x B is equal to the Product of number of elements in A and B. (9) Distributive law Example AUBNO = (AUB)N(AUG, Lat A = (5,2:3.4) . AN@UO) = (ANB)U(ANG) B= (24,6) Ax(@BUC = (AxB)U(AXO) AXB = (<1,25,<1,4>,<1,65,<2,2><24>, AX@BOC) = (AxB)N(AXC) <2,65,€3,2%,<3.42,<36>€42> | op yabmpotentiaw <4, 4>.<4,6>) Hee 1Al=4, 1Bl=3 and|AxBI=12 AuA® A Note that AXB#BXA ifA4B AN ATA tie Tech Neo Publications __. Were Author inpire innovation A SUCHINSTAH Veataremg scrote Structures & Graph Theory (MU- Som SCS AU(ANB) = AY AN(AUB) = A A-A =A IFC is sub set of A, then AUC = As AnceC (vill) Operations generating Null set 6 Jang = 6 -Domination law Ank =6 = Inverse law A-A= 6 AGA = 6 ~A-U = 6 © o-A= 6 Axo =o (Gx) Operations generating universal set U YAUU =U” -Domination law VAUR =U -tversetaw \AGK =U Y (8) Operations with Null set ¢ SJavgaay = Indentify Ano=o SA-o =A Vo-A =o “ A®O=A osu = Inverse law (xi) Operations with universal set U AUU =U Vanu=a Identity taw ~ Domination law Relations & Funeten, A aoueA w= = Inverse ly A, AUB=BaAy (xi if Ac B then AnB BcA 2.3.8 Venn Diagram for Set Operations 2 2" properties Many properties of set operations are straight forward, but few need Venn diagrams for proof. In this section we discuss the same. 2% 2.3.9 De Morgan’s Law Itstates the following ) AUB=ANB (ii) ANB= Following table illustrates the same Right hand side (YG * @ Left Hand side WET) 7) LEZ Fig.23.1 73 wd SACHIN SHAH VeotoreDiscrete Structures & Graph Theory (MI ‘Som 3-Comy (@ Lefthand Side Right hand side LL p Y), a Fig. 23.1200) %_ 2.3.10 Distributive Law __Histates that @ @n© @uBNAUON @) AN@uG=AnB)UAN Following table illustrates the same © Las Fig. 23.13(0) Tech-Neo Publications ......WBere Authors inspire innovation Relations & Functions RHS BIA) Fig. 23.13(b) oe) ; Fig. 23.14(0) RHS [5 x v CR) OD : 7 Ant wae Fig. 23.1400) > 2.4 SOLVED EXAMPLES ON SETS Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false, Justify your answer. @ co ©) ged © oe) @ ecto © (eco Ex. 24.4 (A SACHIN SHAH VeatareaaBncae (ANB AO © B @ ccAuB CF “ 2AuC, B# ®@ (ab) € (a,b,6,(a,b,el] (© AUBHAY wee (h) {abc} € (a,b,c, (a,b,c}} © AnB=ANG @ (9) ca, (0,91) wg O (ore fa (ao) * a ZA son: (@ (AUB)GB and BE (2) $6: true Bvery seis subset of itself — This indicates the A=B ©) $6 6 false “A set cannot be member of itself v © $€ (9): Truc-Ois a member of set {o) , @ $C (6): Tre-gisa subset of every set © (0) 5 @: False - (6) is the set which has null set mEOe member. O (ad) c (abc, {a, b, c}) : True - Elements of set {a, b} belong to (a, b,c, {a,b c}). (B) {a,b} € (a, b,c (a, b, ch) : False - {a, b) is not a member of {a, b, c, (a, b,c} (h) {a,b,c} € (a,b,c, (a,b,c}} : True © (2,6) 6 fa, (a,6)) : Fale- The elements of (a6) are ‘and 6. They are not members of (a, (a, 6}) @ (Ole (a, (0, 9}) : True - The set (a, 6) is member &) ACB,ACC, BNOCA, and AC(BNC) Itis given that(BC)CA and ACBNC “A =.BAC is of (a, (2,99) Fig. P.24.30) &x.24.2 Determine the following Sets © ANBNC=% (ANB eoAn C# 6 and @ eum Mente cae) © 014 (26.10)) @ (17 (4,101) © 912019) (1 @1a.6,10)) Ce) & somn.: Cry @ 6U 1) =(6) LN | ©) 61 (6) =6 Fig. P.2.4.3(¢) ® COAUB, Cea, cep © (6) Ufa, 6, (0) =fa,6, (6) @) (0) (2,4, (6}) = 6} ©) $8 {2,6 (9)) = (2,4, (9) CO {9} © (a, 0 (1) = (a, (6)) 4.3 Let A, B, C be sets. Draw Venn diagrams for the given conditions. (@ (AUB)CB and BCA OM ACBACGBNOCA, ang Ac@no (es @ # 5 P é 4 SACHIN SHAH VeoDiscrete Structures & Graph Theory (MI (9 AUB=AUGBeC v Fig. P.23.4(@) Example A =(1,2,3,4,5} B =(3.4,5,6,7) C = (2,3,6,7) () ANB=ANG, Be 1,2,3,4,5) 3,4, 5,6,7) 4,5,6) £x.244 Prove the following statements without using & Functions. 2.16 ol = (AnB)u (Bnca(DuD))) _-Distributve law = (ANB)U (BA(CNY)) _-Set complement = (ANB) U (BNC) ...Universal set property «Commutative law BNAUBNO Distributive law " Ba(AUC) = RHS. b. (A-B)NB-A)=0 LHS. =(A-B)NB-A) =(ANB)N@BNA) _ ...Setdifference =(AN(BNB))NA _ ...Associative law =(ANQNA -».Set complement =onA ...Null set property =o «Null set property =RHS. c. A@B=(AUB)N(AUB) @B (A~B)U@B-A) LHS. Symmetric difference ‘Venn diagrams. a canBu (BacenDuccny) =(ANB)U@NA) -- Set difference =BN(AUQ) =((ANB)UB]N[(ANB)UA] b. (A-B)NB-A)=6 «Distributive law c A@®B=(AUB)N(AUB) =[(AUB)N BUBALAVA)N(BUA)] oR Uae «Distributive law e AU(ANB)=A ae tL (A-B)-CuA-@UC) = (AUB)OUIN[UN(BUA)] [oe Set complement h. (A-B)-C=(A-C)-@-O) = (AUB)N (BUA) ...Universal set property Gi soin.: = (AUB)Q(AUB) —...Commutative law & @npu(BaqenDuccnd))) = RHS. =BN(AUQ) 4. (A-B)U(ANB)=A LHS. = AnB)u(BAyenD)u(en 5))) LHS =(A-B)U(ANB) “A SACHIN SHAH Venture Tech-eo Publications Where Authars inspire innovation ModuleDiscrote Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3-COUE! S(ANB)UCANB) _ ...Set difference Distributive law =AN(BUB) =ANU «Set complement =A «Universal set property © AU(AAB=A Let xe AU(ANB) = X€A or xe ANB * X€A or (xe Aand xe B) nOKEA Thus Vx €AU(ANB), xeA & AU(ANB)=A £ (A-B)-C=A-@uUC) LHS. =(A-B)-C SANBAG Set difference =An(Bnd) «Associative law =An(BUC) ++De Morgans law =A-@UQ) »- Set difference “=RHS. & (A-B)-C=(A-C)-B LHS. =(A-B)-C =ANB)ne «Set difference =An(B nC) +-Associative law =An(En B) +--Commutative law =AnT)nB «Associative law =(A-C)-B + Set difference =RHS. bh. (A-B)-C=(A-C)--0) RHS. =(A-C)-(B-C) =ANC)-Ce) — ..setditference =(ANCT)n( Banc) +» Set difference E Folations & Fun, ‘ 2:16. and) n Gyo -DeMoras,, nEnByuantng ae +--Distributive e(antnB)uane) +Set complems, --Null set propen, ---Null set proper, =(ANENB)Ue ecantnB) «Associative lay Set differeng =(AnB) ne =(A-B)-C Let A = (6, b} construct the following sets a A-ob. (o}-A ce A-() d. AUP(A) P(A)is power set of A e ANP(A) f P(A)-P({O)) Z sot. : Ex.24.5 a A-¢ = {o.b}-o = (9,b) =A b (O)-A = (6)- (4b) =o c A-(9} = (6,0) - (9) = (b) & AUP) pay is power set of A. = (6b) U (C0), (0), (4b), 0) = (6.6, (6), (b), (6.09) & AN P(A) = (6.0) U 19, (6), (b}, (6, b}) 4 SACHIN SHAH Veopisorote Structures & Graph Theor Som £ PIAD-PUeD = 16,16}. (1. (6.1) ~ (8, 161) {b). (@.b)) Be Ex.246 Find the power sets of following sets and verify IP(Ayl=2'** a A=(123) b A=(O) c ASO da A=(a O11) e 1,2) x lab) 1 somn.: a A =(23) POA) = {6,(1) (2), (3h (1,2) (23h (1,9), (1, 2,3) IPL =2=8° b @. (9) IPA) =2=2 IPA =2=1 a (a0. (01) >. (a). (6). (1) }, (a 0}, (0. (0}}. {a (0)}, (2.9 (61) IAL =3 IP(A)L =2=8 ¢ A = (1,2) x (ab) P(A) =P({1.2) x (a,b) ({<1,a>,<1,b><2,a>,<2,b>]) (, (<1, >), (<1, D>), (€2, a), (<2, D>) {<1,a>,<1,b>), (<1a>.<2a>), (<1,0>,<2,b>), (<1,b><2 a>), {<1,b>,<2,b>], (<2,a>,<2,b>) {<1,a>,<1,b>,<2,a>}, + [<1,a>,<1,b>,<2,b>} {<1,a>,<2,0>,<2,b>), {c1,b>,<2,a>,<2,d>} {<1a>,<1,b>,<2, <2,b>)}} HAL =I (1,2) bel{a,b)l=2x2=4 Relations & Functions, Ex.247 Prove the following a) Ax(BUC)=(AxB)U(AxO) b) AXBOO=AxBINANC ©) (AxB)A(CxD)=(ANC)xBND) © sotn. a. Ax(BUC)=(AxB)U (Ax) LHS =Ax(BUC) =( ixe Aandy€ (BUC)} =( ixe A and (ye B or yeO)) =( l (xe A and y € B) or (xe Aandye ©) =(Ixe Aandye BJU [IxeA andy€C} =(AxB)U(AXC) =RHS. b. AxBNO=(AxB)A(AxO) LHS. =Ax(BNQ =(lxe A andye BAC) ={Ixe Aand (ye Bandy € ©} =(l(@e A andy € B) and (xe AandyeC) =(ixe Aandye B}A(ixe Aandye BIA {kxy>lxec andy €D) = ([lxe A and xe Candy Bandy€ D) = (Ixe ANC and ye BND} = (ANC)x(BND) = RHS. Tech-Neo Publications —. Where Author inspire inovation “ond SACHIN SHAH Ventureom EOI Forall sets A, X and Y show that AXXO Y=AxXA(AXY), © sotn.: To prove Ax(X A Y)=(AXX) 0 (AXY) LHS = Ax(XnY) = (Qy)xe A and ye Xn) = (Gy) xe A and ye X andye Y) = UG. y)I(ce Aandy € X) and (xe Aandye ¥)} = (Gu y)I(ee Aandy€ X)A (xe Aandye YD) = (AxX) 0 (AxY) RHS. Hence proved. ‘Show that A. =(A=B)U(ANBnO) Soln. : To prove A-(B-C)=(A-B)U(ANBAC) RHS = (A-B)U(ANBNO) = Gnd) UAnBAC — Pefinition of] = An(BUBAC)) Wistibutive lw] = An(BuB)a (BUC) pistibutive lw) = AA(BuC) [Universal set identity) = Acland oe Morgan's law] = Aa(B=C)petinition of -} A-(B -C)[Definition of -] = LHS Hence the proof. eee ee ee UEx. 2.4.10 [EOS Show that A‘ (B® C) = (ANB) @(ANC) som: To prove An (B ®C)=(ANB)®(ANC) ——T m5 The follow nS —$] ee Relations & Func Sa 2 [aneeo 3. [ANB 4. |Aac 5. |} (AMB)@(ANC) Fak tis in pig send SACHIN SHAH FeatDiscrete Structures & Graph Theory (MU - Sem 3- Relations & Functions vex oat Itis obvious that Prove the following (A - B) U (B= A) = (A UB) — (anBh AcBuA ASAUC Soln. : To satisfy Equation (i) we should have To prove (A ~ B) U (BA) = (AUB) (ANB) AcBUE LHS = (A-B)U@~A) LA OAC De Morgan's lw = (AnB)U(BAA) [Definition of] te nea thea ne BAG = AvBA(AVA)ABUB)AGBUA) xgBAC [Distributive law] x @B and xg = (AUB)A(BUA) [Universal set identity] Ike A thenxg B andx gC ee ANB=6 and = = (AUB) (AUB) (Commutative law] MBs e lee ast ‘Thus the given equation (A - B) U (A-C) = A is true = (ausya(aaB [De Morgan’s law] ifANB=6 and ANC=6. = (AUB)-(ANB) [Definition of |] ©) (A-B)UA-O=9 cae Union of two sets is null set if two sets are nul. Hence proved. A-B=@ and A-C=6 Ex.24.12. Find under what conditions, the following If A=6 then A-B=6 and A-C= equations are true a (A-RUA-O=A | If A#6 then tohave A ~B=@ we should have A=B or ASB b. (A-B)U(A-C)= &. (A-B)N(A-C)= Similarly for A-C=$, A=C or ASC. 4. (A-B)@(A-O)= Thus the given Equation (A~B) U (A-C)=6 Seen I any one of the following conditions are tue. £ -ASBSBOA @ Azo eee eee (i) ASB mwas Gi som; © (A-B)N(A-O= 6 (@) (A-B)U(A-C)=A = a (ANB) NANT) =6 Set difference & (AMB)U(ANC) =A Set difference ae AOE NG =6...Associative law and AM A= A 2 (ANB)UA]N(ANB)UCI=A oe s An(hnf)=6 «Associative law «Distributive law AN(BUC)=o «/De-Morgan’s law # (AUA)ABU AN (AUT) GUC)=A If xe Athen xg BUC «Distributive law Bxoduanautiniuiqes - of) eee * AS BUC £ (A SACHIN SHAH Feature ‘Teeh-Neo Publications —.. Where Authors inspire innovation‘Thus he given equation (A~B)(A~C)= As Buc (d) (A-B)@(A-C)=6 Symmetric difference of two sets is null st, if two sels ae equal. A-B = A-C - ANB = Ane _ ...Setdifference *. Thus the given Equation (A - B) ® (A-C)= ifAnBeanc. () A-B=B ‘The AB includes all elements which are present in A and not in set B. ie A-B {xlxe Aandx¢ B) Butitis given that A—B This is possible only if A = B= Thus given equation A -B =B is tue ifA=B = () A-B=B-A ‘This is possible only if A-B = B-A=6 and B-A=9 ASBandBSA A ‘Thus the given equation A~B = B- Ais true if A=B, @ A@B=AuB + (A-B)U(B-A) = AUB =(ANB)U@NA)=AUB + PANB)UBIN[(ANB)UA]=auB - Distributive law + (AUB)OBUB)N(AUA)N(BUA)= UB + (AUB)OUNUN (BUA) =AuB +»-Union of complements is universal set “ (AUB)O(BUA)=AuB,,. ‘Universal set property _ xe BOA ire A or xEB 8 then xe B and xe K ‘ / me is i ly FAB ‘This is trve on comin snus the given equation A@ B= AU Bit the se, ANB=6. and B are disjoint i mi 2.5 PARTITION OF A SET [el Definition : Partition of a set A is defined as the setq mM 2.6 Where Authors “subsets of A with the following properties. P(A) = S1, $2,04 Sa} Where $I US2.U..USn=A Forall 1 is a pair in a relation, then we say that ais related to b, but not the otherwise. = Inthe previous unit, we have seen that an ondered pair isa member of Cartesian product. Definition : A relation is & subset of a Cartesian product. If an element x is related to y with a relation R then we can write, e Ror/x Ry) Forexample Let A= {1;2, 3) and B= {1;3, 5, 7) be two sets. Let R be relation such that an element a from set A is related to ‘an clement in set B if lae Aand beA anda,2,3><2,5> >) ={<13><15 <2,7>,3,5>, = NotefAZAXB 7 YS 2.6.1 Representation of a Relation — Arrelation can be represented in different ways. One ‘way we have already seen, i.e. by explicitly writing the ordered pairs or the members of the relation. ~The other ways are relation matrix, and directed graph or diagraph. A relation matrix M, is defined as follows. My = [ing] where myis and column element m, = 1iflxye Aandxly) = {, <1,2>,<1,3>,<1,4>, <1, 5>, <1, 6>, <2, 2>, 2, 4>, 2, 6,3, 3>, <3, 6, <4, 4>, <5, 5>,<6,6>) ‘The matrix representation is as follows 234 1 56 144 104 004 100 o10 001 The graphical as. shown in Fig. P.2.6.1. It is a digraph, ic. every edge is directed. The path is represents a relation. The terms path and digraph are studied in detail in chapter on graphs. representation is Fig. P.2.6.1 “A SACHIN SHAH Venture