9th Social-Science EM - WWW - Tntextbooks.in

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
STANDARD NINE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department Of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 1 08-04-2022 10:32:47

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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018

Revised Edition - 2019, 2020, 2022
(Published under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and

Educational Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II

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Table of Contents
History
Unit Contents Page No Month
1 Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period 001 June
2 Ancient Civilisations 016 July
3 Early Tamil Society and Culture 033 July
4 Intellectual Awakening and Socio-Political Changes 053 August
5 The Classical World 066 August
6 The Middle Ages 077 October
7 State and Society in Medieval India 088 October
8 The Beginning of the Modern Age 101 November
November &
9 The Age of Revolutions 113 December
10 Industrial Revolution 130 January
January &
11 Colonialism in Asia and Africa 142 February
III
III

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Geography

1 Lithosphere – I Endogenetic Processes 157 June
2 Lithosphere – II Exogenetic Processes 167 July
3 Atmosphere 180 July
4 Hydrosphere 192 August
5 Biosphere 202 August
6 Man and Environment 210 October
7 Mapping Skills 220 November
8 Disaster Management: Responding to Disasters 230 January
Civics
1 Forms of Government and Democracy 238 June
2 Election, Political Parties and Pressure Groups 246 July
August &
3 Human Rights 253 September
4 Forms of Government 265 October
5 Local Self Government 271 November
6 Road safety 279 January
. Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime IV

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Economics

Understanding Development: Perspectives,
1 285 June
Measurement and Sustainability
2 Employment in India and Tamil Nadu 293 July
3 Money and CREDIT 300 October
4 Agriculture in Tamil Nadu 307 November
5 Migration 313 January
E - book Assessment
V . Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

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HOW TO USE THE BOOK
Learning Objectives
The scope of the lesson is presented
QR Code
Leads the students to animated audio,
video aids for getting experiential learning
Infographs
Visual representations intended to make the complex simple and
make the students grasp difficult concepts easily
Summary
Describes the main points briefly in bullets for recapitulation
Glossary
Key words and technical terms
explained at the end of the lesson for clarity
ICT Corner
Using technology for learning activites, which enables
the students to access degital sources relevant to their lessons.
VI

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Introduction
The subject to be discussed in the lesson is introduced
Do You Know?
Provides additional information related to the
subject in boxes to stir up the curiosity of students
Fun with History

Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups
Exercise
For self-study and self evaluation
Reference
List of books and net sources for further reading
VII

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HISTORY
VIII

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UNIT Evolution of Humans and

Society - Prehistoric Period
1
Learning Objectives
To trace the world's early history

To understand human evolution
To know prehistoric Tamilagam up to the Iron Age
Introduction Palaeoanthropologists and archaeologists

excavate the soil and rock layers on the
We live in the age of Information earth and extract evidence about human
Technology. The mobile phones have literally ancestors. These layers and the fossils are
put the world on our finger tips. The all- scientifically dated to study the various
encompassing knowledge that we possess stages in human evolution and prehistory.
now, which has helped in the development of Through the gathered evidence, they attempt
powerful technology, did not emerge all of a to understand the evolution of human history
sudden. The foundation of our modern life was and developments in a chronological order.
facilitated by the development of the process of
cognition among the human ancestors in the Archaeology is the study of human past through
prehistoric age. the analysis and interpretation of material
remains.
Prehistoric people were the pioneers of
creative knowledge. From the artefacts and Palaeoanthropology is the study of the human
the languages they developed, we are able to ancestors and their evolution by the study of the
understand how intelligent they were. fossil remains.
The earth was formed approximately
Origin of the Earth and 4.54 billion years ago. Gradually, conditions
1.1
the Geological Ages emerged for the growth of organisms. Then
plants and animals came into being, and
The history of humans thereby foundation was laid for the evolution
is closely related to the of humans. The long span of time in the
history of the earth. The history of earth is divided into eras, periods
earth contains geological, and epochs by the geologists
archaeological and biological
records of historical times 1 billion = 100 crore
in its upper layers. They are 1 million = 10 lakh
important for reconstructing the history of the Australopithecines were the apes from which
earth and various living organisms. The fossil modern humans evolved. Now they are extinct,
bones of the human ancestors are embedded in but they are considered to be the close relatives
the earth’s layers. of humans.
1 1. Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period

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The geological eras
Human Enquiries into Scientific Foundations of Geology,

1.2 the Past and Origin of Biology and Archaeology
the World The beginning of history writing can
be traced to the ancient Greeks. Herodotus
The Age of Speculation (484–425 BC (BCE)) is considered the Father
of History, because the history he wrote was
Humans are the only
humanistic and rationalistic.The rise of scientific
species on earth concerned
enquiry into the origin of humans was possible
with understanding as
because of
well as explaining the
world and the universe. In The interest in collection of archaeological
the course of evolution, remains and the opening of museums after
humans became conscious the Renaissance Movement;
and knowledgeable. They turned curious The development of ideas of stratigraphy
and began to think and ask questions about and geology;
nature, organisms and the world around
them. At first, they considered nature as God. Darwin’s theory of biological evolution;
They worshipped sun, moon and various The discovery of human and animal
natural forces about which they developed fossils, stone tools, and artefacts of early
their own understanding, some of which is civilizations; and
not scientific. The lack of scientific knowledge
The ability to decipher early scripts.
on the creation of the world is reflected in the
ancient writings and religious literature. Stratigraphy – The study of origin, nature
and relationships of rock and soil layers that
BC = (BCE) – Before Common Era
AD = (CE) - Common Era
were formed due to natural and cultural
MYA – Million years ago activities.
1. Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period 2

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Oldest Museum – The museum of Ennigaldi- Now the theory of human evolution is widely
Nanna in Mesopotamia was established in accepted.
530 BC (BCE). The Princess Ennigaldi was
the daughter of the neo-Babylonian king rehistory: From
P
Nabonidus. The Capitoline Museum in Italy Australopithecus
is perhaps the oldest surviving museum (1471 1.3
through Homo erectus
AD (CE)) at present. Ashmolean Museum
at Oxford University is the oldest university
to Homo sapiens
museum in the world. It was established in Who are we? What is the name of our
1677 AD (CE). species?
We are Homo sapiens
Herbert Spencer’s (1820–1903 AD (CE))
biological evolution, and Charles Darwin’s Human Evolution and Migration
(1809–1882 AD (CE)) theory on concepts of
The chimpanzee, gorillas and orangutans,
natural selection and survival of the fittest
along with humans, are collectively called the
contributed to the scientific understanding of
Great Apes. Among them, the chimpanzee is
human origins. Charles Darwin published the
genetically the closest to humans.
books On the Origin of Species in 1859 and The
Descent of Man in 1871. The ancestors to humans were called
Natural selection – The process by which Hominins, and their origins have been traced
organisms that are better adapted to their in Africa. They evolved from those origins
environment would survive and produce more and then began to move to other parts of the
offspring. world in due course of time. The Hominins
emerged around 7 to 5 million years ago.
Survival of the fittest means “survival of the Skeletons of Australopithecus, one of the
form that will leave the most copies of itself in early species of this tribe, have been found in
successive generations.” Africa.
Fossil – Prehistoric animal or plant that turns The Great Rift Valley in Africa has many
into stone over a period of time (millions sites that have evidence for the prehistoric
of years) because of chemical and physical period.
processes. Animal bones are preserved due
to mineralization. Palaeontology is the study The DNA of a chimpanzee
of fossils. is 98% identical to that of a
human being.
Stone Age – the period when stone was mainly
used for making implements.
The Great Rift Valley is a valley-like
Bronze Age – the period when bronze formation that runs for about 6,400 km
metallurgy (extraction of metal from ores) from the northern part of Syria to Central
developed. Mozambique in East Africa. This geographical
feature is visible even from the space, and
Iron Age – the period when iron was smelted to
many prehistoric sites are found in eastern
produce implements.
Africa.
Since the 19th century, scholars have
Human ancestors are divided into various
used advanced scientific techniques. They
species according to their physical features.
undertook systematic studies to contribute to
the current state of knowledge on prehistory,
human origins and the early civilisations.

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based on the lithic tools, cultures are assigned

names such as Earliest Lithic Assemblages,
Oldowan Technology, Lower, Middle and Upper
Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultures.
Period
The chimpanzee and the pygmy

chimpanzee (also known
asbonobo) are our closest living
relatives.
Prehistoric sites of human Fossils of Lucy
ancestors in Africa. (Australopithecus)
Earliest Lithic Assemblages of
Human Ancestors
Hominid refers to all the species of the modern
and extinct great apes, which also includes The earliest tools made by human
humans.. ancestors are found in Lomekwi in Kenya.
They are dated to 3.3 million years. Oldowan
Hominins (a zoological tribe) refers to the close tools occur in the Olduvai gorge in Africa.
relatives of human ancestors and their sister They are 2 to 2.6 million years old. The
species including Homo sapiens (the modern human ancestors (Australopithecines) used
humans) and the extinct members of Homo hammer stones and produced sharp-edged
neanderthalensis, Homo erectus, Homo habilis flakes. The tools were used for cutting, slicing
and various species of Australopithecines. and processing food.
Humans are the only living species of this
‘tribe’. They stand erect, walk with two legs Lower Paleolithic Culture
and have large brains. They can use tools and a
few of them can communicate. It excludes the The Lower Paleolithic Culture is marked
gorillas. by the human ancestors belonging to the
species Homo habilis and Homo erectus. The
Homo habilis (handy human) was the human ancestors flaked large stone blocks and
earliest known human ancestors to make designed various tools including hand axes.
tools in Africa about 2.6 million years ago. These tools, which are found in Africa, Asia,
Around 2 million years ago, the species of and Europe, are dated the earliest to about
Homo erectus/ergaster emerged. This species 1.8 million years ago. They made various
made hand axes between 2 and 1 million tools such as hand axes and cleavers to meet
years ago. They began to spread into various parts their subsistence needs. These tools are also
of Asia and Africa in time. known as bifaces. These tools have physical
Anatomically, modern humans, called symmetry and convey the humans’ cognitive
Homo sapiens (wise man), first appeared (perception) skills. This culture is called the
around 3,00,000 years ago in Africa. It is Lower Paleolithic Culture. The hand axe
believed that these modern humans eventually tools are also known as Acheulian. This tool-
migrated and dispersed into various parts of the making tradition continued till 250,000 years
world from around 60,000 years ago. to 60,000 years ago in India.
Prehistoric Cultures Acheulian – They were first hand axes
recognized at a place called St. Acheul in France.
Prehistoric period does not have
Hence they are called Acheulian tools.
evidence of writing. While the fossil bones
are classified as various species such as Homo Bifaces are tools that have flaking on both sides
habilis, Homo erectus and Neanderthalensis, (bi = two, face = side).

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production of stone tools are called Lithic

technology.
The hand axes turned out to be much

attractive in design and many smaller tools
Stone tools from Kenya were also produced. The core was prepared
about 2.3 mi llion year old An Olduvai chopper and then tools were made. Points and
scrapers were used. Short blades were also
produced. The lithic tool-making tradition
of the Levalloisian belonged to this period.
The tools made during this time are found in
Subsistence necessities of prehistoric humans Europe and Central and western Asia.
were mainly food and water.
Levalloisian tools are the implements made aft
The human ancestors perhaps did not possess
er preparing the core. It was named aft er the
complex language skills as we have now. They
town of Levallois in France.
might have voiced a few sounds or words and
possibly used sign language. They were intelligent
The Middle Paleolithic Culture appeared
enough to select stones as raw material and used
between 3,85,000 and 1,98,000 years ago in
the hammer stones to carefully flake the rocks
Europe and parts of western and South Asia.
and design tools for their needs. They hunted
The tools that were made during this period
animals, fed on the meat of the animals killed by
were in use till about 28,000.
predators and gathered plant foods such as roots,
nuts and fruits. In India, the Acheulian tools have The people of this period were called
been found near Chennai and many other sites Neanderthals. They buried the dead people
such as Isampur in Karnataka and Bhimbetka in systematically.
Madhya Pradesh.
Raw material is the naturally available stone Upper Paleolithic Culture
block or pebbles selected by humans for making
The cultural phase that succeeded the
tools. Since these stones produced flakes with
Middle Paleolithic is called the Upper Paleolithic
sharp edges, they were selected for making phase. This period was marked by innovation
stone tools. in tool technology. Long blades and burins
Core is the main block of stone from which were produced during this time. People used
small chips are flaked by using a hammer stone. different varieties of silica- rich raw materials in
this phase. Numerous paintings and art objects
Flake is a small chip removed from a large stone were made. The diversity of artefacts suggests
block called the core. the improvement in cognitive skills and the
development of languages. Microliths appeared
Middle Paleolithic Culture in this phase.
After about 3,98,000 years Ago, further Burin is a stone-made chisel with a sharp
changes took place in the lithic technology in cutting edge.
Africa. The Homo erectus species existed during
this period. Anatomically modern humans are The modern humans, who first appeared
said to have emerged around 3 lakh years ago. as a result of human evolution in the sub-
Lithic Technology: ‘Lith’ means stone. The Saharan Africa 300,000 years ago, began to
methods and techniques involved in the move to various parts of Asia around 60,000

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Hand axe - Flint biface from A cleaver Omo Kibish point Middle Paleolithic
London Museum Saint-Acheul, France flakes and tools India
years ago. They probably replaced the earlier during this period. These people were hunter-
populations. In Europe, humans known as gatherers. With the global warming occurring
Cro-Magnons lived in this period. after the Ice Age, they became highly mobile
and occupied various eco-zones (coastal,
Horns and ivory were used for making
hilly, riverine and dry region).
tools and art works. Bone needles, fishhooks,
harpoons and spears were also employed People of Mesolithic period widely
creatively. The humans of this time wore employed microlithic technology. They
clothes and cooked food. The dead were made tiny artefacts that were less than 5
placed in the burials with folded hands placed cm in size. They produced points, scrapers
over their chest. Pendants and richly carved and arrowheads. They also used geometric
tools were also seen in use. Evidences from tools such as lunates, triangles and trapezes.
paintings, clay model sculptures and carvings These tools were hafted onto wooden or bone
are available. Images of Goddess Venus were handles and used.
made of stones and bones in Europe and in Microliths are stone artefacts of small size.
some parts of Asia.
Ice Age – the period before 8,000 BC (BCE)
when many parts of the world remained covered
by ice sheets and snow.
Rock paintings from Bhimbetka
Neolithic Culture and the

Beginning of Agriculture
Lascaux – Rock painting from The period called
west France – 17000 years old Neolithic marks the
beginning of agriculture
Mesolithic Culture and animal domestication.
It is an important phase
Mesolithic period is known as the in history. Early evidence
Middle Stone Age, as it is placed between of the Neolithic period is found in the fertile
the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. People crescent region of Egypt and Mesopotamia,
mainly used microlithic (small stone) tools the Indus region, the Gangetic valley and in

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China. By about 10,000 BC (BCE) to 5000 BC hominins, had been produced in Tamil
(BCE), agriculture had come to be practised Nadu. These stone tools are found near the
in these regions. Chennai region at several sites, especially at
Athirampakkam. The archaeological excavations
Wheat, barley and peas were at this site and cosmic-ray exposure dating of the
cultivated around 10,000 artefacts suggest that people lived here about 1.5
years ago. Fruit and nut to 2 million years ago. The Kosasthalaiyar river is
trees were cultivated around one of the major cradles of human ancestors in
4,000 BC (BCE). They the world. The people who lived here belonged to
comprised olives, figs, dates, pomegranates the species of Homo erectus.
and grapes.
Archaeological excavation refers to digging
Fertile Crescent Region refers to the area undertaken to recover archaeological evidence
covering Egypt, Israel-Palestine and Iraq, which such as stone tools, pottery, animal bones and
is in the shape of crescent moon. pollens, in order to understand the past lifestyle
Neolithic Age is called the ‘new age’, of humans.
because of the new grinding and polishing
techniques used for the tools. The Neolithic Cosmic-ray exposure dating – method in
people also used the flaked stone tools. Until which exposure to cosmogenic rays is done for
the Mesolithic period, people mainly hunted dating the samples.
and gathered food for their subsistence. By
hunting and gathering people obtained very In 1863, Sir Robert Bruce Foote, a geologist
limited food as a result of which only a small from England, first discovered Paleolithic tools
number of people could exist in a particular at Pallavaram near Chennai. They are the earliest
region. finds of such tools in India. Hence, the hand axe
assemblages were considered the Madras Stone
The introduction of domestication of
animals and cultivating plants at home led Tool Industry. The tools that he discovered are
to production and supply of large quantities now housed in the Chennai Museum.
of grains and animal food. The fertile soil
The Paleolithic people hunted wild animals
deposited by the river on its banks helped
the growth of agriculture. People preferred and gathered the naturally available fruits, roots,
to live on river banks as it was better for nuts and leaves. They did not have knowledge
adaptation. As a result of domestication and of iron and pottery making, which developed
cultivating plants, there was an excess food much later in history.
production. The surplus food production was
a main factor for the development of early Hand axes and cleavers are the important tool
civilisations. Permanent residences were built types of the Lower Paleolithic period. These tools
and large villages emerged as a result. Hence, fitted with a wooden and bone handle were used
the development of this period is called for cutting, piercing and digging. The people of
Neolithic Revolution. this time used hammer stones and spheroids. The
quartzite pebbles and cobbles were chosen as raw
1.4 Prehistoric Tamilagam materials. The tools are found in the soil deposits
Lower Paleolithic Culture in and also in the exposed river side. They occur
Tamil Nadu at Pallavaram, Gudiyam cave, Athirampakkam,
One of the oldest Stone Age tools in Vadamadurai, Erumaivettipalayam and
the world made by human ancestors, called Parikulam.

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The Lower Paleolithic tools are also

found in the North Arcot and Dharmapuri
districts. The people belonging to this period
used basalt rocks for manufacturing artefacts.
However, the southern part of Tamil Nadu
and Sri Lanka do not have evidence of Lower
Paleolithic Culture.
Basalt rocks are igneous rocks: Igneous rocks
are those formed from the molten lava from the
earth.
The Lower Paleolithic Culture is datable to
about 2 - 1.5 million years at Athirampakkam.
Microlithic flakes from
Th is cultural phase continued in other parts of Tamil Nadu
India up to 60,000 years ago.
Middle Paleolithic Culture in Evidence for the existence of Mesolithic

Tamil Nadu hunter-gatherers is found at Chennai, North
Arcot, Dharmapuri, Salem, Coimbatore,
In the course of time, the Middle
Ariyalur, Tiruchirappalli, Pudukkottai, Madurai,
Paleolithic Culture emerged during 3,85,000
Sivagangai, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. Th
- 1,72,000 years ago. The tool types of this
e teri sites near Th oothukudi have evidence of
period underwent a change and smaller
microlithic artefacts. Th ese sites have red sand
artefacts were used. Cores, flakes, scrapers,
dunes called teris.
knives, borers, Levalloisian flakes, hand axes
and cleavers are the artefact types of this
The people of this period used small artefacts
period. Compared to the previous phase,
made of chert and quartz. The tool types are
these tool types became smaller in size.
scrapers, lunates and triangles. These people
Evidence for the Middle Paleolithic hunted wild animals and gathered fruits, nuts and
Culture can be observed in some parts of Tamil roots for their subsistence.
Nadu. In the southern part of Tamil Nadu, at
T. Pudupatti and Sivarakkottai, artefacts of the Scrapers are tools used for scraping the
Middle Paleolithic tools have been collected. surfaces. Scrapers are similar to the tools used
Also near Thanjavur and Ariyalur, similar in the kitchen for removing skin of vegetables.
artefacts have been found.
Triangles are tools in the shape of triangles.
Mesolithic Culture in Tamil Nadu
In many parts of the world, and in Lunates are tools in the shape of a crescent.
some parts of India, the Upper Paleolithic
Culture succeeded the Middle Paleolithic Neolithic Culture in Tamil Nadu
Culture. There is no evidence for the Upper The culture that domesticated animals
Paleolithic Culture in Tamil Nadu. But the and cultivated crops is called Neolithic. It is
people who used microliths or small-stone known as the New Stone Age. The Neolithic
artefacts lived in many parts of TamilNadu. people used polished stone axes called celts.
Since this cultural period occurs between Cattle rearing was their main occupation.
Paleolithic and Neolithic Culture, it is known They lived in small villages with houses made
as Mesolithic Culture or Middle Stone Age.
of thatched roof and walls plastered with

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Timeline: The Course of Cultures in Ancient Tamilagam
Culture Time Period Cultural Traits

Paleolithic Period Circa. 20,00,000 years Hand axes, cleavers
to circa. 8,000 BC (BCE) Hunting and gathering
Mesolithic Period Circa. 8,000 years Microlithic tools

to circa. 1,300 BC (BCE) No knowledge of metal
Hunting of animals and birds
Gathering of plant food
Neolithic Period Circa. 2,000 BC (BCE) Polished Stone Axes

to 1,000 BC (BCE) Microliths
Domestication of animals
Cultivation of crops
Multiplicity of groups
Co-existence of hunter-gatherers and pastoral groups
Iron Age Circa. 1,300 BC (BCE) Megalithic burial custom

to 500 BC (BCE) Co-existence of hunter-gatherers and pastoral groups
Development of chiefdom
Knowledge of iron, black and red ware, black ware
ceramics
Craft specialisation, specialised groups: potters,
blacksmiths
Early Historic 300 BC (BCE) to Cultural traits of Iron age

and Sangam Age 300 AD (CE) Monarchies of Chera, Chola and Pandya
Development of hero worship
Poetic traditions and literature
Trade and exchange by sea
clay. Evidence of Neolithic village is found at of India. Evidence for pottery making and
Payyampalli in Vellore district and a few sites cultivation of horse gram and green gram has
in the Dharmapuri region. been found in this village.
Iron Age/Megalithic period
Neolithic people perhaps
The cultural period that succeeded the
devised the first pottery. They
Neolithic is called the Iron Age. As the name
made pottery, using a slow
suggests, people used iron technology. It
wheel called turn-table or made
preceded the Sangam Age. The Iron Age was
pottery out of hand. Before
a formative period and the foundation for
firing, the pottery was polished with pebbles.
the Sangam Age was laid in this time. During
This process is known as burnishing.
the Iron Age, many parts of Tamil Nadu were
Payyampalli is a village in Vellore district occupied by people. An exchange relationship
of Tamil Nadu. The earliest evidence for the developed among the people.
domestication of animals and cultivation The people of this age had knowledge
of plants is found at this site, which was of metallurgy and pottery making. They used
excavated by the Archaeological Survey iron and bronze objects and gold ornaments.

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Lemuria and the Tamils

Some researchers relate the origin of the Tamils to the submerged continent of Lemuria. This theory
of Lemuria continent was proposed in the 19th century. In the wake of advancements in plate
tectonics theory, differing views are put forth by scholars.
The available literary references point to the submergence of areas around Kanyakumari. Some
parts of Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu were connected by land about 5000 years BC (BCE). It is possible
that some land might have submerged near Kanyakumari and around the coast of India, because of
the rising sea levels. Underwater surveys are necessary in this area.
Archaeological research reveals that at least a section of people may have been living
continuously in South India, including Tamil Nadu, from the Mesolithic and Neolithic times.
They used shell ornaments and beads made

of carnelian and quartz. The evidence for
Iron Age is found at many sites including
Adhichanallur in Thoothukudi district, Sanur
near Madhuranthakam and Sithannavasal
near Pudukkottai. Megalithic burial sites are
Sir Robert Bruce Foote
found in the whole of Tamil Nadu. discovered the first
Paleolithic tools in
Megalithic Burial Types India at Pallavaram
The Iron Age is also known as megalithic,
since people created burials with large stones
for the dead people. Within these burials, the
Gudiyam Cave near
skeletons or a few bones of the dead persons
Chennai
were placed along with grave goods including Tools discovered
iron objects, carnelian beads and bronze by Robert Bruce Foote
objects. Some of the burials do not have
human bones and they have only the grave
Dolmens, table-like stone structures, were
goods. They may be called memorial burials.
erected as funerary monuments. Cists are
Grave goods are the objects placed in the stone enclosures buried under the earth. They
burials along with the physical remains were created by placing four stone slabs on the
(bones) of the dead. People may have believed sides, one on top of each other. The cists and
that these would be useful in the after-life. dolmens have openings called portholes. Urns
Egyptian pyramids also have similar artefacts. are pottery jars and were used for burying the
Similar burials were also built in the dead. Sarcophagi are burial receptacles made
early historic period or the Sangam Age. of terracotta. They sometimes had multiple
The Sangam literature mentions the various legs. Menhirs are pillar-like stones erected as
burial practices of the people. The megalithic part of the burials or memorials.
burials are classified as dolmens, cists, Portholes are holes found in the cists and
menhirs, rock-cut caves, urn burials and dolmens on one side. They may have acted as
sarcophagus. The burial types of Kodakkal the entrance to the burials. There is a view that
(umbrella stone), Toppikkal (hatstone) and they were meant for the movement of the soul
Paththikal (hoodstone) are found in Kerala. or spirit.

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A Menhir An urn covered with lids A stone circle with Menhir

in Adhichanallur and the capstone
Sarcophagus Dolmen Cist, Kodumanal
Kodakkal, Kerala Toppikkal, Kerala Paththikal, Kerala
The menhirs may have been erected for the gatherers. Craft specialists, potters and
heroes in the Iron Age. The tradition of hero blacksmiths were the professionals during
stones might have begun in the Iron Age or even this period. The society had several groups of
before. peoples (tribes). The size of the burials and the
Agriculture and Pastoralism variations found in the burial goods suggests
the existence of numerous social groups and
The people in the Iron Age practiced
their diverse practices. Some of them seem
agriculture, domesticated cattle and sheep,
to have had organised chiefdoms. Cattle
and some of the groups were hunting and
lifting leading to wars and encroachment
gathering. Millets and rice were cultivated.
and expansion of territories had also started
Irrigation management developed in this
taking place in this period.
period, since many of the megalithic sites
are found nearby rivers and tanks. In the Pottery
deltaic regions, irrigation as a technology
Pottery is an important evidence found
had developed. Evidence of rice is seen in
in the archaeological sites. The Iron Age and
the megalithic sites like Adhichanallur in
Sangam age people used the black and red
Thoothukudi district and Porunthal near
Palani. colours to make black ware and red ware
pottery. Potteries were used for cooking,
Iron Age Society and Polity storage and dining purposes. The black and
red ware pottery has a black inside and a red
The Iron Age society had farming
outside, with lustrous surfaces.
communities, pastoralists and hunter-

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Black and Red ware in Adhichanallur.

(a) Iron sword and dagger in Adhichanallur
(b) Bronze vessel from a Burial at Auroville,
Puducherry
Iron Technology and Metal Tools made pottery and with the surplus
production, they developed various
The megalithic burials have abundant
crafts.
iron objects placed in the burials as grave
goods. Weapons such as swords and daggers, The earliest evidence of humans
axes, chisels, lamps and tripod stands are also is available in Tamil Nadu around
found. Some of these objects were hafted to 2-1.5 million years ago.
wooden or bone or horn handles and used. The Middle Paleolithic Culture is
The iron tools were used for agriculture, found in some parts of Tamil Nadu.
hunting, gathering and in battles. Bronze
The Mesolithic people lived in all the
bowls, vessels with stylish finials decorated
areas of Tamil Nadu.
with animals and birds, bronze mirrors and
bells have also been found. Neolithic culture is limited to
northwestern part of Tamil Nadu.
Recap The Iron Age saw further expansion of

people in various cultural zones. The
The history of humans is intimately foundation of subsequent Sangam Age
linked with the history of the earth. The was laid during this age.
earth originated around 4.54 billion
Iron tools were used in agriculture.
years ago.
The ancestors of human called
hominins appeared about 5–7 million
years ago.
EXERCISE
Although people gave divine explanations
for the origin of humans, science believes I. C
hoose the correct
in the theory of human evolution from answer
the great apes. 1. _____________ is genetically closest to
Humans began to domesticate animals humans
and cultivate crops. The agricultural
(a) Gorilla (b) Chimpanzee
revolution led to many changes.
Humans lived in permanent houses, (c) Orang-utan (d) Great Apes

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2. The period called _________ marks (iii) Th

e cultural period that succeeded
the beginning of agriculture and animal the Neolithic is called the Bronze Age
domestication. (iv)
The period that witnessed
(a) Paleolithic (b) Mesolithic domestication of animals and
(c) Neolithic (d) Megalithic cultivation of crops is called Mesolithic
3. Direct ancestor of modern man was

a) (i) is correct
____________. b) (ii) is correct
c) (ii) and (iii) are correct
(a) Homo habilis (b) Homo erectus
d) (iv) is correct
(c) Homo sapiens (d) Neanderthal
man 8. Assertion (A): Many of the Mesolithic
sites are founds nearby rivers and tanks.
4. _________ refers to the area covering
Reason (R): Irrigation management
Egypt, Israel-Palestine and Iraq.
developed during Mesolithic period.
(a) Great Rift Valley a) A
and R are correct and R explains A
(b) Fertile Crescent b) A and R are correct but R doesn’t
(c) Solo river explain A
(d) Neander Valley c) A is correct but R is incorrect
d) A and R both are incorrect
5. Sir Robert Bruce Foote, a geologist
from England first discovered the
II. Fill in the blanks
____________ tools at Pallavaram near
Chennai. 1. Hand axes and cleavers are the important
tool types of the __________ culture.
(a) Microlithic (b) Paleolithic
(c) Mesolithic (d) Neolithic 2. The methods and techniques involved
in the production of stone tools are
6. (i) he period before the introduction
T called __________ technology.
of writing is called pre-history.
3. _____________ is known as the Middle
(ii) The pre-historic people developed
Stone Age, as it is placed between the
language, made beautiful paintings
Paleolithic and Neolithic.
and artefacts.
(iii) The pre-historic societies are treated III. F
ind out the correct
as literate. statement
(iv) The pre-historic period is called 1. a) The concept ‘survival of the fittest’
ancient. contributed to the scientific
a. (i) is correct understanding of human origins.
b. (i) and (ii) are correct b) The book "On the Origin of Species"
was published by Herbert Spencer.
c. (i) and (iv) are correct
c) Darwin ’ s theory of biological
d. (ii) and (iii) are correct
evolution connects with the process
7. (i) T
he Neolithic people used polished of natural selection.
stone axes called Celts d) Geology is the study of lithic
(ii) E
vidence of Neolithic village is technology.
found at Payyampalli in Chennai
district

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2. a) Among the great Apes Orang utan is

FUN WITH HISTORY
genetically the closest to humans.
b) The ancestors to humans were called Student Activities
Hominins and their origins have
Mark the prehistoric sites on the world map
been traced to Africa.
c) Flake canot be used for tool making. Organize an exhibition on the pre-historic
sites of Tamil Nadu
d) Acheulian is the main block of stone
from which small chips are flaked by Assignment with teacher’s
using a hammer stone. guidance
A power-point presentation on the origin
IV. Match the following of human life
1. Palaeo anthropology - Teris A power-point presentation on the pre-
2. Hand axe tools - Venus historic tools
Images on stone and A power-point presentation on the scripts
3. - Acheulian of the ancient period
bone
4. Red sand dunes - Microliths
The study of REFERENCE BOOKS
Stone artefacts of
5. - the human 1. Noboru Karashima, A Concise History
small size
ancestors
of South India Issues and Interpretations.
Oxford.
V. Answer the following briefly
2. K.Rajan, Iron Age-Early Historic
1. Discuss how the age of speculation
Transition in South India: An Appraisal.
made humans become conscious and
Padmashri Amalananda Ghosh
knowledgeable.
Memorial Lecture, New Delhi: Institute
2. Write a note on the impact of pastoralism of Archaeology.
on the prehistoric people in Tamil Nadu.
3. Ralph, Burns and others. World
3. List out the features of Megalithic Burial Civilizations (Vol. 1).
types.
4. Examine the tool making technical skills INTERNET RESOURCES
of lower Paleolithic people.
http://www.sharmaheritage.com
VI. A
nswer all the questions
given under each caption https://www.nature.com
1. The developments in the fields of http://www.ancient-origins.net

agriculture, pottery and metal tools http://humanorigins.si.edu
are considered a landmark in the life of
https://www.britannica.com
Megalithic period - Substantiate.
2. The history of humans is closely related
to the history of the earth. Elucidate.

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ICT CORNER
Explore Pre-Historic Objects in Museums
Steps
• Scan the QR code and install the app.
• You can see three bars at the left side of the Back in Time
screen. Click them.
• When we click on 'collections', you can find world famous Museums.
Select ‘British Museum’ Take a tour by clicking the yellow man icon.
Click on ‘Collections’ to view the images of various objects in the
Museum with high resolution and at the relevant ages.
• Click on the ‘clock’ to watch the timeline.
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.google.android.apps.cultural

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UNIT
Ancient Civilisations
2
Learning Objectives
To learn about early societies and state formations

To understand the development of civilisations
To learn about the ancient Egyptian civilisation
To study the main features of the Mesopotamian civilisations
To know the Chinese civilisation
To gain knowledge about the Indus civilisation
Introduction shape, huge buildings were built, the art of

writing developed and science and technology
Urban societies that adopted complex contributed to the betterment of society.
ways of life were more organised than The Egyptian, the Mesopotamian, the
the early hunter-gatherer and Neolithic Chinese and the Indus were the important
farming societies. Urban societies had early civilisations. While these civilisations
social stratification and well-planned cities. flourished in certain regions, people in other
They practised crafts, engaged in trade and parts of the world lived as hunters-gatherers
exchange, adopted science and technology and pastoralists. The hunters-gatherers and
and formed political organisation (early form pastoralists maintained their relationships
of state). Hence the term ‘civilisation’ is used with these civilisations through interactions.
to distinguish them from the early forms Their history is also equally important. During
of societies. However, they should not be the time of these civilisations, South India
considered superior to other forms of societies, witnessed the emergence of Neolithic agro-
since each culture or civilisation had its own pastoral communities and Microlithic form of
unique features. life by hunter-gatherers.
2.1 Ancient Civilisations
2.2 The Egyptian Civilisation
Civilisation is seen as an advanced,
organised way of life. It instilled a way of life As one of the oldest civilisations,
that could be considered as an adaptation to the Egyptian civilisation is known for its
particular environmental and cultural contexts. monumental architecture, agriculture, arts,
When it became necessary for large numbers of sciences and crafts at a very early age.
people to live in close proximity, they brought Geography
in planning, organisation and specialisation.
Settlements were planned and laid out, a Egypt lies in the north-eastern corner
polity emerged, society became organised of the African continent. It is bounded by the
and food production and craft production Red Sea on the east and Mediterranean Sea in
were regulated. As civilisations began to take the north. Egypt is irrigated by the River Nile,
2. Ancient Civilisations 16
9th_History_Unit_2_EM.indd 16 4/4/2022 1:35:15 PM

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MESOPOTAMIA
CHINA
INDUS
EGYPT
EGYPT
MESOPOTAMIA
INDUS
Arabian
Sea Bay of Bengal CHINA
INDIAN OCEAN
Not to Scale
Early world civilisations
which originates in Lake Victoria in the south form. Under the pharaoh, there was a hierarchy
and flows into the Mediterranean Sea in the of officials including viziers, the governors
north. Deserts are seen on both sides of the Nile of provinces, local mayors and tax collectors.
River. The Egyptian civilisation depended solely The entire social system was supported by the
upon the flow of Nile River, and hence Egypt work and production of artisans including
was called the Gift of Nile by the Greek historian stone cutters, masons, potters, carpenters,
Herodotus. The Nile also served as a means of coppersmiths and goldsmiths, peasants and
transport. The Nile valley is very rich and fertile workers. Land belonged to the king and was
as the river deposits fresh alluvium every year. assigned to the officials. Slavery was not
This alluvium nurtured agriculture and helped common, but captives were used as slaves..
to produce surplus of food grains, leading to the Viziers were the high officials who
development of Egyptian civilisation. The dry administered territories under the direction
regions on both the sides of the Niles, however of the Pharaohs.
remained deserts.
The Egyptians believed in life after death.
The Hyksos were the rulers of the 15th dynasty Therefore, they preserved the dead body. The
of Egypt and they were probably from West Asia. art of preserving the dead body is known as
Persians are the people from the region of mummification. Pyramids and tombs were built
Persia, the ancient Iran. to preserve the body of pharaohs.
The famous Egyptian pharaoh
Greek refers to the language and people of Tutankhamen’s (who ruled from 1332 to 1322
modern-day State of Greece in Europe.
Rome refers to the ancient Roman Empire,
which had as its capital the city of Rome in Italy.
Pharaohs, Society and

Administration
The golden mask of The mummified body of
The Egyptian king was known as the
Tutankhamen Tutankhamen
Pharaoh. The people treated pharaoh as a divine
17 2. Ancient Civilisations

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BC (BCE)) tomb with a rich variety of offerings

is located near Luxor in Egypt. The mask of
his mummy made of gold and decorated with
precious stones is an important artefact of the
Egyptian civilisation.
Mummies of Egypt
The preserved dead
body is called the
mummy. The Egyptians
had the tradition of
preserving the dead
bodies using Natron salt,
a combination of sodium carbonate and
sodium bicarbonate. The preservation
process is called mummification. After
40 days, when the salt absorbed all the
moisture, the body was filled with sawdust
and wrapped with strips of linen cloth and
covered with a fabric. The body was stored
in a stone coffin called sarcophagus.
Agriculture and Trade

The Egyptians cultivated wheat, barley,
millets, vegetables, fruits, papyrus and cotton.
Papyrus was used for making rope mats, sandals
and later for producing paper. They domesticated
The cities of Egyptian civilisation
cattle, sheep, goat and pigs, and hunted wild
animals. They had pets such as dogs, cats and
monkeys. The Egyptians had trade relations
with Lebanon, Crete, Phoenicia, Palestine and
Syria. Gold, silver and ivory were imported, and
they acquired the Lapis Lazuli, a precious stone
of bluish colour, from Afghanistan.
A ploughing farmer, 1200 BC (BCE) Art and Architecture

The Egyptians excelled in art and
architecture. Their writing is also a form of art.
Numerous sculptures, painting and carvings
attest to the artistic skills of the Egyptians.
The pyramids are massive monuments
built as tombs of mourning to the Pharaohs.
The great pyramids near Cairo are known as the
Depiction of grain harvest
Giza Pyramids.

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The Great Sphinx of Giza is a massive Ancient Egyptian Gods

limestone image of a lion with a human head.
It is dated to the time of Pharaoh Khafre
(2575-2465 BCE). It is one of the largest
sculptures of the world and measures
seventy three metres in length and twenty
metres in height.
Amon Seth Thoth Statue of Anubis
Horus
Writing System
The Egyptians are well known for their
writing system. Their form of writing is
known as hieroglyphic. Hieroglyphic was used
The Great Pyramid of Giza in the inscriptions on seals and other objects.
The heretic, an another form of writing, was
used for common purposes. This form of
writing used a pictogram-based system. It
was developed around 3000 BC (BCE) and
many texts and books were written using this
script. Now this inscription is on display in
the British Museum, London.
View of the Sphinx with the
Great Pyramid, Egypt
Religion
The Egyptians practiced polytheism.
Amon, Re, Seth, Thoth, Horus and Anubis
are some of the Gods of Egyptians. They
worshipped many Gods, but the Sun God, Re,
was the predominant one. Later on, the Sun
God was called Amon.
Hieroglyphic script
Philosophy, Science and Literature
The Egyptian civilisation excelled in Characteristics and Contributions
science, literature, philosophy, astronomy, of the Egyptian Civilisation
mathematics and the measurement system.
The Egyptians developed a solar calendar
Sundial, water clock and glass were developed
system.
by the Egyptians. They devised a solar calendar
The pyramids and their designs show their
that consisted of twelve months of thirty days
mathematical and surveying skills.
each, with five days added to the end of a year.
Hieroglyphic writing system attests to their
This calendar was introduced as early as 4200
skills in handling symbols.
BC (BCE). Literary works included treatises
Preservation of human body in the form of
on mathematics, astronomy, medicine, magic
Mummies.
and religion. The Egyptians also distinguished
They applied innovation in the use of
themselves in painting, art, sculpture, pottery,
science and technology.
music and weaving.

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The word ‘paper’ comes from Lower Tigris valley around 5,000 to 4,000 BC
‘Papyrus’. The Egyptians wrote (BCE). They were believed to have originated
on the leaves of a plant called from Central Asia. They founded many cities
papyrus, a kind of reed, which and Nippur was one of the important cities. They
grew on the banks of Nile. developed the cuneiform writing system. During
the early phase of the Sumerian civilisation,
Kings acted as the chief priests. Their political
2.3 The Mesopotamian domination came to an end by 2,450 BC (BCE).
Civilisations
The Akkadians
Mesopotamia refers to the region of Iraq The Akkadians dominated Sumeria briefly
and Kuwait in West Asia. Several kingdoms from 2450 to 2250 BC (BCE). The S argon o f
emerged around the city states of this region Akkad was a famous ruler. The Sargon and his
from the early third millennium BC (BCE). The descendants (ca.2334–2218 BC (BCE)) ruled
Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian Mesopotamia for more than hundred years. In
civilisations flourished in Mesopotamia. the cuneiform records of Akkadians, mention
Geography is made about the Indus civilisation. The
documents of the Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279
In the Greek language, meso means
BC (BCE)) refer to the ships from
‘in between’ and potamus means river. The
Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun in the quay of
Euphrates and Tigris flow here and drain into the
Akkad. Meluhha is identified with Indus
Persian Gulf is since this area is in between two
vallley.
rivers it is known as Mesopotamia. The northern
part of Mesopotamia is known as Assyria, and The city of Akkad later
the southern part is called Babylonia. became the city of Babylon,
a commercial and cultural
The Sumerians centre of West Asia.
The oldest civilisation in Mesopotamia
belonged to the Sumerians. The Sumerians were The Babylonians
the contemporaries of the people of Indus and The Semitic people called Amorites from
the Egyptian civilisations. These civilisations had the Arabian desert moved into Mesopotamia.
trade connections. The Sumerians settled in the They were known as the Babylonians as they
Not to Scale
Map of ancient lands of Magan, Dilmun and Meluhha

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established a kingdom and made Babylon its by cultivable lands. The fortified Sumerian cities
capital. By the time of the king Hammurabi, had the temples called Ziggurats at its centre.
they extended their domination to the western The temple was controlled by the priests. Priests,
part of Mesopotamia. The powerful states of Ur scribes and nobles were part of the government.
(2112 to 2004 BC (BCE)) and Babylon (1792 The rulers and priests occupied the top of the
to 1712 BC (BCE)) controlled this region. The social hierarchy. The ruler performed the role
hero Gilgamesh referred to in the first ever epic of the chief priest. The scribes, merchants and
on the earth may have been a king of Sumeria. artisans were placed next in the hierarchy. The
Hammurabi, the sixth king of Babylon belonging scribes maintained the account of the taxes
to the first Amorite dynasty (1792–1750 BC and the priests collected the taxes. The temples
(BCE)), attained fame as a great law-maker. acted as storehouses of the taxed commodities.
Assemblies were created for the administration
The Assyrians of the state. Cultivable lands were owned by the
The Assyrian Empire was politically kings and the higher classes of people in the
active in Mesopotamia around 1000 BC hierarchy. The peasants who remained to the
(BCE). The Assyrian kings were the priests of temples in the earlier phase of Mesopotamian
Ashur, the chief deity of Assyria. The Assyrian civilisation, became free from that association
government was controlled by the emperor and in the later period. Not all people were allowed
provincial governors were to live in the cities.
appointed by the emperor
to administer provinces.
Assur was the capital city
of Assyria. Ashurbanipal
was a popular ruler of
the late or neo-Assyrian A stone image
empire (ca. 668 to 627 of Lamassu
Ziggurat of Ur
BC (BCE)). He maintained a famous library of
cuneiform records. The Assyrians worshipped
The Assyrian Empire was the first
the deity of Lamassu for protection.
military State in history. They
emerged militarily powerful
Assur
because they were the earliest to
use iron technology effectively.
Tig
s ri
Mari
Food and Agriculture
Eu
ph
rat
Rapiqum?
es
Eshnunna Agriculture was the main occupation of the

Sippar
Malgium?
Mesopotamians. They had developed irrigation
Babylon Kish
systems for ensuring the availability of water
Susa
E l
Nippur
for agriculture and cultivated wheat, barley,
a m
Isin
1792 BCE
Larsa Lagash
onions, turnips, grapes, apples and dates. They
1750 BCE
Uruk
Ur
domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. Fish was
Eridu
Not to scale part of their diet.
Mesopotamia and its cities
Trade and Exchange
Trade was an important economic activity
Society, State and Administration of the Mesopotamian society. Traders assisted
The Sumerian civilisation had many city in the exchange of goods procured from the
states. A typical Sumerian city was surrounded potters and artisans. They traded with Syria

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and Asia Minor in the West, and in Iran and portrays Hammurabi as receiving the code from
the Indus Valley civilisation in the east. They the Sun God Shamash. It was a compilation of
travelled in ships across the seas for trade. Their old laws based on retributive principles. ‘An
temples acted as banks and lent credit on their eye for an eye’ and ‘ a tooth for a tooth’ form of
own account. The Mesopotamian documents justice is used in the Hammurabi Code.
have references to loan and repayment, with or
without interest. Perhaps this is the first written
evidence of charging an interest on borrowed
money.
Cities and Town Planning
The Mesopotamian cities featured mud or
baked brick walls with gates. Some people lived
in reed huts outside the cities. The Ziggurats were Cuneiform tablet
at the city centre on a platform and appeared Cuneiform: The Sumerian Writing
like steep pyramids, with staircases leading to System
the top. Around this temple were complexes of
ceremonial courtyards, shrines, burial chambers Cuneiform is the Sumerian writing system.
for the priests and priestesses, ceremonial The shape of the letter is in the form of wedge and
banquet halls, along with workshops, granaries, hence it is called cuneiform. Evolving around
storehouses and administrative buildings. 3000 BC (BCE), it is one of the earliest scripts of
the world. They used this script for commercial
Religion transactions and writing letters and stories. The
The Sumerian religion was polytheistic. clay tablets contain loads of information on the
They worshipped several Gods and Goddesses. Sumerian civilisation.
The Sumerians prayed to Enlil, the God of Art
sky and wind. The city of Nippur was centre
of Enlil’s worship. Ninlil was the Sumerian The Mesopotamian art included sculptures
Goddess of grain. The Babylonians worshipped in stone and clay. A few paintings and sculptures
Marduk, and Ashur was the supreme God of from the Mesopotamian times have survived
the Assyrians. Ishtar was Goddess of love and today. Mesopotamian sculptures portray
fertility, Tiamat the God of the sea and chaos, animals, such as goats, rams, bulls and lions.
and Sin, the moon God. The kings were seen Some mythological figures like lions and bulls
as representatives of the Gods on earth. The with human head have also been found in their
Mesopotamians developed a rich collection of art. Massive sculptures were created at the time
myths and legends. The most famous of these of the Assyrian and the Babylonian empires.
is the epic of Gilgamesh, which is written in the
cuneiform text. It contains a legend of the flood
and has similarities with the account of Noah’s
Ark mentioned in the Bible and other myths in
the Hindu puranas.
The Hammurabi’s Law Code
The Hammurabi Code is an important
legal document that specifies the laws related to
various crimes. It has 282 provisions specifying
cases related to family rights, trade, slavery, A clay tablet with the accounts of sheep and goats,
from Tello, southern Iraq
taxes and wages. It is carved on a stone, which

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They introduced the twelve month

Development of Script calendar system based on lunar months. Their
ideas influenced Greek astronomy. They had
Development of script is an developed a medicinal system as well. A text
important milestone in human history. called the Diagnostic Handbook, dated to the
Writing system began to emerge in 11th century BC (BCE) Babylon, lists symptoms
Sumeria in the later part of fourth and prognoses. This indicates their scientific
millennium BC (BCE). Hieroglyphic, the understanding of herbs and minerals.
Egyptian system of writing, developed
in early third millennium BC (BCE). Contributions of the
The Harappans also had a system of Mesopotamian Civilisation
writing around the same time, but it has The invention of the potter’s wheel is
not yet been deciphered. The Chinese credited to the Sumerians.
civilisation too developed a writing They developed the calendar system of 360
system from a very early period. days and divided a circle into 360 units.
The cuneiform system of writing was their
contribution.
The Hammurabi’s law code was another
legacy of the Mesopotamians.
The Chinese
2.4
Civilisation
China has two major rivers. One is known
as Huang He (Yellow River) and the other is
called Yangtze River. The Yellow River is known
as the Sorrow of China, since it changed its
course and caused frequent floods.
Evidence for the prehistoric Peking
Development of cuneiform script man (700,000 BP and 200,000 BP)
and Yuanmou Man exists in China. Neolithic
Science communities lived in China between 4,500
The Mesopotamians excelled in and 3,750 BC (BCE). The Henan province in
mathematics, astronomy and medicine. They the Yellow and Yangtze river valley contain
developed the concepts of multiplication, evidence for Neolithic villages. China had many
division and cubic equation. The numerical city states and gradually these states became
system based on 60 was conceived by them. part of an empire.
They were the ones to formulate the 60-minute Polity and Emperors
hour, the 24-hour day and the 360° circle. The
Sumerian calendar had seven days in a week. Shi Huangdi (Qin Shi
Their numerical system had place values. They Huang, which means the first
created the water clock and the lunar calendar emperor) founded the Qin
based on the movement of the moon. They (Chin) dynasty. The emperor
developed methods for measuring areas and had the title ‘son of heaven’.
solids. They also developed advanced weight He is considered to be the first
and measurement systems. emperor of China. The period

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Nort
Huan
h Ch
g-He
(Yell
ow R
)
40 N
ina P
Anyang
lain
Yellow
H
IM Zhengzhou sea
AL East
AY
AS China sea
Shang Dynasty 1300 B.C.

Temple of Cancer
Zhou Dynasty 600 B.C.
Present - day China South PACIFIC
20 N
China sea OCEAN
Not to Scale
Map of Chinese civilisation
between 221 and 206 BC (BCE) is known as (75–88 AD (CE)). Chinese silk was much
the imperial era in China. He conquered other sought after by the Romans during the time of
principalities in 221 BC (BCE) and remained the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in 166
the emperor till 212 BC (BCE). He defeated the AD (CE). Some of the Chinese silk might have
feudal lords and established a strong empire. He reached Rome through the ports of Tamilagam.
is credited with unifying China. Shi Huangdi
destroyed the walled fortifications of different
The Terracotta Army
States and constructed the Great Wall of
China to protect the empire from the invading The Terracotta Army refers to the large
nomadic people. He also built roads to integrate collection of terracotta warrior images
the empire. found in China. They depict the armies of
the king Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor
The Han Empire (206–220 AD (CE)) of China. They were buried with the king
During this period, a written history of in 210–209 BC (BCE). They are found at
this empire was made available in China. The the northern foot of the Lishan Mountain,
greatest of the Han emperors, Wu Ti (Han Wu thirty five kilometres northeast of Xi'an,
the Great, 141 to 87 BC (BCE)), expanded Shaanxi Province, as part of the mausoleum
the empire and built many public amenities, of the king.
including irrigation tanks. He sent Zhang
Qian as emissary to the West in 138 BC (BCE)
and thereby paved the way for the opening of
the Silk Road in 130 BC (BCE) to encourage
trade activities.
Because of the Silk Road and the
resultant trade connections, China benefitted
Terracotta Warriors, China
immensely during the rule of Emperor Zhang

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Philosophy and Literature 2.5 Indus Civilisation

Chinese poets and philosophers such as The Indus civilisation,
Lao Tze, Confucius, Mencius, Mo Ti (Mot Zu) also known as the Harappan
and Tao Chien (365-427 AD (CE)) contributed civilisation, covers an area
to the development of Chinese civilisation. of over 1.5 million square
Sun-Tzu, a military strategist, wrote the work kilometres in India and
called Art of War. The Spring and Autumn Pakistan. Sutkagen-Dor
Annals is the official chronicle of the state at the in the west on the Pakistan–Iran border
time. The Yellow Emperor’s Canon of Medicine Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north
is considered China’s earliest written book on Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh in India) in the
medicine. It was codified during the time of east and Daimabad (Maharashtra in India)
Han Dynasty. in the south are the boundaries with in which
Lao Tze (c. 604– the Harappan culture has been found. Its
521 BC (BCE)) was the main concentration was in the regions of
master archive keeper Gujarat, Pakistan, Rajasthan and Haryana.
of Chou state. He was
Planned Towns
the founder of Taoism.
He argued that desire
is the root cause of all Confucius
evils.
Confucius (551–497 BC (BCE)) was
famous among the Chinese philosophers. He
was a political reformer. His name means Kung,
the master. He insisted on cultivation of one’s
own personal life. He said, “If personal life is
cultivated, family life is regulated; and once
family life is regulated, national life is regulated.” The Great Bath
Mencius (372–289 BC (BCE)) was another Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan),

well-known Chinese philosopher. He travelled Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira
throughout China and offered his counsel to the (Gujarat, India), Kalibangan (Rajasthan,
rulers. India), Lothal (Gujarat, India), Banawali
(Rajasthan, India.,) Rakhigarhi (Haryana,
Chinese Script India) and Surkotada (Gujarat, India) are
Chinese developed a writing the major cities of the Indus civilisation.
system from an early time. Fortification, well-planned streets and
Initially it was a pictographic lanes and drainages can be observed in
system and later it was the Harappan towns. The Harappans used
converted into a symbol baked and unbaked bricks and stones for
Chinese script on
form. the bone construction. A civic authority perhaps
controlled the planning of the towns.
Contribution of the A few of the houses had more than one
Chinese Civilisation floor. The tank called the Great Bath at
Writing system was improved Mohenjo-Daro was an important structure,
Invention of paper well paved with several adjacent rooms.
Opening of the Silk Road Some unearthed structures have been
Invention of gun powder identified as the granary. We do not know

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Indus cities and towns

about the nature of the state or political cattle, sheep and goats. They had knowledge of
organisation of the Harappans. But they various animals including elephants but did not
must have had a political organisation at the use horses. The Harappan cattle are called Zebu,
level of an early form of state. A male image and it is a large breed, often represented in their
from Mohenjo-Daro has been identified as seals.
‘priest king’, but we do not know about the
Pottery
accuracy of this interpretation.
The Harappans used painted pottery.
The Indus Valley civilisation Their potteries have a deep red slip and black
is also known as the Harappan paintings. The pottery has shapes like dish-on-
civilisation, since Harappa was stands, storage jars, perforated jars, goblets,
the first site to be discovered. S-shaped jars,
This civilisation is known as plates, dishes,
Harappan civilisation rather than Indus bowls and pots.
Valley civilisation, since it extended beyond The painted motifs,
the Indus river valley. generally noticed
on the pottery,
Agriculture and Animal depict pipal tree
Domestication leaves, fish-scale Harappan painted pottery
The Harappans practiced agriculture. They designs, intersecting circles, zigzag lines,
cultivated wheat, barley and various types of horizontal bands, and geometrical motifs, and
millets. They adopted a double cropping system. floral and faunal patterns.
Pastoralism was also known to them. They reared

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Metal Tools and Weapons Trade and Exchange

The Harappans used chert blades, The Harappans had close trade links
copper objects and bone and ivory tools. They with the Mesopotamians. Harappan seals have
did not possess knowledge about iron. The tools been found in the West Asian sites namely
and equipments such as points, chisels, needles, Oman, Bahrain, Iraq and Iran. The cuneiform
fishhooks, razors, weighing pans, mirror and inscriptions mention the trade contacts between
antimony rods were made of bronze. The Mesopotamia and the Harappans. The mention
chisels made out of Rohri chert were used by of ‘Meluhha’ in the cuneiform inscriptions is
the Harappans. Their weapons included arrows, considered to refer to the Indus region.
spears, a chisel-bladed tool and axe. The bronze Weights and Measures
image of dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro is
The Harappans developed a system
suggestive of the use of lost-wax process.
of proper weights and measures. Since they
Rohri chert refers to the chert raw engaged in commercial transactions, they
material collected from Rohri in Pakistan. It was needed standard measures. The cubical chert
used by the Harappans for making blades.The weights are found at the Harappan sites. The
Harappans used both stone and bronze tools. copper plates for weighing balances have
also been found.The weights point to their
knowledge of the binary system. The ratio of
weighing is doubled as 1:2:4:8:16:32.
Rohri chert blades Shikarpur, Gujarat
Weights of Harappan civilisation

Textiles and Ornaments
The Harappans used metal and stone
ornaments. They had knowledge of cotton and
silk textiles. They made carnelian, copper and
gold ornaments. Faience, stoneware and shell
bangles were also used. Some of them had
etched designs, and the Harappans exported Copper balance from Mohenjo-Daro
them to the Mesopotamia.
Seals, Sealings and Scripts

The seals from various
media such as steatite,
copper, terracotta and
ivory are found in the
Harappan sites. They
were probably used in
the trade activities. The
Harappan script is not
A seal with the script
Indus ornaments yet deciphered. About

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5,000 texts have been documented from the pipal trees. Some of the terracotta figures
Harappan sites. Some scholars are of the view resemble the mother Goddess. Fire altars
that the script is in Dravidian language. have been identified at Kalibangan. The Indus
people buried the dead. Burials were done
elaborately and evidence for cremation has
also been found.
Original Inhabitants and their
Culture
The authors of the Harappan civilisation
are not known, since the script has not been
deciphered. One school of thought argues
Terracotta toys
that they spoke the Dravidian language. The
archaeological evidence shows movement of
Arts and Amusement the Harappans to the east and south after the
decline of the Indus civilisation. It is probable
The terracotta that some of the Harappan people moved into
figurines, paintings different parts of India. Only the decipherment
on the pottery and the of the script can give a definite answer.
bronze images from the
Harappan sites suggest Indus civilisation had more than one
the artistic skills of group of people. Several groups including
the Harappans. ‘Priest farmers, pastoralists and hunter-gatherers
king’ made of steatite The priest king, lived in the Indus region. The Indus region had
and dancing girl made Mohenjo-Daro villages and large towns. The population was
of bronze (both from Mohenjo-Daro) as mixed.
well as stone sculptures from Harappa, The period of the civilisation has
Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira are the been divided into Early Harappan, starting
important objects of art. Toy carts, rattles, around 3300 BC (BCE) and continuing to
wheels, tops, marbles and hop scotches 2600 BC (BCE) and mature Harappan, are
made in terracotta suggest the amusement the last phase civilisation from 2600 to 1900
of the Harappan people. BC (BCE). The later Harappan existed upto
1700 BC (BCE).
Decline of Indus Culture
The Indus civilisation and its urban
features started declining from about 1900 BC
(BCE). Changes in climate, decline of the trade
with Mesopotamia and drying up or flooding
of the river Indus, foreign invasion were some
of the reasons attributed to the collapse of this
The Dancing Girl from Mohenjo-Daro civilisation and for the migration of people in
the southern and eastern directions. It did not
completely disappear. It continued as rural
Religion
culture.
The Indus people had a close
relationship with nature. They worshipped

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Indus Script – A Case Study

Cracking The Indus Script
Harappans knew the art of writing. The script is found on seals, in moulded terracotta and
on pottery. It has not been deciphered till now. Because the Indus texts are very short, the average
length of the inscription is less than five signs. It has no bilingual text (like a Rosetta stone written in
Egyptian and Greek). Hence deciphering the script is difficult. It was written generally from right to
left.
• Based on computer analysis, the Russian scholar Yuri Knorozov suggested that the Indus
inscriptions have a Dravidian-like word order.
• Scholar and researcher Iravatham Mahadevan, who has done extensive research on Indus
civilisation, says, “We may hopefully find that the proto Dravidian roots of Harappa language and
South Indian Dravidian languages are similar.”
• According to Mahadevan, a stone Celt discovered in Mayiladuthurai (Tamil Nadu) has same
marking as that of the symbol of the Indus script.
• In May 2007, the TamilNadu Archaeology Department found pots with arrow head symbols at
Melaperumpallam near Poompuhar, which resembled the seals in Mohenjo-Daro.
According to Parpola, the sign of the Indus script is likely to represent Dravidian mono-syllabic roots.
Sign Identification Reading Meaning Sign Identification Reading Meaning
– green star – 1. fish

halving + fish pacu mi n fish mi n
a. (Mercury) a. 2. star
– black star – three stars

b. roof + fish mey/may mi n 3 + fish mu(m) mi n
(Saturn) b. (Mrigasiras)
intermediate – white star – six stars

vel(li) mi n 6 + fish caru mi n
c. space + fish (Venus) c. (Pleiades)
1. red fish
– (carp) – seven stars
dot/drop + fish pottu mi n 7 + fish elu mi n
d. 2. red star d. (Ursa Major)
(Rohini)

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5. The Bronze image suggestive of the use

Recap
of lost-wax process known to the Indus
After the Neolithic Age, civilisations people.
sprang and grew in the Bronze Age. a. Jar b. Priest king
People began their settled life in c. Dancing girl d. Bird
planned towns and began to involve
in trade and exchange. Science and 6. (i) The oldest civilisation in Mesopotamia
technology developed. belonged to the Akkadians.
The civilisations are relatively complex (ii) T
he Chinese developed the
social systems. Hieroglyphic system.
The Egyptian civilisation excelled in (iii) T
he Euphrates and Tigris drain
architecture and the pyramids were its into the Mannar Gulf.
important contribution.
The Mesopotamian civilisation (iv) H ammurabi, the king of Babylon
contributed to the development of was a great law maker.
calendar system and astronomy. a. (i) is correct
The Chinese civilisation contributed b. (i) and (ii) are correct
in terms of philosophy and inventions. c. (iii) is correct
The Indus civilisation produced
d. (iv) is correct
a variety of commodities using
innovative techniques. It had cultural 7. (i) Yangtze River is known as Sorrow of
contacts with West Asia. China.
(ii) W u-Ti constructed the Great Wall
of China.
EXERCISE (iii) Chinese invented gun powder.
(iv) A ccording to traditions Mencius
I. C
hoose the was the founder of Taoism.
correct answer a. (i) is correct
1. The earliest signs to denote words b. (ii) is correct
through pictures c. ( iii) is correct
a. Calligraphy b. Pictographic d. (iii) and (iv) are correct
c. Ideographic d. Stratigraphic
8. What is the correct chronological order
2. The preservation process of dead body of four civilisations of Mesopotamia
in ancient Egypt a. Sumerians - Assyrians -
a. Sarcophagus b. Hyksos Akkadians - Babylonians
c. Mummification d. Polytheism b. Babylonians - Sumerians -
3. The Sumerian system of writing Assyrians - Akkadians
a. Pictographic b. Hieroglyphic c. Sumerians - Akkadians -
c. Sonogram d. Cuneiform Babylonians - Assyrians
4. The Harappans did not have the d. Babylonians - Assyrians -
knowledge of Akkadians - Sumerians
a. G old and Elephant 9. Assertion (A): Assyrians of
b. Horse and Iron Mesopotamian civilisation were
c. S heep and Silver contemporaries of Indus civilisation.
d. Ox and Platinum

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Reason(R): The Documents of an Assyrian IV. Match the following

ruler refer to the ships from Meluha
1. Pharaoh - A kind of grass
a. A and R are correct and A explains R
2. Papyrus - the oldest written
b. A and R are correct but A doesn’t story on Earth
explain R
3. Great Law - Mohenjo-Daro
c. A is incorrect but R is correct maker
d. Both A and R are incorrect 4. Gilgamesh - Hammurabi
5. The Great Bath - The Egyptian king
1. ____________ is a massive lime stone V. Answer the following briefly
image of a lion with a human head.
1. The Egyptians excelled in art and
2. The early form of writing of the Egyptians architecture Illustrate.
is known as _______________.
2. State the salient features of the Ziggurats
3. ____________ specifies the Laws 3. Hammurabi Code is an important legal
related to various crimes in ancient document. Explain.
Babylonia.
VI. A
nswer the following in
4. _______________ was the master
Detail
archive keeper of Chou state, according
to traditions. 1.
D efine the terms Hieroglyphics and
5. The _______________ figurines and Cuneiform with their main features.
paintings on the pottery from the 2. To what extent is the Chinese influence
sites suggest the artistic skills of the reflected in the fields of philosophy and
Harappans. literature.
III. F
ind out the correct 3. Write about the hidden treasure of
statement Indus civilisation.
1. a. The Great Bath at Harappa is well- FUN WITH HISTORY
built with several adjacent rooms.
b. T he cuneiform inscriptions relate to Student Activities
the epic of Gilgamesh.
c. T
he terracotta figurines and dancing Mark the areas of Bronze Age civilisation
girl made of copper suggest the on the world map.
artistic skills of Egyptians. Prepare a chart on the pyramids and the
d. T he Mesopotamians devised a solar mummies.
calendar system. Collect the pictures of the seals and the
2. a. A mon was an "Egyptian God". pottery of Indus people.
b. The fortified Harappan city had the Assignment with teacher’s
temples. guidance
c. The great sphinx is a pyramid-shaped Prepare a hand out comparing the ancient
monument found in ancient world civilisations.
Mesopotamia.
Prepare a scrap book collecting pictures on
d. T he invention of the potter’s wheel is
Indus civilisation from website.
credited to the Egyptians.

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REFERENCE BOOKS INTERNET RESOURCES
1. Chris Scarre. The Human Past: World 1. https://www.britannica.com

Prehistory and the Development of
2. http://www.ancient-origins.net
Human Societies. Thames and Hudson.
3. http://humanorigins.si.edu
2. G.L.Possehl. Indus Age-The Beginnings.
Oxford and IBH Publications.
3. J.M.Kenoyer. Ancient Cities of the Indus
Valley Civilisation. American Institute
of Pakistan Studies.
ICT CORNER
Explore ancient architecture
Let us fly on air
Steps
• Type the URL given below or scan the QR code. Then press the enter key.
• Click the ‘Full Screen’ to view the architecture.
• Explore the options given at the left lower side. Click ‘Open Google Map’.
Drag the mouse and rotate the ‘Red Shaded Area’ in it to watch the area in
360° view or use the arrow keys for the same view.
• Keep the cursor on question marks to get details about that
place.
Website URL:
http://www.airpano.com/files/Ancient-World/2-2

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UNIT Early Tamil Society

and Culture
3
Learning Objectives
The objectives of this lesson are to familiarize yourself with

Tamil literary, archaeological, epigraphic and non-Tamil text
sources for the study of the early Tamil society
Thinai-based life in the society
Literature, polity, society, economy and urbanization during the period
Introduction The Classical Sangam Tamil

Literature
Tamil civilization, as we have seen, begins
The Classical Sangam corpus (collection)
atleast three centuries before the Common Era
consists of the Tholkappiyam, the Pathinen
(AD (CE)). As seafaring people, Tamil traders
Melkanakku (18 Major works) and the
and sailors established commercial and cultural
Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) and
links across the seas and merchants from foreign
the five epics.
territories also visited the Tamil region. The
resulting cultural and mercantile activities and Tholkappiyam
internal developments led to urbanization in
Tholkappiyam, attributed to Tholkappiyar,
this region. Towns and ports emerged. Coins
is the earliest written work on Tamil grammar.
and currency came into circulation. Written
Apart from elaborating the rules of grammar,
documents were produced. The Tamil-Brahmi
the third section of Tholkappiyam also
script was adopted to write the Tamil language.
describes poetic conventions that provide
Classical Tamil poems were composed.
information on Tamil social life.
The texts of Pathinen Melkanakku include
Sources for the study
3.1 of early Tamil society Pathupaattu (ten Idylls) and Ettuthogai (the eight
anthologies). These texts are the oldest among
The sources for reconstructing the the classical Tamil texts. The texts of Pathinen
history of the ancient Tamils are: Kilkanakku belong to a later date.
1. Classical Tamil literature The Ettuthogai or the eight anthologies are
2. Epigraphy (inscriptions) (1) Nattrinai (2) Kurunthogai
(3) Paripaadal (4) Pathittrupathu
3. Archaeological excavations and material
(5) Aingurunuru (6) Kalithogai
culture
(7) Akanaanuru (8) Puranaanuru
4. Non-Tamil and Foreign Literature
33 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture

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Pathupattu or ten Idylls collection includes renounced worldly life. Mangulam, Muttupatti,
ten long songs Pugalur, Arachalur and Kongarpuliyankulam
(1) Thirumurugatrupadai and Jambai are some of the major sites of such
(2) Porunaratrupadai caves with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Around
(3) Perumpanatruppadai Madurai many
(4) Sirupanatrupadai such caves with
(5) Mullaipaattu Ta m i l - B r a h m i
(6) Nedunalvaadai inscriptions can
(7) Maduraikanchi still be seen. Many
(8) Kurinjipaattu of them are located
(9) Pattinappaalai along ancient A drip-line at a rock cave with
(10) Malaipadukadam trade routes. Tamil-Brahmi inscription
Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) Note: You will notice that among the old
The Pathinen Kilkanakku comprises inscriptions, people (both local and tourists)
eighteen texts elaborating on ethics and morals. have marked their names thereby destroying
The pre-eminent work among these is the some of the ancient inscriptions. Such acts of
Thirukkural composed by Thiruvalluvar. In 1330 destruction of heritage property or property
couplets Thirukkural considers questions of belonging to others are called vandalism.
morality, statecraft and love.
The Five Epics
The epics or Kappiyams are long narrative poem
of very high quality. They are,
(1) Silappathikaaram (2) Manimekalai The Tamil-Brahmi inscription at
(3) Seevaka Chinthamani Arachalur
(4) Valaiyapathi (5) Kundalakesi
Epigraphy
Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.
Inscriptions are documents scripted on stone,
copper plates, and other media such as coins,
rings, etc. The development of script marks the
beginning of the historical period.
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
Estampage copy of the above inscription
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been found
in more than 30 sites in Tamil Nadu mostly on
cave surfaces and rock shelters. These caves
were the abodes of monks, mostly Jaina monks.
The natural caves were converted into residence
by cutting a drip-line to keep rain water away
from the cave. Inscriptions often occur below
such drip-lines. The sites have smooth stone
beds carved on rock surface for monks who
led a simple life and lived in these shelters.
Merchants and kings converted these natural
A rock bed at K. Puliankulam
formations as habitation for monks, who had
3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 34

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Hero Stones Hero stones of the post-Sangam Age and the

Hero stones are Pallava period occur in large numbers in pastoral
memorials erected for those regions especially around the Chengam region
who lost their lives in the near Thiruvannamalai district. These hero stones
battles and in cattle raids. have inscriptions and the images of warriors and
As cattle were considered an names of heroes.
important source of wealth, Inscriptions on Pottery
raiding cattle owned by adjoining tribes and
clans was common practice in a pastoral Pottery vessels from the Early Historic
society. During the Sangam Age, the Mullai Period have names of people engraved on them
landscape followed the pastoral way of life. in Tamil-Brahmi script. Potsherds have been
Tribal chieftains plundered the cattle wealth of discovered in Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam,
enemies whose warriors fought to protect their Kodumanal, Keezhadi, and many other sites in
cattle. Many warriors died in such battles and Tamil Nadu. Pottery inscribed with names in
were remembered as martyrs. Memorial stones Tamil-Brahmi script have also been found in
were erected in their honour. Sangam literature Berenike and Quseir al Qadhim in Egypt and in
vividly portrays these battles and clashes, and Khor Rori in Oman indicating that early Tamils
describes such hero stones as objects of worship. had trade contacts with West Asia and along
Tholkappiyam describes the procedures for the Red Sea coast. People etched their names
erecting hero stones. on pottery to indicate ownership. Many of the
Hero stones of the Sangam Age with names are in Tamil while some are in Prakrit.
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions can be found at
Pulimankombai and Thathapatti in Theni
district and Porpanaikottai in Pudukkottai
district. Those of the Sangam Age discovered till
now do not have images or sculptures.
Pulimankombai Hero stone

Pulimankomba is a village in the Vaigai river
valley in Theni district. In 2006, rare hero A motif of a ship on pottery
from Azhagankulam
stone inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi script were
discovered in this village.
One of the inscriptions from Prakrit was the language used by the common
Pulimankombai reads people in the Northern part of India during the
Mauryan period.
“Kudalur Akol pedu tiyan antavan kal”
It means "The stone of Tiyan Antavan Archaeological Sites
who was killed in a cattle raid at the village of
Kudalur". Archaeological excavation refers to
systematically digging a site to recover material
evidence for exploring and interpreting societies
of the past.
Archaeological excavations at the early
historic sites are the source of evidence of the
activities of the Sangam Age people. Excavations
at Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam, Uraiyur,
Hero stone-Pulimankombai Kanchipuram, Kaveripoompattinam, Korkai,

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Va s a v a s a m u d r a m , Cameo – an ornament made in precious stone

Keezhadi, Kodumanal where images are carved on the surface.
in Tamil Nadu, and Intaglio – an ornament in which images are
Pattanam in Kerala carved as recess, below the surface.
provide the evidence we
have of this period. Coins
Arikkamedu, Coins as a medium of exchange were
near Puducherry, is introduced for the first time in the Sangam
a Sangam Age port, A ring well at
Age. The coins of the Cheras, the Cholas
excavated by the Arikkamedu and the Pandyas, punch-marked coins, and
Archaeological Survey of Roman coins form another important source
India (ASI). British archaeologist, Robert Eric of evidence from the Sangam Age. Punch-
Mortimer Wheeler, French Archaeologist, J.M. marked coins have been found at Kodumanal
Casal, and Indian archaeologists, A. Ghosh and and Bodinayakkanur. Roman coins are
Krishna Deva, excavated this site. They found concentrated in the Coimbatore region, and are
evidence of a planned town, warehouse, streets, found at Azhagankulam, Karur, and Madurai.
tanks and ring wells They were used as bullion for their metal value
and as ornaments.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is
a Central government agency that manages
archaeological sites and monuments in India.
The Government of Tamil Nadu has its own
department for archaeology called the Tamil
Nadu State Department of Archaeology.
The Indian Treasure Trove Act (1878), the Roman Coins - Pudukkottai
Antiquities and Art Treasures Act (1972), the
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites Bullion means precious metal available in the
and Remains Act (1958) are legislation related form of ingots.
to the preservation of archaeological remains in Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins used
India. in India. They are mostly made of silver and have
Material Culture numerous symbols punched on them. Hence,
Archaeologists they are known as punch-marked coins
have found evidence
of brick structures and
industrial activities,
as well as artefacts
such as beads, bangles,
cameos, intaglios, and An intaglio-Pattanam,
other materials in these Kerala
Punch-marked coins
sites. Tamil-Brahmi
Non-Tamil Sources (Foreign
inscriptions on pottery and coins have also been
unearthed. Evidences of the various arts, crafts Accounts)
and industries together help us reconstruct the Non-Tamil literary sources also offer
way of life of the people of those times. From information on early Tamil society. The
this we learn and understand how they might presence of the non-Tamil sources reveals
have lived. the extensive contacts and interactions of the
early Tamil society with the outside world.

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Arthasastra (Komaria), and Muciri (Muziris) are some of

Arthasastra, the classic work on economy the places mentioned in his Geography.
and statecraft authored by Kautilya during the Peutingerian table
Mauryan period, refers to Pandya kavataka. It
may mean the pearl and shells from the Pandyan
country.
Mahavamsa
Mahavamsa, the Sri Lankan Buddhist
chronicle, composed in the Pali language,
mentions merchants and horse traders from
Tamil Nadu and South India.
Chronicle is a narrative text presenting the
important historical events in chronological
Map of Peutingerian table
order.
Periplus of Erythrean Sea
Peutingerian table is an illustrated map
Periplus of Erythrean Sea is an ancient
of the Roman roads. It shows the areas of
Greek text whose author is not known. The
ancient Tamilagam and the port of Muziris.
term Periplus means navigational guide used Note: Taprobane refers to Sri Lanka as
by sailors. Erythrean Sea refers to the waters Island. Muziris refers to the port of Muchiri.
around the Red Sea. It makes references to the Vienna Papyrus
Sangam Age ports of Muciri, Thondi, Korkai
and Kumari, as well as the Cheras and the Vienna papyrus, a Greek document datable
Pandyas. to the second century AD (CE), mentions
Muciri’s trade of olden days. It is in the Papyrus
Pliny’s Natural History
Museum attached to the Austrian National
Pliny the Elder, was a Roman who wrote
Library, Vienna (Austria). It contains a written
Natural History. Written in Latin, it is a text
agreement between traders and mentions the
on the natural wealth of the Roman Empire.
name of a ship, Hermapollon, and lists articles
Pliny speaks about the pepper trade with
of export such as pepper and ivory that were
India . He states that it took 40 days to reach
shipped from India to the Roman Empire.
India, from Ocealis near North East Africa, if
the south west monsoon wind was favourable. Papyrus, a paper produced out of the papyrus
He also mentions that the Pandyas of plant used extensively for writing purposes in
Madurai controlled the port of Bacare on the ancient Egypt.
Kerala coast. The current name of Bacare is
not known. Pliny laments the loss of Roman 3.2 The Sangam Age
wealth due to Rome’s pepper trade with India
indication of the huge volume useful of the The Sangam Age or the Early Historic
pepper that was traded. period is an important phase in the history of
South India. This period is marked out from
Ptolemy’s Geography prehistory, because of the availability of textual
Ptolemy’s Geography is a gazetteer and atlas sources, namely Sangam literature and Tamil-
of Roman times providing geographical details Brahmi inscriptions. Sangam text is a vast
of the Roman Empire in the second century corpus of literature that serves as an important
AD (CE). Kaveripoompattinam (Khaberis source for the study of the people and society of
Emporium), Korkai (Kolkoi), Kanniyakumari the relevant period.

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Chronology Mullai is forested and pastoral region.

There is considerable debate among Marutham is the fertile riverine valley.
scholars about the age and chronology of Neythal is coastal region.
Sangam society. The Sangam texts are generally Paalai is sandy desert region.
dated to between third century BC (BC (BCE))
and the third century AD (CE). The references in Sangam Age Polity:
Greco-Roman texts, Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
and the references to the Cheras, Cholas
3.3 Political Powers of
and the Pandyas in the Ashokan inscription Tamilagam
corroborate this date. It is generally agreed that The Sangam Age has its roots in the Iron Age.
the Sangam poems were composed in the early In the Iron Age people were organised into
part of the historical period, but were compiled chiefdoms. From such communities of Iron
into anthologies in the later period. Age emerged the Vendhars of the early historic
Ashokan Brahmi - the Brahmi script used in period and the Velirs of the Sangam Age were
Ashokan edicts or inscriptions. chieftains.
The Mauryan emperor, Asoka, conquered
The Thinai Kalinga (Odisha) and parts of Andhra and
The concept of Thinai is presented in the Karnataka regions.
Tamil Grammar work of Tholkappiyam and this The Muvendhar
concept is essential to understand the classical
Tamil poems. Thinai is a poetic theme, which Among the political powers of the Sangam
means a class or category and refers to a habitat Age, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas
or eco-zone with specific physiographical occupied pre-eminent positions. They were
characteristics. Sangam poems are set in these known as Muvendhar (the three kings). The
specific eco-zones and reveal that human life muvendhar controlled the major towns and
has deep relationships with nature. ports of the Sangam period.
The themes of the poems are broadly The Cheras

defined as akam (interior) and puram (exterior). The Cheras, referred to as Keralaputras in
Akathinai refers to various situations of love the Ashokan inscriptions, controlled the region of
and family life, while Purathinai is concerned present-day Kerala and also the western parts of
with all others aspects of life and deals Tamil Nadu. Vanci was the capital of the Cheras
particularly with war and heroism. while Muciri and Thondi were their port towns.
Ainthinai: The Five Thinais or landscapes. Vanci is identified with Karur in Tamil Nadu while
some others identify it with Thiruvanchaikkalam
Tamilagam was divided into five
in Kerala. Pathirtruppathu speaks about the
landscapes. Each region had distinct
Chera kings and their territory. The Cheras wore
characteristics – a presiding deity, occupation,
people and cultural life according to its specific
environmental conditions. This classification
has been interpreted by scholars to reflect real
life situations in these landscapes.
The five landscapes are Kurunji, Mullai,
Marutham, Neythal and Paalai.
Kurunji refers to the hilly and mountainous
A Chera coin with bow and arrow, and an elephant
region. goad on the obverse and elephant on the reverse

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Not to Scale
A map of major Sangam Age sites
garlands made from the flowers of the palm tree. was Kaveripoompattinam or Pumpuhar,
The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention where the river Kaveri drains into the Bay
the Chera kings of three generations. Coins of of Bengal. Pattinappaalai is a long poem
Chera kings have been found in Karur. about Kaveripoompattinam composed by
The Silappathikaram speaks about Cheran the poet Kadiyalur Uruthirankannanar.
Senguttuvan, who built a temple for Kannagi, Silappathikaram describes the trading activities at
the protagonist of the epic. Legend has it that Kaveripoompattinam. Karikalan is notable among
Ilango who composed the Silappathikaram, was the Chola kings and is credited with bringing
the brother of Cheran Senguttuvan. The bow forestlands under the plough and developing
and arrow was the symbol of the Cheras. irrigation facilities by effectively utilising the water
from the river Kaveri.
The Cholas
The foundation for the extensive harnessing
The Cholas ruled
of water for irrigation purposes, which reached
over the Kaveri delta and
its zenith in later Chola times (10th to 13th
northern parts of Tamil
centuries) was laid in his time. Karikalan fought
Nadu. Their capital was
battles with the Pandyas, the Cheras and other
Uraiyur and their port town

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chieftains. The Chola emblem was tiger and they their large-heartedness. These chieftains had
issued square copper coins with images of a tiger alliance with one or other of the muvendhar
on the obverse, elephant and the sacred symbols and helped them in their battles against the
on the reverse. other Vendhars.
3.4 Society in Sangam Age

Many of the communities of the Iron
Age society were organised as tribes, and
some of them were Chiefdoms. The Sangam
Age society was a society in transition from
a tribal community ruled by a chief to a larger
kingdom ruled by a king
Chola Coins with a tiger on the obverse, elephant
and the sacred symbols on the reverse Composition of the Society
Social stratification had begun to take root
The Pandyas in Tamil society by the Sangam times. There
The Pandyas who ruled the southern part were several clan-based communities including
of Tamil Nadu are referred in the Ashokan groups such as Panar, Paratavar, Eyinar, Uzhavar,
inscriptions. Madurai was the Pandya’s capital. Kanavar, Vettuvar and Maravar. The Vendhars,
Tamil literary tradition credits Pandyan rulers chiefs, and their associates formed the higher
with patronizing Tamil Sangams (academies) social groups. There were priests who were
and supporting the compilations of poems. known as Antanars. There were artisan groups
The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription specialising in pottery and blacksmithy. The
mentions the king Nedunchezhiyan. caste system we find in northern India did not
Nediyon, Mudathirumaran, Palayagasalai take root in Tamil country as social groups
Mudukudumipperuvazhuti were some of were divided in to five situational types (tamil)
the important rulers of the dynasty. The and related occupational patterns.
Pandyan symbol was the fish. The development of agriculture and
pastoral ways of life might have harmed the
eco-system and the naturally available forest
and wild animals. It is possible that some of
the hunter-gatherers might have been pushed
to the forest areas and a few might have taken
up the occupation of manual labourers. The
development of agriculture in the wet-land
Sangam Age Pandya coin with fish symbol region depended on the use of certain groups of
people as labourers.
Velirs / Chieftains
Women
Apart from the Vendhars, there were
Women are frequently referred to in Tamil
Velirs and numerous chieftains who occupied
texts as mothers, heroines, and foster-mothers.
territories on the margins of the muvendhar.
friendly Women from Panar families, dancers,
The velirs were the seven chiefs Pari, Kari, Ori,
poets, and royal women were all portrayed
Nalli, Pegan, Ai and Athiyaman. Sangam poems
in Sangam literature. There are references to
write extensively about the generosity of these
women from all five eco-zones. For example,
velirs. These chiefs had intimate relations with
Vennikkuyathiyar is identified as a poetess from
the poets of their time and were known for
the village of Venni. There are references to
3.
3. Early
Early Tamil
Tamil Society
Society and
and Culture
Culture 40

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women protecting Thinai fields from birds and

Umanar kula women selling salt showing that
women were involved in primary production.
Instances where women preferred to die along
with their husbands also occur in the literature
of the times.
3.5 Economy
Different types of pottery from Porunthal
The economy was mixed as elaborated in excavations.
the Thinai concept. People practiced agriculture,
pastoralism, trade and money exchange,
hunting-gathering, and fishing depending upon
the eco-zones in which they lived.
Agricultural Production
Agriculture was one of the main sources Russet coated painted pottery with wavy line
of subsistence. Crops like paddy, sugarcane, decoration
millets were cultivated. Both wet and dry land
farming were practiced. In the riverine and Iron Smelting Industry
tank-irrigated areas, paddy was cultivated. Iron manufacturing was an important
Millets were cultivated in dry lands. Varieties of artisanal activity. Iron smelting was undertaken
rice such as sennel (red rice), vennel (white rice), in traditional furnaces and such furnaces, with
and aivananel (a type of rice) are mentioned terracotta pipes and raw ore have been found
in the literature. Rice grains were found in in many archaeological sites. For instance
burial urns at excavations in Adichanallur and evidence of iron smelting has been found in
Porunthal. People in the forest adopted punam Kodumanal and Guttur. Sangam literature
or shifting cultivation. speaks of blacksmiths, and their tools and
Pastoralism – nomadic people earning activities. Iron implements were required for
livelihood by rearing cattle, sheep, and goat. agriculture and warfare (swords, daggers, and
spears).
ndustries and Crafts of the
I
Sangam Age
Craft production and craft specialization
were important aspects of urbanization. In the
Sangam Age there were professional groups that
produced various commodities. The system of
production of commodities is called industry.
Pottery
Pottery was practised in many settlements.
People used pottery produced by Kalamceyko Iron Swords from Puducherry
(potters) in their daily activities and so they
were made in large numbers. Black ware, Stone Ornaments
russet-coated painted ware, black and red ware Sangam Age people adorned themselves
potteries were the different types of pottery with a variety of ornaments. While the poor
used. wore ornaments made of clay, terracotta, iron,

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and leaves and flowers, the rich wore jewellery Pearl Fishery and Shell Bangle
made of precious stones, copper, and gold.
The Pamban coast is famous for pearl
fishery. A pearl has been discovered in recently
excavated Keezhadi site. Shell bangles were very
common in the Sangam Age. The Parathavars
collected conch shells from the Pamban Island,
which were cut and crafted into bangles by
artisans. Whole shells as well as fragments of
bangles have been found at many sites. Sangam
Carnelian Beads of Carnelian beads with
Sangam Age etched designs of
literature describes women wearing shell
Sangam Age bangles.
Gold pendant, Porunthal

Gold ornament axe
A terracotta seal with rice husk impression,

Keezhadi
Gold ornaments, Pattanam
Gold jewellery Textiles

Gold ornaments were well known in this Textile production was another important
period. Gold coins from Roman was used to make occupation. Evidence of spindle whorls and
jewellery. Evidence of gold smelting has been pieces of cloth have been found at Kodumanal.
found at Pattanam in Kerala. Gold ornaments Literature too refers to clothes called kalingam
have been unearthed at the megalithic sites of and other fine varieties of textiles. Periplus also
Suttukeni, Adichanallur and Kodumanal, mentions the fine variety of textiles produced in
and towns of Arikkamedu, Keezhadi and the Tamil region.
Pattanam.
Spindle whorls were used for making thread
Glass Beads from cotton.
The presence of glass beads at the sites
reveals that people of the Sangam Age knew Exchange, Trade, Merchants, and
how to make glass beads. Glass material Trade Routes
(silica) was melted in a furnace and drawn We saw the primary production of grains,
into long tubes which were then cut into small cattle wealth, and various commodities. These
beads. Glass beads came in various shapes goods were not produced by everybody and were
and colour. Arikkamedu and Kudikkadu, not produced in all settlements. Resources and
near Cuddalore show evidence of glass beads commodities were not available in all regions.
industry. It is possible that people who could For example, the hill region did not have fish or
not afford precious stones used glass beads salt and the coastal regions could not produce
instead. paddy. Therefore trade and exchange was

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important for people to have access to different

commodities. This system was known as barter
system.
Traders
The terms vanikan and nigama (guild)
appear in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. There
were different types of merchants: gold A bronze tiger with carnelian
merchants, cloth merchants, and salt merchants. stones, Kodumanal
Salt merchants were called Umanars and they A bronze
travelled in bullock carts along with their family. vessel from
a megalithic
Means of Transport burial Auroville,
Puducherry
Bullock carts and animals were used to
transport goods by land. Trade routes linked
the various towns of Tamilagam. Various types
of water crafts and sea-going vessels such as
Kalam, Pahri, Odam, Toni, Teppam, and Navai Glass beads from Porunthal
excavations
are also mentioned in Tamil literature.
Barter and Coins
Barter was the primary mode of
exchange. For instance, rice was exchanged for
fish. Salt was precious and a handful of it would
fetch an equal amount of rice. The extensive
availability of coin hoards of the Sangam Age
of the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, and Malayaman
Textile and spindle
indicates that they were used widely. whorls from
Kodumanal
Tamilagam and Overseas A spindle whorl, Pattanam
Interactions
Tamil country had connections with
countries overseas both in the east and west.
Roman ships used monsoon winds to cross
the Western Sea or the Arabian Sea to connect
Tamilagam with the Western world. Spices
including pepper, ivory, and precious stones
were exported. Metal including gold, silver and
copper and precious stones were imported.
Yavanar referred to the Westerners, including Shell wastes of bangle craft production
the Greeks, Romans and West Asian people.
Yavana derives from the Greek region of
discovered at Berenike, a port on the Red Sea
Ionia.
coast of Egypt.
Tamil Nadu to Red Sea Coast At Quseir al Qadhim, another port
An Indian jar with 7.5 kg of pepper, located north of Berenike on the Red Sea
teak wood, a potsherd with Tamil-Brahmi Coast, three Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions,
inscription and Indian pottery have been Panaiori, Kanan, and Cattan, have been found
on pottery discovered here.

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Akanaanuru poem 149 describes the trading at Emergence of towns

3.6
the port of Muciri as follows: “the well crafted and ports
ships of the Yavana came with gold returned
with pepper at the wealthy port of Muciri” . The Sangam Age saw the first urbanization in
Tamilagam. Cities developed and they had brick
buildings, roof tiles, ring wells and planned towns,
streets, and store houses. The towns worked
as ports and artisanal centres. Arikkamedu,
Kaveripoompattinam, Azhagankulam and Korkai
on the east coast and Pattanam in Kerala were port
centres. Kanchipuram, Uraiyur, Karur, Madurai
and Kodumanal were inland trade centres.
Many goods and commodities were
The trade route from Tamilagam to Rome. produced in these centres and were exported
A stone with the name “Perumpatankal” to various regions. Though few in number,
has been found at Khuan Luk Pat, Thailand. large towns appeared in the Sangam Age. Small
Southeast Asia was known as Suvarna Bhumi in villages however were found in many areas.
Tamil literature. This stone was used by a person Bronze vessels, beads, shell bangles, glass beads,
called Perumpattan, probably a goldsmith. It pottery with names of people written in Tamil-
was a touchstone used to test the purity of gold. Brahmi script were found at these sites.
What is an urban centre?

A planned town with brick architecture
and a proper layout. Urban centres have a
larger population involved in non-agrarian,
commercial and political occuptations.
Various industrial activities are seen in
these towns.
Ceramic Jars from Tamilagam with
preserved pepper, Berenike, Egypt
Faith and Belief

3.7
System
Like the diverse nature of the society and
economy, the belief system of the Sangam
Age was also diverse. It consisted of animism,
ancestor worship, hero worship and worship of
Pottery with the name “Cattan”
several deities.
Tholkappiyam lists the presiding deities
of Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neythal and
Paalai landscapes, as Murugan, Thirumal,
Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai, respectively.
However, people also worshipped
natural forces and dead heroes, and ancestors.
The force of anangu is mentioned in the
Perumpatankal, Kuan literature which indicates the prevalence of
Luk Pat, Thailand
animistic beliefs.

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Jainism was present as evidenced by called Veriyatal are referred to in the literature.
the caves with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Composition of poems, playing of music
Performance of Yagna is also evidenced. Buddhism instruments and dances were also known.
was also present in certain centres. Different The literature mentions the fine variety of
groups practiced various forms of worship. cuisine of the Sangam Age. People took care
of their appearance and evidence of antimony
3.8 Fine Arts rods (kohl sticks) made of copper has been
Various art forms too existed in the found in archaeological sites. They were used
Sangam Age. Performances of ritual dances by women for decorating their eyebrows.
Antimony rods (kohlsticks)

Copper rods used for decorating eyelashes
were made of bronze
Pattanam, Kerala
Pattanam is located near North Paravur in Vadakkekara village of Ernakulam district of Kerala.
It was an ancient port town that had overseas connections with the western and eastern worlds.
Pottery sherds from West Asia Cameo blanks in Carnelian
Canoe excavated at Pattanam Gold ornaments from Turquoise glazed

Pattanam pottery, West Asia

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Kodumanal, Tamil Nadu

Kodumanal is located near Erode in Tamil Nadu and is identified with the
Kodumanam of Pathitrupattu. Evidence of iron, stone bead and shell work, as well as
megalithic burials have been discovered at this site. More than 300 pottery
inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi have also been found.
Iron objects (horse Shell bangle bragments

equipment) from and a conch, Kodumanal
Kodumanal
Excavated Megalithic Burial at

Kodumanal
Carnelian beads,
Kodumanal
Human skeleton from
Kodumanal
Jar with writing in Brahmi
Keezhadi near Madurai, Tamil Nadu

Keezhadi is located near Silaimaan east of Madurai, on the highway to Rameswaram.
In a large coconut garden, called Pallichandai Tidal, the Archaeological Survey of
India and Tamilnadu state Archaeological Department excavated an ancient town
dating to the Sangam Age. Archaeological excavations have produced evidence for
brick buildings, drainage, Tamil-Brahmi inscription on pottery, beads of glass,
carnelian and quartz, pearl, iron objects, games pieces, and antimony rods. Further excavation
may shed light on the nature of the craft production and the cultural activities undertaken at
this settlement.
Brick Structures at Keezhadi A brick structure, Keezhadi

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Furnace, Keezhadi
Crystal ear
ornaments, Keezhadi
Various objects and

ornaments from Keezhadi
A brick built tank, Keezhadi
Tamil-Brahmi Script
used in the Sangam Age for writing the Tamil Language

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Similarities between graffiti of Keeladi and signs of Indus
Keeladi English for print 13 12 2019 Curve.indd 71 12/13/2019 2:56:45 PM
Keeladi Excavation on the banks of Vaigai suggests that urbanization occured

in Tamil Nadu too around 6th century BC (BCE) like in the Gangetic plains.
Porunai: The Cradle of Tamil

Civilisation
Porunai (Thamirabarani) is the only perennial river in
Keeladi English for print 13 12 2019 Curve.indd 71 12/13/2019
Keeladi English 2:56:45
for print 13 12PM
2019 Curve.indd 71 12/13/2019 2:56:45 PM
Tamil Nadu. It flows through Thirunelveli and Thoothukudi

districts. In Porunai river basin, the first archaeological
excavation was done in Adichanallur (1876) by a German
explorer named Dr. Jagor. Then the British archaeologist
Alexander Rea conducted excavation during 1899-1905
and displayed the artefacts he had collected in Madras
Government Museum. Nearly after a century, the Archaeological Survey of India conducted excavation
in 2004. Its report has been published recently. The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology began
excavations (2019 - 2021) in burial and habitation mound of Adichanallur. Korkai, an ancient port
mentioned in Sangam and Greek texts. The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology conducted
here excavation in 1968. The on-going excavation (2020 – 2021) at Korkai has yielded interesting details
about the Korkai Port and its overseas contacts.
The samples of husk removed paddy in an urn, unearthed during the excavations conducted at
Sivakalai (2019), a place situated a few kilometres away from Adichanallur by the Tamil Nadu State
Archaeology Department was sent to the Miami-based Beta Analytic Laboratory, Florida, USA for
determining the age. This Laboratory, after radiocarbon dating analysis has come to the conclusion
that it dates back to 1155 BC (BCE). Which means Thamirabarani civilisation is nearly 3200 years old.
Objects Unearthed in Adichanallur,

Sivakalai and Korkai
Burial urns: Buried under a rocky surface at a depth of 3 to 12
feet, these urns contained bones, utensils, gold, high tin bronze
and iron objects, believed to have been used by the dead.

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Gold diadems
Long circular gold diadems made of thin plates
with small dots of triangles with holes at the
extreme ends to fasten with a string.
Earthenware
(Black and Red)
The black - and - red earthen
pots of various sizes, more
than 500 graffiti and Tamili
(Tamil-Brahmi) script
inscribed potsherds
High tin bronzes
Small and big high tin bronze utensils of different
sizes and shapes.
Ornaments
Rings made of copper and
iron, beads and bangles
made of gold, glass, ivory,
bone and shell.
Water and
Sewage
Female Management
figurines Th e r a i s e d b r i c k
Female figurines structure, using sand
similar to those and laterite stones, with
found in Indus a big pot placed at its
Excavated in Excavated in Civilisation. centre, has 29 courses of
Indus Adichanallur bricks, terracotta pipes
with perforations in 9
Iron
courses kept one above the other is considered
weapons the cutting-edge technique of that period.
32 in numb er,
including lances, Shell Bangle
spears, stilettos. Industry
Conches in full, cut-conch shell
bangles and shells providing
evidence to the existence of conch industries
in Korkai. Sangam poems mention about the
settlements of shell bangle makers.
Ceramics and Coins indicating overseas trade

The presence of foreign ceramics and black polished earthenware confirm that Tamils had a trade
relationship with different parts of the world even before 6th century BC (BCE).

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Recap
Primary production and exchange and social relationships in the landscapes and mercantile
activities across the seas led to urbanization and development of culture paving way for
the development of literature during this period.
The texts were compiled through the Tamil Academies (Sangam) at a later date.
The Thinai concept is a distinct classification of land and people as elaborated in
Tholkappiyam.
The Sangam age witnessed the transition from tribal society to kingdom-centred polities.
Sea borne trade with the Indian Ocean regions developed.
Large towns with buildings made of bricks appeared in Tamil country.
The society was diverse in nature.
Timeline
ca. 1300 BC (BCE) to 300 BC (BCE) Iron Age or Megalithic Period
ca. 300 BC (BCE) to 300 AD (CE). Early Historic Period / Sangam Age / Sangam Literature
ca. 400 BC (BCE) to 300 BC (BCE) Introduction of Tamil-Brahmi Script
1st Century AD (CE) Periplus of Erythrean Sea
1st Century AD (CE) Pliny’s Natural History
2nd Century AD (CE) Ptolemy’s Geography
2nd Century AD (CE) Vienna Papyrus G 40822
ca. 300 AD (CE) to 500 AD (CE) Post Sangam Age
3. The notable Chola king credited with

bringing forest lands under the plough
and developing irrigational facilities
a) Karikalan b) Rajarajan I
EXERCISE
c) Kulothungan d) Rajendran I
4. Inscription that mentions the Cheras
a) Pugalur b) Girnar
I. Choose the correct Answer:
c) Pulimankombai d) Madurai
1.
The name of the script used in the
5. (i) C oins as a medium of exchange were
Sangam Age
introduced for the first time in the
a) English b) Devanagari Mesolithic Age.
c) Tamil-Brahmi d) Granta (ii) Prakrit was the language used by the
common people in Northern India
2. The Sri Lankan chronicle composed
during the Mauryan period.
in the Pali language mentioning about
(iii) Vienna Papyrus, a Roman
merchants and horse traders from Tamil
document, mentions trade related
Nadu
to Muziri.
a) Deepa vamsa b) Arthasastra (iv) The concept of Thinai is presented
c) Mahavamsa d) Indica in the Tamil grammar work of
Pathupaattu.

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a) (i) is correct 2. a) T
he Cheras ruled over Kaveri delta
b) (ii) is correct and their capital was Uraiyur.
c) (ii) and (ii) is correct b)
The Maangulam Tamil-Brahmi
inscriptions mention the King
d) (iii) and (iv) is correct
Karikalan.
6. (i)
Pathitrupathu speaks about the
c)
T he terms Vanikan and Nigama
Pandya kings and their territory.
appear in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
(ii) The Akanaanuru describes the trading were different types of merchants.
activities at Kaveripoompattinum.
d) Salt merchants were called Vanikars
(iii) The Chola Emblem was the tiger
and they travelled in bullock carts
and they issued square copper
along with their family
coins with images of a tiger.
(iv) Neythal is a sandy desert region. IV. Match the following
a) (i) is correct 1. Epigraphy - a narrative text
b) (ii) and (iii) are correct presenting the important
c) (iii) is correct historical events
d) (iv) is correct 2. Chronicle - a Sangam Age port
II. Fill in the blanks 3. Pastoralism - an ornament made in
1. ___________ are documents scripted precious stone.
on stones, copper plates, coins and rings 4. Cameo - the study of inscriptions
2. ___________ refers to systematically 5. Arikkamedu - n omadic people
digging a site to recover material earning livelihood by
evidence for exploring societies of the rearing cattle.
past
V. A
nswer the following questions
3. ___________ the classic work on
briefly
economy and statecraft authored by
Kautilya during the Mauryan period. 1. Archaeological sites provide evidence of
past history - Discuss.
4. ___________ is a poetic theme which
means a class or category and refers 2. How important are coins as a source of
to a habitat or eco-zone with specific evidence for the study of Sangam Age?
physiographical characteristics. 3. Agriculture was one of the main sources
5. ___________ referred to the Westerners, of subsistence in Sangam Age. Give
including the Greeks, Romans and West reasons.
Asian people. 4. Overseas interactions brought glory to
III. Find out the correct statement ancient Tamilagam. Give examples in
support.
1. a) E
vidence of iron smelting has been
found in Kodumanal and Guttur. VI. Answer the following in detail
b) Periplus of Erythren Sea mentions
about the pepper trade with India. 1. To what extent do you think the political
c) Punch marked coins are the earliest powers of Tamilagam influenced
coins used in India mostly made of Sangam Age polity?
gold. 2. Indicate how the industries and crafts
d) The Sangam Age has its roots in the of the Sangam Age contribute to their
Bronze Age. economy.

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FUN WITH HISTORY REFERENCE BOOKS

Student Activities 1. கா. இராசன். ெதால்லியல் ேநாக்கில்
Mark on the map of south India, the ancient சங்ககாலம் , உலகத் தமிழாராய்ச்சி
Tamilagam and the territories of Tamil நிறுவனம்.
kingdoms.Visit a museum and collect 2. Champakalakshmi. R, Archaeology and
information about inscriptions, coins and Tamil Literary Tradition. Puratattva
instruments used by the ancient people.
3. Rajan Gurukkal, Social Formation in
Visit the early historic sites of Arikkamedu, South India. Oxford University Press.
Kaveripoompattinam, Keezhadi etc.,
Conduct a study on materials excavated from
prehistoric sites and on Tamil - Brahmi script. INTERNET RESOURCES
Assignment with teacher’s 1. https://www.britannica.com
guidance
2. h t t p s : / / s a n g a m t a m i l l i t e r a t u r e .
A power-point presentation on the origin of wordpress.com
human life 3. http://www.archeologia.univ.
ICT CORNER
Finding Arikamedu
Let's Find
Steps
1. Type the given URL in browser or scan the QR code.
2. Click ‘Bhuvan 2D’.
3. Type Arikamedu in search box. Click ‘Search’ button or press the ‘Enter key’.
4. Select the ‘Satellite’ option given at the right side to watch the area in satellite
view. Click ‘+’ or ‘-‘ signs given at the left side to’ zoom in ‘or ‘zoom out’.
Website URL:
http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/bhuvan_links.php#
Website URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.prajwal.history.
science.isro.bhuvan.earth.map.satellite

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UNIT Intellectual Awakening and

Socio-Political Changes
4
Learning Objectives
To understand the transition of society from 6th century
to 2nd century BC (BCE)
To familiarise ourselves with the essence of new religious faiths:
Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika in India, Zoroastrianism in Persia,
and Confucianism and Taoism in China
To become aware of the circumstances that led to the formation of
states with a focus on Magadha Empire
To understand the socio-political changes of the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan states
Introduction in all spheres of life such as material, cultural

and intellectual. About this time, we find that
A new civilisation began to develop in a number of prominent men, great thinkers
northern India, with the revival of trade and and founders of new religions lived, making
urbanization during the sixth century BC it a period of great historical importance.
(BCE). In this period of major political and Philosophical and religious thinkers such
social changes in north India, Buddha and as Confucius in China, Zoroaster in Iran
Mahavira were born. In the century following and Mahavira and Buddha in India gained
their death, Buddhism and Jainism took root popularity in sixth century BC (BCE).
as major religions in India. This meant that
new religious orders were coming up with
many followers, propagating new beliefs and Confucianism and
4.2
philosophies. Similarly Zoroastrianism in Taoism
Persia and Confucianism and Taoism in China
became popular during this period. In the sixth century BC (BCE), two great
thinkers were born in China: Confucius
Religion in the and Lao-Tse. They laid down the systems of
4.1 morals and social behaviour for individuals
Sixth Century BC (BCE)
and communities. But after their death,
The new civilisations that emerged in the temples were built in their memory and the
new Iron Age had certain common features. philosophy they taught was developed into a
They were characterised by the proliferation religion. Known as Confucianism and Taoism
of new crafts, growth of long-distance respectively, their books were held in great
trade, building of cities and towns, rise of reverence in China. Confucianism exerted a
universalistic religions and evolution of a big influence on not only the political class of
code of conduct. Sixth century BC (BCE) was, China but also on the common people.
therefore, a period of exceptional development
53 4. Intellectual Awakening and Socio-Political Changes

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CHINA
U.A.E
ARABIAN SEA
ANDAMAN &
BAY OF BENGAL NICOBAR ISLANDS
(INDIA)
MALAYSIA
INDIAN OCEAN
Not in scale
Places associated with the intellectual awakening in 6th century BC (BCE)
Confucius Five Cardinal Principles of

(551–478 BC (BCE)) Confucius’ Ethics
Confucius was born in the Shantung province 1. Humaneness
of China in 551 BC (BCE). He studied history, 2. Righteousness
poetry, philosophy and music. He is the author
3. Propriety
of five important works: (1) The Book of Records,
which is chiefly ethical, 4. Wisdom
providing guidelines 5. Trustworthiness
for the regulation of
human society; (2) Confucius said that wisdom grows from the
The Book of Odes, family, and that the foundation of society
illustrating the sound is the disciplined individual in an orderly
principles of morality family. The superior man, according to him,
in songs; (3) The Book is not merely intelligent or scholarly, but his
of Changes dealing with character should be exemplary. The superior
metaphysics; (4) The man of Confucius possesses three virtues:
Spring and Autumn intelligence, courage and goodwill. Though
Annals, a code of Confucius Confucius insisted on children obeying
political morality; and parents and wife her husband, he also clearly
(5) The Book of History narrating the events and proposed that “when the command is wrong
legends of the early religions of China. a son should resist his father and a minister
4. Intellectual Awakening and Socio-Political Changes 54

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should resist the prince.” When asked about 4.3 Zoroastrianism

government, he said that there are three
requisites for it: “There should be sufficiency Zoroastrianism is one of the oldest of the
of food, sufficiency of military equipment revealed world religions. It remained as the state
and confidence of the people in their ruler.” religion of three great Iranian empires, which
Taoism flourished from the 6th century BC (BCE) and
dominated much of the Middle East. Zoroaster
Lao-Tse, the greatest of the pre-
of Persia is the founder of Zoroastrianism.
Confucian philosophers, was 53 years older
than Confucius. Lao-Tse was born in 604 Zoroaster was pained to find his people
BC (BCE). Disgusted with the intrigues of worshipping primitive deities. He revolted
politicians and the prevailing corruption of his against it and proclaimed to the world that there
time, he left China to live in a peaceful abode. is one god, Ahura Mazda (the Lord of Light).
Lao-Tse wrote a book in two parts, running The holy book of Zoroastrians is Zend
into 5,000 words. He then disappeared from Avesta. It is a collection of sacred literature of
the place and no one knew where he died. His
different epochs, containing religious hymns,
book Tao Teh Ching is a guide to the conduct
invocations, prayers, confessions, laws, myths
of life.
and sacred reminiscences. The doctrines and
rituals of the Zoroastrians have much similarity
Teachings of Lao-Tse (Taoism)
to those of the Vedas.
The cause of human unhappiness in the
Teachings
world is human selfishness. Selfishness
creates unlimited human desires, which Zoroaster taught that the great object of
can never be satisfied. religion, state or society is the cultivation of
In nature, all the things act in a natural morality. The highest religious conception is
way. The law of human conduct must purity of thought, word and deed. He asserted
correspond with nature. that Ahura Mazda has seven qualities:(1)
light; (2) good mind; (3) right; (4) dominion;
(5) piety; (6) well-being; and (7) immortality.
Ahura Mazda is omniscient (knows everything),
omnipotent (all powerful) and omnipresent
(is everywhere). In Zoroastrianism, sacrifice
and image worship were discarded. Fire was
worshipped as a symbol of the deity and
considered the highest form of worship. Charity
was made an essential part of religion, and
service to the poor was particularly emphasised.
Lao-Tse Impact of Iron
4.4
Humans live a life under the regulation Technology in India
of someone. This is because they have In the Gangetic valley, people learnt to
acquired knowledge and have not produce crops more than that was required for
remained innocent. On the basis of their subsistence. So, another section of people took
acquired knowledge, they have built up up some professional crafts as their livelihood.
an urban civilisation and have made Like the farmers, these craftsmen also had
themselves unhappy.

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to rely on a group of people who collected raw Mahavira and Buddha lived a life of purity
materials and distributed the craft products. Early and exemplified simplicity and self-denial.
urbanisation happened in two ways. One was as a They lived in the times of Bimbisara and
result of some villages specialising in black smithy, Ajatashatru, the famous kings of Magadha.
pottery, carpentry, cloth weaving and the like. The commercial development of the northern
The other was on account of the congregation of cities like Kaushambi, Kushinagara, Benaras,
specialised craftsmen in villages close to where the Vaishali and Rajagriha added importance to
raw materials were available and where markets
the Vaishyas who turned to Buddhism and
were present. Such a concentration enabled
Jainism in their eagerness to improve their
villages to evolve into towns and exchange centres.
social status.
Vaisali, Shravasti, Rajagriha, Kausambi and Kashi
were some significant commercial centres of the Jainism
Gangetic plain.
Mahavira: Birth and Life
Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 599
Religion: Post-Rig BC (BCE) at Kundagrama near Vaishali. His
4.5 Vedic
mother was Trishala, a Lichchavi princess.
He spent his early life as a prince and was
Three more Vedas –Yajur, Sama and
married to a princess named Yashoda. The
Atharva –were composed
couple had a daughter. At the age of thirty,
after the Rig Veda. Manuals
he left his home and became an ascetic.
of rituals called Brahmanas,
For over twelve years, Mahavira wandered
specifying rhyming words
from place to place, subjecting himself to
to be sung, and two
severe penance and
commentaries on certain
self-mortification. In
Rig Vedic hymns called
the thirteenth year
Aranyakas, containing knowledge to be learnt
of his asceticism, he
secretly in the forest, and the Upanishads, were
acquired the highest
compiled in the upper Gangetic plain during
knowledge and came
1000–600 BC (BCE).
to be known as Jaina
(the conqueror) and
4.6 Jainism and Buddhism Mahavira (great
In the Gangetic plain, iron plough hero). Jains believe
Mahavira
agriculture required the use of bullocks. But that Mahavira came in
the indiscriminate killing of cattle for Vedic a long line of Tirthankaras and he was the
rituals and sacrifices caused resentment. twenty fourth and the last of them. Rishabha
The founders of Jainism and Buddhism was the first Tirthankara and Parshvanath the
did not prescribe killing as a religious rite. penultimate or the twenty third. Mahavira
travelled extensively as a preacher in the
They secured their livelihood mostly by
kingdoms of Magadha, Videha and Anga.
alms. Celibacy and abstinence from holding
Magadha rulers Bimbisara and Ajatashatru
property made the new teachers much more
were influenced by his teachings. Thousands
acceptable than the Brahman priests. The of people became his followers. After 30 years
people’s resentment about the expensive and of preaching, Mahavira died at Pawapuri in
elaborate Vedic rituals, animal sacrifice and 527 BC (BCE) at the age of seventy two.
the desire for wealth eventually took them
towards Jainism and Buddhism.

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The statue Decline of Jainism

of Bahubali The lack of royal patronage, its severity,
(known as factionalism and spread of Buddhism led to the
Gomateswara, decline of Jainism in India.
57 feet)
at Shravanabelgola in Jaina Kanchi : Jainism was
Karnataka is the tallest Jaina one of the major faiths in the
statue ever carved out in Bahubali Tamil region during the 7th
India. century AD (CE). The Pallava
king. Mahendravarman was a
Jain. Under the influence of Appar he got
Teachings of Mahavira
converted to Saivism. Close to the present
The three principles of Jainism, also known as town of Kanchi there is a place called
Tri-ratnas, are the following: Jaina Kanchi where you find many Jain
1. Right faith: Belief in the teachings and temples. One of the important temples is
wisdom of Mahavira.
the Thiruparuthikundram temple, where
the ceiling is painted with the life story of
2. Right knowledge: Acceptance of the Mahavira.
theory that there is no God and that the
world existed without a creator. Buddhism
3. Right action: It refers to the Mahavira’s Gautama Buddha: Birth and Life
observance of the five great vows: (a)
ahimsa, (b) honesty, (c) kindness, (d) Gautama Buddha was the son of Suddhodana,
truthfulness and (e) not coveting or the chief of a Kshatriya clan of the Sakyas of
desiring things belonging to others. Kapilavastu in present-day Nepal. His given
name was Siddhartha.As he belonged to the
Spread of Jainism Sakya clan, he was also known as ‘Sakya Muni’.
He was born in 567 BC (BCE) in Lumbini
In order to spread his new faith, Mahavira Garden, near Kapilavastu. His mother,
founded monasteries. The Jaina monks who led Mayadevi (Mahamaya), died after a few days
a very austere life. In North India, this new faith of his birth and he
was patronised by rulers such as Dhana Nanda, was brought up by his
Chadragupta Maurya and Kharavela. There was step-mother. In order
a notable followers of Jainism in Karnataka and to divert his attention
western India during the 4th century BC (BCE). towards worldly
Jainism encouraged the public spirit among all affairs, his father got
who embraced it. Varna system practiced by him married at the age
Brahmans was challenged. People were spared of sixteen to a princess
from the costly and elaborate rituals and sacrifices. called Yashodhara. He
Mahavira believed that all objects, both animate led a happy married
Gautama Buddha
and inanimate, have souls and various degrees life for some time and
of consciousness. They possess life and feel pain had a son by name Rahula.
when they are injured.
One evening, while Siddhartha was
Split in Jainism passing through the city, he came across an old
In course of time, Jainism split into two man who had been abandoned by his relatives,
branches, namely the Digambaras (sky-clad) a sick man crying with pain and a dead body
and the Svetambaras (white-clad). surrounded by weeping relatives. Siddhartha

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was deeply moved by these sights. He also saw (ii) Attainment of Nirvana: According
an ascetic who had renounced the world and to Buddha, a person should aim at
found no sign of sorrows. These ‘Four Great attainment of nirvana or the highest bliss,
Sights’ prompted him to renounce the world and it could be achieved by any person by
and search for the cause of suffering. In 537 leading a virtuous life and by following
BC (BCE), he left his palace and went into the Noble Eight-fold Path.
the forest in search of truth. In the course of (iii) The Noble Eight-fold Path: Buddha
his wanderings, he sat under a peepal tree for preached a new path to attain the purest
several days until he attained enlightenment. state of mind: (1) right views, (2) right
The place where he attained enlightenment, the aspirations, (3) right speech, (4) right
Mahabodhi temple, still exists in Bodh Gaya action, (5) right livelihood, (6) right
(Bihar). effort, (7) right mindfulness and (8) right
After his enlightenment, Buddha contemplations or meditation. Buddha
decided to impart his knowledge to the people. preached that he who practices the eight-
He went to Varanasi and gave his first sermon fold path can attain the highest and purest
at Saranath. He preached in the kingdoms of state of mind.
Magadha and Kosala. A large number of people Spread of Buddhism
became his followers including his own family. Buddha, in order to carry his message to
After forty five years of preaching, he breathed different parts of India, established the Buddhist
his last in 487 BC (BCE) at Kushinagar (near sangha or the Holy Order of Monks. The bikshus
Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh) at the age of eighty. (monks) and the bikshunis (nuns) were enlisted
for spreading the faith and they were required
Teachings of Buddhism
to lead a life of purity and poverty. Buddhism
(i) Four Great Truths: (1) There is suffering spread to Central Asia, Sri Lanka, Tibet,
and sorrow in this world. (2) The cause of Southeast Asia, as well as the eastern countries
human suffering is desire and craving. (3) of China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
This pain or sorrow can be removed by
suppressing desire and craving. (4) This is The Split in Buddhism
to be achieved by leading a disciplined life
or by following what Buddha called the During the reign of Kanishka, the
‘Noble Eight-fold Path’. Buddhist monk Nagarjuna initiated reforms

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in the way Buddhism was being followed. 4.7 Other Heterodox Sect
As a result, Buddhism was split into two as
Hinayana and Mahayana. Ajivika
(i) The Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) was the The period that produced Buddhism
original creed preached by Buddha. The and Jainism also witnessed the birth of a sect
followers of this form regarded Buddha known as Ajivika. Its founder was Gosala
as their guru and did not worship him (Maskariputra Gosala), a friend of Mahavira.
as God. They denied idol worship and For some time, they were together. Later, Gosala
continued with the people’s language, Pali. moved away and founded the Ajiviaka sect. As
an atheistic sect, Ajivikas rejected the karma
When Buddha’s closest theory, which postulated that the condition of
disciple Ananda asked men is determined by their past actions. Gosala
Buddha whether women can argued that acts of charity and piety can, in no
become monks. Buddha said, way, influence this finality.
Yes, if women can follow the
Ajivikas had a small presence in southern
path of renunciation, they can become
India. Under the Cholas, a special tax was levied
monks and completely enlightened just
on them. Three Tamil texts, the Manimekalai
as men.
of Buddhists, the Nilakesi of Jains and the
(ii) In Mahayana (Greater Vehicle), Buddha Sivajnanasiddhiyar of Saivites, contain the
was worshipped as God and Bodhisattuva outlines of Ajivika doctrine.
as his previous avatar. The followers
Gana-sanghas
made images and statues of Buddha and
Bodhisattuva and offered prayers, and There were two distinct forms of
recited hymns (mantras) in their praise. government at the time of Mahavira and
Later, they wrote their religious books Buddha: monarchical kingdom and clan
in Sanskrit. This form of Buddhism was oligarchies or Gana-sanghas. The Gana-sanghas
patronised by Kanishka. provided a polity alternative to the kingdoms.
Vedic rituals and the rules of varna were not
Decline of Buddhism followed. The Gana-sanghas consisted of either
Buddhism declined in India due to the following a single clan, such as the Shakyas, Koliyas and
reasons: Mallas, or a confederacy of clans, such as the
Vrijjis and the Vrishnis (a confederacy located at
1. Buddhism was popular in the beginning
Vaisali). The Gana-sanghas had only two strata:
because it was preached in people’s
the Kshatriya rajakula, ruling families, and the
language (Pali). The later texts were
dasa-karmakara, the slaves and labourers.
written in Sanskrit, which was difficult
for the common people to understand. 4.8 Rise of Kingdoms
2. The split in Buddhism into Hinayana and The 6th century BC (BCE) witnessed the
Mahayana was another vital reason. Image establishment of kingdoms, oligarchies and
worship in Mahayana made no difference chiefdoms as well as the emergence of towns.
between Hinduism and Buddhism. From the largest of the chiefdoms emerged
3. Buddhism lost its royal patronage kingdoms. Many tribes of Rig Vedic period such
during the reign of Guptas. as Bharatas, Pasus, Tritsus and Turvasas passed
4. Further, the invasions of Huns and into oblivion and new tribes such as the Kurus
Turks almost wiped out Buddhism. and Panchalas rose into prominence. Sixteen
mahajanapadas are listed in the Buddhist texts.

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Linguistic and cultural commonality prevailed in his judicial power to Adhyakshas (royal officials).
the janapadas, whereas in the mahajanapadas, In the villages, Gramyavadin (village judge) and
different social and cultural groups lived. With Sabha (court) decided the cases. Punishments for
the emergence of kingdoms, the struggle for crimes were severe.
supremacy among different states occurred
The Rise of Magadha Kingdom
frequently. Sacrifices such as Rajasuya and
Asvamedha were performed to signify the The polity followed in kingdoms was
imperial sway of monarchs over their rivals. The different from that of gana-sanghas. Kingdoms
Rig Vedic title of ‘Rajan’ was replaced by impressive operated with a centralised government. Political
titles such as Samrat, Ekrat, Virat or Bhoja. power was concentrated in the ruling family,
which had become a dynasty, with succession
Northern India extended from the Kabul becoming hereditary. There were advisory bodies
Valley in the north to the Godavari in such as parishad (ministers) and sabha (advisory
the South. It witnessed the rise of sixteen council). The sabha collected the revenue and
states known as Mahajanapadas or sixteen remitted it to the treasury in the capital of the
great states: Kasi, Kosla, Anga, Magadha, kingdom, from where it was redistributed for
Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, the public expenses, such as maintenance of
Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, army and salaries to state officials.
Gandhara and Kamboja.
Of the kingdoms mentioned in the
literature of the period, Kashi, Kosala and
Growth of Royal Power Magadha are considered to be powerful. The
only republic that rivalled these kingdoms
The king enjoyed absolute power. The
was the Vrijjis, whose capital was Vaisali. In
sabha of the Rig Vedic period ceased to exist.
the struggle for control for the Gangetic Plain,
The king sought the aid and support of the
which had strategic and economic advantages,
samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal
the Magadha kingdom emerged victorious.
policies. However, in spite of the existence
Bimbisara was the first important king of
of the assemblies, the power of the king kept
Magadha. Through matrimonial alliances with
increasing. The Satapatha Brahmana describes
the high-status Lichchavi clan of Vaishali and
the king as infallible and immune from all
the ruling family in Kosala, Bimbisara went on
punishments. The growth of royal power
to conquer Anga (in West Bengal now), thereby
was reflected in the enlarged administrative
gaining access to the Ganges delta.
structure. The king was now assisted by a
group of officers such as Bhugadugha (collector Bimbisara succeeded in establishing
of taxes), Suta (charioteer), the Aksharapa a comprehensive structure of administration.
(superintendent of gambling), Kshattri Village was the basic unit of his administrative
(chamberlin), Gorikartana (king’s companion system. Apart from villages (gramas), there were
in the chase), Palogola (courtier), Takshan fields and pastures as well as wasteland and the
(carpenter) and Rathakara (chariotmaker). forests (aranya, khetra and vana). Each village
In addition, there were the ecclesiastical and was brought under a gramani (headman),
military officials like the Purohita (chaplain), who was responsible for collecting taxes and
the Senani (army general) and the Gramani remitting them to the state treasury. Officers
(leader of the village).In the later Vedic period, appointed to measure the land under cultivation
Gramani, who acted both a civil and military and assess the value of crop were to assist the
officer, was the link through which the royal gramani in his task. Land tax (bali) was the
authority was enforced in the village. The king main source of revenue to the kingdom and the
administered justice and occasionally delegated share of the produce (bhaga) was determined

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proportionate to the extent of land cultivated. and defeated the

The term shadbhagin – one who is entitled to a Nanda king in 321
share of one-sixth –referred to the king. Thus, a BC (BCE). Thus
peasant economy came into being at Magadha. began the reign
of the Mauryan
Iron plough agriculture led to dynasty.
the rise of empires Assiriyan in
D u r i n g
Iran and Magadha in India.
Chandragupta’s
reign, Seleucus,
Ajatashatru, the son of Bimbisara, is said to the general of Chandragupta
have murdered his father and ascended the throne Alexander, who Maurya
in 493 BC (BCE). He continued his father’s policy had control over
of expansion through military conquests. The countries from Asia Minor to India, crossed
capital city of Magadha was Rajagriha, which was the Indus only to be defeated by Chandragupta.
surrounded by five hills, providing protection to Seleucus’s envoy, Megasthenes, is said to have
the kingdom from external threats. Ajatashatru remained in India and his account titled Indica is
strengthened the Rajagriha fort and also built a useful record about Mauryan polity and society.
another fort at Pataligrama on the Ganges. It served After gaining control over the Gangetic
as the exchange centre for the local produce and plain, Chandragupta turned his attention to
later became the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. north-west to take advantage of the void created
Ajastashatru died in 461 BC (BCE) and he was by Alexander’s demise. These areas comprising
succeeded by five kings. All of them followed the the present-day Afghanistan, Baluchistan and
example of Ajatashatru by ascending the throne Makran surrendered without any resistance.
by killing their parent. Fed up with such recurring Thereupon Chandragupta moved to Central
instances, people of Magadha appointed the last India. According to Jaina tradition, towards the
ruler’s viceroy Shishunaga as the king. After end of his life, Chandragupta, who had by now
ruling nearly for half a century, the Shishunaga become an ardent follower of Jainism, abdicated
dynasty lost the kingdom to Mahapadma Nanda his throne in favour of his son Bindusara.
who founded the Nanda dynasty. The Nandas Bindusara, during his rule, succeeded
were the first of non-kshatriya dynasties to rule in in extending the Mauryan empire upto
northern India. Karnataka. At the time of his death, a large part
Mauryan Empire: State of the subcontinent had come under Mauryan
4.9 and Society suzerainty. Ashoka succeeded Bindusara in 268
BC (BCE). Desirous of bringing the remaining
Mauryan Kings parts of South India into his empire, Ashoka
waged a war against Kalinga in the eighth year of
Vishnugupta, who was later known as his reign. The people
Chanakya or Kautilya, fell out with the Nanda of Kalinga fought
king and vowed to dethrone him. Chandragupta bravely, but they
perhaps inspired by Alexander of Macedonia, was were defeated after a
raising an army and looking for opportunities to large-scale slaughter.
establish a kingdom of his own. On hearing the This war and
news of Alexander’s death, Chandragupta stirred slaughter affected
up the people and with their help drove away the Ashoka so much that
Greek garrison that Alexander had left at Taxila. he decided to give up
Then he and his allies marched to Pataliputra war. Ashoka became Emperor Ashoka

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an ardent Buddhist after meeting the Buddhist evolved a very efficient system of governance.
monk Upagupta and propounded his Dharma. The king, as the head of
The only true conquest, he proclaimed, is the the administration, was
conquest of self and the conquest of men’s hearts assisted by a council of
by the dhamma (Pali) or dharma (Sanskrit). He ministers. There were
issued edicts, which were carved out in the rock. mahamatriyas, who
functioned as secretaries
There are 33 edicts, including 14 major rock to the ministers. The
edicts, 7 pillar edicts and 2 Kalinga edicts, person in charge of revenue and expenditure
apart from Minor Rock edicts and Minor was samaharta. The empire was divided into
Pillar inscriptions. They form the reliable four provinces and these provinces were
sources to know about the Mauryan Empire, administered by governors, who were usually
in particular the dharmic rule of Ashoka. princes or from the royal family.
In one of his The district was under a sthanika, while

Kalinga edicts, he gopas were in charge of five to ten villages. The
tells us his horror municipal(Pataliputhra) administration was
and sorrow over the under a nagaraka. Six committees with five
deaths which the members each carried on their duties under him.
war and conquest i. They were to take care of the foreigners.
caused. In yet
another edict, he ii. T
o register the birth and death of the
makes it known citizens
that Ashoka would iii. To look after trade and commerce,
not tolerate any
Ashoka Pillar, iv. To supervise different manufactures
longer the death
Allahabad v. To collect excise duties and custom duties
or captivity of
even hundredth or Like the city or town administration,
thousandth part of the number killed and made the military department was also managed
captive in Kalinga. by a board of 30 members, split into six
Ashoka’s passion for protecting life committees, with five members in each of
extended to animals as well. Hospitals were them. At the village level, there was gramani,
constructed for them and animal sacrifice was whose responsibility was maintaining the
forbidden. Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and boundaries, keeping the records of land and
his daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon to spread a census of population and livestock. In order
his message of Dharma there. Ashoka died to keep a vigil over the entire administration,
after ruling for 38 years. including the conduct of officers, a well-knit
spy system was evolved and put in place.
Our national emblem with four lions is a Justice was administered through well-
replica of the Ashoka Pillar of Saranath. established courts in all major towns and
cities. Punishment for crimes was severe.
Mauryan Administration
Chandragupta’s minister
The Mauryan state in its early years Chanakya is credited with a book
undertook some measures that were positive titled Arthasastra, which gives a
for the development of society. The state detailed account of the Mauryan
raised taxes to finance a huge standing army administration.
and a vast bureaucracy. The Mauryans had

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The state used the surplus appropriated for

Recap
the development of the rural economy by founding
new settlements, granting land and encouraging
the people to settle as farmers. It also organised Sixth century BC (BCE) was a period
irrigation projects and controlled the distribution of material, cultural and intellectual
of water. There was state control of agriculture, development.
mining, industry and trade. The state discouraged Confucius’ ethics in China and
the emergence of private property in land and Zoroastrian religion in Persia,
banned its sale. The Mauryan state gave further Mahavira’s Tri-ratnas and Buddha’s
boost to urban development. It secured land trade eight-fold path in India created a new
routes to Iran and Mesopotamia, as well as to the awakening and provided a moral code
kingdoms of northern China. Arthasastra refers of conduct to humanity.
to Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal), Kamarupa
Sixth century BC (BCE) was also a period
(Assam) and Madurai as textile centres. The
that witnessed the rise of Mahajanapadas.
distribution of black polished ware of northern
The sixteen such chiefdoms are listed
India as far as South India is indicative of the
with the focus on Magadha as a
extent of trade during the Mauryan rule. Trade
powerful kingdom.
contributed to urbanisation in a big way. New
cities such as Kaushambi, Bhita, Vaishali and The Mauryan dynasty was founded by
Rajagriha had sprung up in the doab region. Chandragupta Maurya with the aid of
Chanakya.
Educational Centres
Monasteries and temples served the The Mauryan administration
purpose of imparting education. Nalanda and the greatness of Ashoka with
was a great monastery built by the Magadha particular reference to his dhamma is
Empire. Educational centres offered Buddhist highlighted.
and Vedic literature, logic, grammar, medicine,
philosophy and astronomy. Even the science
of war was taught. Nalanda became the most
renowned seat of learning in course of time. It EXERCISE
was supported by the revenues of 100 villages.
No fees were charged to the students and they
were provided free board and lodging. I. C
hoose the correct
answer
1. Identify the founder of a new sect who
exemplified simplicity and self-denial.
(a) Buddha (b) Lao-tze
(c) Confucius (d) Zoroaster
2. The Magadha king influenced by the
teachings of Mahavira
(a) Dhananandha
Nalanda University (b) Chandragupta
(c) Bimbisara
(d) Shishunaga

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3. The northern India extended from II. Fill in the blanks

the Kabul Valley in the north to the
1. ____________ is a collection of sacred
Godavari in the south witnessed the rise
literature of different epochs, containing
of Sixteen States.
prayers, confessions and myths.
(a) Mahajanapadas
2. In the Gangetic plain ______________
(b) Gana-sanghas agriculture required the use of bullocks.
(c) Dravida 3. Jains believe that ______________
came in a long line of Tirthankaras and
(d) Dakshinapatha
he was the twenty - fourth and the last.
4. Tri-ratnas are the three priniciples
4. The place where Buddha attained
taught by
enlightenment has been built into the
(a) Buddha Mahabodhi temple that still exists in
(b) Mahavira ______________
(c) Lao-tze 5. The rock edicts form the reliable source
to know about the Mauryan empire
(d) Confucius in particular the Dharmic rule of
5. The account which throws light on ______________.
Mauryan polity and society
III. F
ind out the correct
(a) Marco Polo
statement
(b) Fahien
1. a)
T he introduction of Bronze tools
(c) Megasthanes made easy the removal of dense forest
(d) Seleucus cover from the banks of the Ganges.
b)
Ajivikas had a small presence in
6. (i)
Under the Magadha king the western India.
mahamatriyas functioned as c)
T he clusters where particular
secretaries to the ministers. clansmen were dominant came to be
(ii)
Accounts of Megasthanes titled known were Pre-Mauryan states.
Indica is a useful record about d) Of the kingdoms mentioned in the
Mauryan polity and society. literature of the period Kashi, Kosala
(iii) Nanda’s attempt to build an imperial and Magadha are considered to be
structure was cut short by Ashoka powerful.
who founded the Mauryan kingdom. 2. a) Ajatashatru was the first important
(iv) According to tradition,towards the king of Magadha.
end of his life Chandragupta become b) Bimbisara succeeded in establishing a
an ardent follower of Buddhism. comprehensive structure of
a) (i) is correct administration.
b) (ii) is correct c) The Mauryas were the first of non-
Kshatriya dynasties to rule in
c) (i) and (ii) are correct
northern India.
d) (iii) and (iv) are correct d) Nanda’s attempt to build an imperial
structure was cut short by Ashoka.

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IV. Match the following

FUN WITH HISTORY
1. Eight-fold path - tallest Jaina statue
Student Activities
2. Bahubali - a code of political
morality Prepare a case study of Asoka's Edicts.
3. The Spring and - sacred literature Enact a drama about the life and teachings
Autumn Annals of laws and myths of Buddha.
4. Zend Avesta - first Tirthankara Assignment with teacher’s
5. Rishabha - path to attain the guidance
purest state of mind List out the countries where Buddhism
exists in the world and mark on the world
V. Answer the following briefly map.
1. Write above Hinayana and Mahayana. Prepare a clay model of Sanchi Stupa,
2. Elaborate the term “Tri-ratnas”. Darmachakra.
3. What do you know of Ajatasatru?
4. What does the Edict of Kalinga convey?
REFERENCE BOOKS
5. Highlight the steps taken by Ashoka to
spread Buddhism. 1. A.Shah, Glimpses of World Religions.
Jaico Books
VI. Answer the following in detail
2. Romila Thapar, Early India. Penguin
1. Discuss the five cardinal principles of
3. Jawaharlal Nehru, Glimpses of World
Confucius
History. Penguin
2. Compare and contrast the principles of
4. A.L.Basham, History and Doctrines
Jainism and Buddhism
of the Ajivikas: A Vanished Indian
Religion. Oxford University Press
5. V.A. Smith, Oxford History of India.
Oxford University Press

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UNIT
The Classical World
5
Learning Objectives
To gain knowledge of the classical civilisation of Greece
To know Athenian democracy and the age of Pericles
To understand how a small town (Rome) emerged as a republic and
later became an empire
To learn the contribution of Rome to world civilization
To aquire knowledge of classical China and its achievements
To trace the origin of Christianity and its spread in Eastern Roman Empire
Introduction
Classical World comprises ancient Greece
When America, Australia and Africa remained and Rome. Classical Age refers to the
outside the mainstream of world history, inter-locking civilisation of ancient Greece
civilisation blossomed in scattered areas of and ancient Rome, known as Graeco-
the land mass of Europe and Asia, known Roman World.
as Eurasia. Some of them soon reached the
classical stage. When the classical era was at its 5.1 Greece: The Hellenic
height, a chain of empires from Rome to Persia World
to Peshawar, began to emerge. The expansion of
major civilisation eliminated the geographical Until 8th century BC (BCE) Greece was not
gap and paved the way for inter-regional trade different from the rest of the world. People
contacts and cultural exchange. This led to were illiterate, craft specialization was
the transmission of ideas, technology and primitive, and life was difficult. With the
art. The diffusion of the great religions of the exception of Sparta, agriculture was limited
world, beginning with Buddhism and later by the mountainous terrain. However, the
continuing with Christianity and Islam, can be Greeks succeeded in founding colonies along
understood in this context. the coast that helped them earn revenue
5. The Classical World 66

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through trade. As a result by the 6th century King Darius’ successor conducted another
BC (BCE), Greece turned into a network expedition. Joined by Spartans this time, the
of City-States. Acropolis, a fortified city Athenians persisted in their resistance and
of ancient Greeks on a hill in Athens, is an in the final battle fought in Salamis, Persian
illustrative example of their advancement. ships were destroyed. Disheartened Xerxes
Though the City-States fought each other returned to Persia without achieving his end.
they were bound together by trade, by a
common alphabet, similar religious practices, “Democracy” in Hellenic Greece
and festivals. The illustrious example for the When the Greek City-States first emerged,
last one was the Olympic festival of sports they still carried the legacy of the past. The
and games. rulers came from lines of traditional chieftains.
Those who grew rich from the expansion of
trade resented the privileges enjoyed by the
old ruling families. Yet the Age of Tyrants
6th century to 4th century BC (BCE) proved
to be a period of urban development, with
new buildings and enormous temples such as
Olympian Zeus at Athens.
Athenian Democracy
In Athens, the pressure from below resulted
in the replacement of both oligarchy and
tyranny by “democracy.” The law-making
Acropolis
power in Athens was vested in an assembly
open to all freemen. Judges and lower officials
The ruling class in Greece controlled were chosen by lots. This arrangement was
the land. Slaves cultivated the land. resented by the upper classes who considered
Greek writers and philosophers saw democracy to be the rule of the mob.
the ownership of slaves as essential to
a civilized life. Aristotle compared the The Persian danger had united the
master and slave relationship to that Greeks. When this danger was removed,
of husband and wife, and father and they started quarrelling again. The history of
children. many Greek city-states was one of continual
struggles by the rich landowners against
“democracy”. The only exception was Athens,
where “democracy’ survived for about 200
Greeks’ Victory over Persians
years.
King Darius (BC (BCE) 550–486), who was
heading a great empire in Persia, decided
The word ‘democracy’, literally means
to conquer the Greek City-States. The first
“rule of the people”. In reality it excluded
Persian attack on Greece failed. This was
slaves, women, and non-residents known
due to the fact that Persian army suffered
as metics (traders and craftsmen).
from disease and lack of food during its
march. Therefore, in planning the second
attack, the Persians avoided the land route Pericles (461–429 BC (BCE)
and came by sea. The Greeks or Hellenes, Athens had a great leader, Pericles, who held
fought patriotically and defeated the Persian power for thirty years. During his rule, Athens
army at Marathon in 490 BC (BCE). Xerxes, and Sparta were continuously at war with each
67 5. The Classical World

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other. This war is known this age. Ptolemy built on Hipparchus’s ideas
as the Peloponnesian War. and later developed a model of motion of the
Athens, despite hostility and planets and stars.
disturbance from Sparta, Roman Republic
became a noble city with
magnificent buildings. There In the beginning Rome was a society of
were great artists and great agriculturists, organized through lineages. Out
thinkers. Historians therefore Pericles of this developed a hereditary ruling class.
call this the Age of Pericles. Roman people were divided into two classes:
Patricians, rich landlords, and Plebeians, a
The Athenian government, common citizens.
after Pericles, did not like Rome was strategically located in the
Socrates’ way of finding truth. crisscrossing trade routes cutting north–south
In a trial, Socrates was accused and east–west. Taxes on passing traders added
of refusing to accept the gods to the revenue derived from agriculture. By the
recognized by the State and late 6th century BC (BCE), Rome developed into
corrupting the youth. The a prosperous town.
jury found Socrates guilty Socrates
and sentenced him to die by Class War between Patricians
drinking hemlock (a poison). and Plebeians
Prisoners of war were enslaved in Rome. Thus
5. 2 Rome: The Hellenistic Rome produced a new labour force for the
World rich to exploit. Big landholders bought slaves
cheaply and used them to cultivate their estates.
Beginnings of Hellenistic The slave population grew and by the 1st century
Civilisation BC (BCE) there were two million slaves, when
The Greek city-states did not have an elaborate the total strength of free population was 3.25
bureaucracy. They were therefore able to million. Slave labour led to the impoverishment
show a greater dynamism. Under Alexander of free labour. Many poor peasants had to
the Great, the Greeks were able to establish abandon their children who also ended up in the
a kingdom in Macedonia. This kingdom slave markets. The conflict between Plebeians
succeeded in annexing two historic empires and Patricians became bloodier.
of Egypt and the Middle East. But the entire
period of Alexander’s reign was spent on wars. A major source of revenue to the Roman
state was slave trade. The island of Delos
Cultural development that took place became a great slave market.
rapidly after Alexander’s death 323 BC
(BCE) is called Hellenistic civilisation. Tiberius Gracchus and Garius do
Gracchus, though Patricians, voiced their
The Greek school of Science, Mathematics opinion in favour of the poor peasants. As
and Philosophy reached its peak in the Greek- the peasants supported their programme,
Egyptian city of Alexandria. Euclid who the Senators, shocked by this development,
formulated the basic theorems of geometry, murdered both of them. The martyrdom of the
Eratosthenes who accurately calculated the Gracchus brothers played a decisive role in the
diameter of the earth, and Hipparchus, the transformation of the Roman Republic into the
founder of trigonometry were all products of Roman Empire.

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Transfer of Power from Consuls Marius and Cinna against Sulla,

to Emperor Pompey against Julius Caesar,
after Caesar’s death Brutus and
When Marius became
Cassius against Mark Antony and
Consul with the support
Octavian (Caesar’s nephew) and
of the equites (new rich or
finally Octavian against Mark
propertied class below the
Antony. The rich, old and new
rank of Senatorial Class),
alike, felt that allowing Octavian, Augustus
he made an attempt to
now called Augustus, to establish
push through a land distribution bill in the
a de facto monarchy was the only way to re-
Senate. This led to violence. The allies of
establish political stability. The period starting
Marius were killed. This resulted in a civil
from Augustus (27 BC (BCE)) is known as
war between the followers of Marius and
Principate. Augustus called himself Imperator,
Sulla. After expelling Marius Sulla reigned
equivalent to the English word Emperor.
for three years as a virtual dictator. He was
killed and succeeded by Cinna and Catalina.
Society under Principate
Slave Revolts During the period of Principate, the imperial
There were more slave revolts in Rome ruling class became far more prosperous than
than in Greece. The revolt of Spartacus was under the republic. The period witnessed a
the most famous. It began in 73 BC (BCE) great influx of luxury goods such as silk, spices,
involving about 70,000 slaves. The revolt and gems from the east. Cities were built on
threatened the power in Rome. Ultimately a grand scale, with temples, theatres, stadia
Spartacus was killed and the revolt crushed. and colosseum, gymnasia, aqueducts, baths
6,000 of the followers of Spartacus were and markets. The rich people distracted the
executed. attention of the poor by organizing games and
contests in circuses, where the gladiators were
Establishment of forced to fight and kill each other.
Principate
The most distinguished writers of the
The civil wars over social issues Augustan Age brought glory to the empire. Pliny
ended only to be replaced by the Elder completed a voluminous encyclopaedia
civil wars between Generals. of “science.” He called it Natural History.
Punic Wars and the Emergence of Imperial Roman Empire

As Rome was growing in Italy, Carthage was growing in power in north
Africa. The Carthaginians were the descendants of the Phoenicians who
excelled in seafaring and trade. Rome and Carthage united to drive out
the Greeks. Thereafter Carthage took Sicily and threatened the very
existence of the Roman state. The three wars fought between them
are called Punic Wars. Carthage sent a general named Hannibal. He
defeated the Roman army and made a great part of Italy a desert. Fabius,
who led the Romans, did not give up. In the second Punic War, Fabius
confronted Hannibal and defeated him in the Battle of Zama. Pursued
by the Roman army, Hannibal ended his life by poisoning himself. The
third Punic War was declared on the Carthaginians by Rome. After the
defeat and destruction of the Carthage in this War, Rome emerged as an
unrivalled power in the western world. Hannibal

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Roman Empire N
London Western Roman empire
Cologne W E
Eastern Roman empire
S
Paris
Atlantic
Ocean Lugdunum Aquileia
Bordeaux Mediolanum Sirmium

Ravenna
Nemausus
Salonae
Massilia
ITALY Black sea
Caesaraugusta
Rome
Braga Barcino Thessalonica Constantinople
Conimbra
Ancyra
Emerita Valentia Vivarium Pergamum
Augusta Athens Nyssa
Ephesus
Hispalis
Carthage
Syracuse Corinth ASIA
Tipasa
Dougga Perge Aleppo
El Djem Antioch
Damascus
Mediterranean Sea
Tyre
AFR Leptis magna Cyrene
ICA Alexandria
Jerusalem
Petra
EGYPT
Map not to scale
Roman Empire
Seneca was another well known author of an the exceptions of Trajan (98–117), Antoninus
encyclopaedia of science. Horace in his Odes Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–
developed a philosophy that combined Epicurean 180), all others were tyrants. Marcus Aurelius
justification of pleasure with Stoic bravery in the stands apart from all others. As a philosopher,
face of trouble. Livy was more a prose stylist than he authored many books. He was the first
a historian. The best known historian was Tacitus. Roman Emperor to send an embassy to China
Virgil’s Aeneid glorified Roman imperialism. and establish contact with an Asian power.
The Roman law attained its highest stage of
External Invasions and the
development during the Principate.
Decline of Roman Empire
The empire, facing threats from “barbarian
incursions,” depended on expensive mercenary
armies. In AD (CE) 330 the centre of the empire
moved from Italy to the Greek speaking city
of Byzantium. But it was difficult to rule the
western parts from such a distance. In 410 A.D.
(C.E.) the Goth Alaric led his forces to sack
Rome. The Frank Clovis took control of Gaul.
The Ostrogoth Theodoric proclaimed himself
the emperor of Rome. The final onslaught came
from Vandals. In 476 A.D. (C.E.), disgusted by
the rule of Emperor Romulus Augustus, the
Colosseum
Roman army led by Odovacer revolted and
After the death of Augustus in 14 AD (CE) Rome deposed him. This marked the end of Western
had few enlightened and capable rulers. With Roman Empire.

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5.3 Empire Building in The trade route from China to Asia Minor
East Asia: China and India, known as the Silk Road or Silk
Route, linked China with the West. Goods
Fall of Chin Dynasty
and ideas between the two great civilisation
Wang Cheng, popularly known as Shih of Rome and China were exchanged through
Huang Ti (meaning the first emperor), ended this route. Silk went westward, and wools,
the age of warring states in China. He crushed gold, and silver went east. China received
all local rulers and established a strong central Buddhism from India via the Silk Road.
government. However, uprisings of the
peasantry, unlike in other cultures, occurred
again and again in China. Such uprisings led to
the collapse of Chin dynasty.
Han Dynasty and Expansion of
Chinese Territories Woven silk
Han dynasty (206 BC (BCE) - AD (CE) horses, use of saddle and stirrup, techniques
220, founded by Liu Pang, flourished for 400 of building bridges and mountain roads, and
years. Their capital was Chang-an. The most seafaring. Such innovations made Han Empire
popular and powerful ruler was Wu Ti. His prosperous. At the beginning of the Christian
generals succeeded in driving away the Huns Era, the Han Empire rivalled that of Rome in
in the north. Thus the Han Empire once again size and wealth.
threw open the silk road for trade. A large Buddhism came to China from India
export trade, mainly in silk, reached as far as during the reign of Han dynasty. With
the Roman Empire. Buddhism came the influence of Indian art to
In the north, artisans and herders of rival China and from China this spread to Korea and
“barbarian” dynasties brought in new from there to Japan. Some of the Buddhist art of
techniques like the methods of harnessing the time show the impact of Hellenistic styles.
EUROPE Silk Route Map N

sea
Black sea
pian
W E
Rome
Constantinople
Cas
Mediterranean sea
PERSIA
Alexandria
CHINA
EGYPT
Barbarikon
Calcutta
Re
Muscat Barygaza Guangzhou

d
ARABIA Sur
se
a
INDIA
sea
Kane ARABIAN SEA

hina
Muza BAY OF BENGAL

Aden
th C
Muziris
Sou
Mogadehu Malacca
SOMALIA
I N D I A N O C E A N
Mombesa
JAVA
Sea route
Map not to scale
Land route

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After Jesus’s crucifixion, St Paul started

spreading the Christian doctrine. Paul succeeded
in his effort and Christianity gradually spread.
Romans were prepared to tolerate Christianity.
But the refusal of the Christians to pay respect
to the Emperor’s image was viewed as political
treason. It led to the persecution of Christians.
Their property was confiscated and they were
thrown to the lions. Yet the Roman Empire did
not succeed in suppressing Christianity. One
Buddha (China) of the Roman emperors Constantine himself
Han emperors found it extremely difficult became a Christian. Christianity thus became
to control the big land owners. So after some the official religion of the Empire.
decades of consolidation, China saw the
St. Sophia Cathedral
emergence of several rival kingdoms marked
by civil wars in north China. People abandoned St. Sophia
their homes and farms, and fled from there to Cathedral
the Yangtze region and beyond. The period after was built in
Han ruled witnessed political instability across mid-sixth
the country. century AD
(CE) The most
5.4 Rise of Christianity magnificent building in Europe at that time,
it was known for its innovative architectural
After a brief period of glory in the days of
techniques. This Cathedral was turned into
David and Solomon, the Jewish people had a
a mosque by the Ottoman Turks when they
great fall and experienced extreme hardship.
captured Constantinople.
While spreading out all over the Roman Empire
and elsewhere, they hoped that a Messiah would
arrive to restore their pristine glory. Initially they 5.5 Byzantium
laid much hopes on Jesus. Jesus was against the The Byzantine emperors, who ruled from
rich and the hypocrites, and condemned certain the city of Constantinople for about 1,000 years,
observances and ceremonials. This was not to the called themselves Romans. But their language
liking of the priests, who turned against Jesus and was Greek. The splendour of Constantinople
handed him over to the Roman Governor Pontius with its luxurious royal palaces, its libraries, its
Pilate. Looked upon as a political rebel by the scholars familiar with the writings of Greeks and
Roman authorities, Jesus was tried and crucified. Romans and its fascinating St. Sophia Cathedral
are the legacies they have left behind.
However, in terms of development of
science and technology, there was no progress
during this period. The economies of the
Empire’s provinces were in the hands of large
local landowners. The small peasants always
lived on the edge of poverty. The fundamental
weakness of Byzantine Civilisation stood
exposed when the participants of Fourth
Crusade pillaged it and ruled it. The tottering
Jesus addressing his followers empire finally fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

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India during the Classical Period
The Kushan period Eighteen major works The corresponding

corresponded with the last of Sangam age Viz eight period 4th and 5th A.D. (C.E.)
days of the Roman Republic, Anthologies (Ettuthogai) in south India, characterized
when Julius Caesar was alive. and Ten Idylls (Pathupattu) as Kalabhra period.
The Kushan Empire is said compiled during the first Teakwood, pepper, pearls,
to have sent an embassy three centuries of common ivory, brocades and precious
to Augustus Caesar who Era were composed during stones and the like were
succeeded Julius. this period. Sangam exported from the Malabar
Literature hailed as first Coast to Babylonia, Egypt,
secular literature of India. Greece and Rome. Trade with
Rome further flourished.
Recap
The Greeks fought patriotically and repulsed the invasion of Persians.

Athens rejected monarchy and oligarchy, and opted for “democracy.”
During the reign of Pericles, Athens was in a higher plane of civilization.
After the death of Alexander, Science, Mathematics and Philosophy reached its peak in the
Greek-Egyptian city of Alexandria, heralding a new Hellenistic era.
By the late 6th century BC (BCE), Rome became prosperous and developed into a republic.
Class wars between Patricians and Plebeians, and slave revolts led to emergence of Rome as
an Empire.
The period of Principate in general and Augustus in particular witnessed rich contribution
of Romans to science, engineering, architecture and sculpture.
Internal crisis and invasion of Franks, Goths and Vandals ended the Roman Empire.
Romans carried on their civilisation in the East with Constantinople as capital.
This is called Byzantine Civilization.
Christianity became a state religion of Byzantium and began to spread in Europe.

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1. G reeks defeated the Persians at
EXERCISE .
2. stood in favour of
I. C
hoose the poor peasants in Roman republic.
correct answer
3. Buddhism came to China from India
1. is the Greek city- during the reign of
state which resisted the Persians to the dynasty.
end. 4.
T he most magnificent building in
a. Acropolis Europe was ` .
5. and
b. Sparta
were Magistrates in Rome.
c. Athens
d. Rome III. F
ind out the correct
statement
2.
T he other name for Greeks was
1. (i) F
irst Persian attack on Greece failed.
a. Hellenists (ii) The downfall of Roman Empire is

attributed to Julius Caesar.
b. Hellenes
(iii) The Barbarians who invaded Rome
c. Phoenicians were considered to be culturally
d. Spartans advanced.
3.
T he founder of Han dynasty was (iv) Buddhism weakened the Roman
Empire.
a. Wu Ti a. (i) is correct
b. Hung Chao b. (ii) is correct
c. Liu Pang c. (ii) and (iii) are correct
d. Mangu Khan d. (iv) is correct
4. was the Roman 2. (i)

Euclid developed a model for the
Governor responsible for the crucifixion motion of planets and stars.
of Jesus. (ii) Romans established a republic after
overthrowing Etruscans.
a. Innocent I b. Hildebrand
(iii) Acropolis became a famous slave
c. Leo I d. Pontius Pilate
market.
5.
T he Peloponnesian War was fought
(iv) Rome and Carthage united to drive
b e t we e n an d
out the Greeks.
a. Greeks and Persians a. (i) is correct
b. Plebeians and Patricians b. (ii) is correct
c. Spartans and Athenians c. (ii) and (iv) are correct
d. Greeks and Romans d. (iv) is correct.

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3. (i) Silk road was closed during the Han V. Answer the following briefly
dynasty. 1. Attempt an account of slavery in Rome.
(ii) Peasant uprisings posed threats to 2.
Highlight the main contribution of
Athenian democracy. Constantine.
(iii) Virgil ’ s Aeneid glorified Roman 3. What do you know of the Carthaginian
imperialism. leader Hannibal?
(iv) S partacus killed Julius Caesar.
4. What were the reasons for the prosperity
a. (i) is correct of Han Empire?
b. (ii) is correct 5. Write about St. Sophia Cathedral.
c. (ii) and (iv) are correct
VI. Answer
the following
d. (iii) is correct.
in detail
4. (i) R oman Emperor Marcus Aurelius 1. Discuss the rise and growth of Athens,
was a tyrant. pointing out its glorious legacy
(ii)
R omulus Aurelius was the most 2. Write about India's position during
admired ruler in Roman History. classical position.
(iii) abius was a famous Carthaginian
General.
FUN WITH HISTORY
(iv) Tacitus is respected more than Livy
as a historian. Activities for Students
a. (i) is correct In an outline map of Europe, the students
b. (ii) is correct are to sketch the extent of Western and
c. (ii) and (iii) are correct Eastern Roman Empire.
d. (iv) is correct. Students are to be guided by teachers to
5. (i) Buddhism went to China from Japan
Google the architectural splendours of
classical civilisation of Greece, Rome
(ii) After crucifixion of Jesus, St Thomas
and China.
spread the Christian doctrine
(iii) St Sophia Cathedral was the most Assignment with teacher’s
magnificent building in Europe guidance
(iv) Trajan was one of the worst dictators Preparing albums, with masterpiece arts of
that Rome had. Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and Chinese.
a. (i) is correct Writing the brief biography of the
b. (ii) is correct distinguished Roman Emperors.
c. (iii) is correct
d. (iv) is correct.

1. Acropolis - Consul
2. Plato - Athens
3. Marius - Philosopher
4. Zeus - Materialist
5. Epicurus - A fortified city

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5. கிறிஸ் ஹார்மன் - உலக மக்கள்

REFERENCES
வரலாறு, பாரதி புத்தகாலயம், 2018.
1. Chris Harman, People’s History of the 6. ஜவஹர்லால் ேநரு - உலக சரிதம்,
World, Verso, 1999. அைலகள் ெவளியீட்டகம்.
2. Philip Ralph and Edward McNail Burns,
The World Civilisations: From the Stone 7. கி.ர. அநுமந்தன் - பண்ைடய கிரீஸின்
Age to the New Millennium, Library of வரலாறு - த.பா.ம.க.ப. கழகம்
Congress, 1968. (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு, ஆகஸ்ட் 2017).
3. Richard Overy (edit.), Complete History 8. ேஜ.பி. பியூரி - கிேரக்க நாட்டு
of the World, Harper Collins Publishers, வரலாறு - தமிழாக்கம் பி.
2007. இ ர ா ம ா நு ஜ ம் ே த வ த ா ஸ் ,
ஐ.எஸ். பாக்கியநாதன் த.பா.ம.க.ப.
கழகம் (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு - ஆகஸ்ட்
History, Penguin.
2017).
ICT CORNER
The Classical World
Let us learn Greek civilisation
through this game.
Step 1: Use the URL/QR code to open the activity page “Adventures in Ancient Greece".
Click the 'OK' button and type your name to start the activity.
Step 2: Type the needed notes on the 'note scroll’, shown in the right side. “Timeline,
Map, Athens”, options are given below.
Step 3: Click ‘Timeline’, a match board will appear. Drag the options from right side
window and ‘Submit’. Some important cities and the life style of Greek people
are given in "MAP".
Step 4: Click 'Quiz' and answer the questions.
Website URL:
http://mystery-productions.com/hyper/Hypermedia_2003/Miller/AM_
hypermedia/Artifact/go.htm
*Pictures are indicative only.
*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page.

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UNIT
The Middle Ages
6
Learning Objectives
To learn about the empires of China during the reign of Tang, Sung
and Yuan dynasties
To understand the evolution of Japanese society under the Fujiwara
Family and Kamakura Shogunate
To trace the background of the birth of Islam
To acquire knowledge of Arab and Ottoman Empires and their
contribution to the spread of Islamic culture
To analyse the characteristics of Feudalism in the Middle Ages
To understand the relationship between the State and the Church in the Middle Ages
Introduction growth, and the restructuring of secular and

religious institutions.
Historians call the period between the
end of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. (C.E.) The history of Arab civilisation
and the capture of Constantinople by the Turks that began a little later than the history
in 1453 A.D. (C.E.) as the Middle Ages. The of Byzantium covers a period roughly
Middle Ages has been further classified as early, from 630 A.D. (C.E.) to 1300. Known as
central or high and later. In the early Middle Sara-cenic civilisation it was the centre of a new
Ages (approximately fifth to tenth century), religion and its impact on Christian Europe
Christianity, followed by Islam, began to was responsible for revolutionary social and
establish themselves as dominant religions of intellectual changes.
continental Europe. The central or high Middle Seljuq Turks were a tribe of Tartars from
Ages witnessed rapid development, marked by Central Asia. They established a powerful
territorial expansion, demographic and urban empire in Persia. Their reign was one of great
77 6. The Middle Ages

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progress in literature, art and architecture. Tang dynasty undertook enormous

Similarly the Ottoman Turks who moved public works. Two capital cities, Boyang
Anatolia (Asia Minor) and established an and Chang-on, were built. Scholar officials,
independent empire contributed to science trained in Confucius Philosophy, were
and technology in a big way. appointed to counterbalance the landowning
aristocratic class. Land was divided into small
EAST ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES peasant holdings. As a result, the agricultural
surplus went to the state as taxes, not to the
6.1 China: Tang Dynasty aristocrats as rents. State monopoly of salt,
(618–907 A.D. (C.E.)) and tea added to its revenues.
Sung Dynasty
Sui dynasty collapsed in forty years (960–1279 A.D. (C.E.))
because of financial burden imposed by public
works like the Grand Canal and the expensive The rebellion of hard-pressed peasantry
wars waged to conquer northern part of under the leadership of Hung Ch’ao dealt a
Korea. The T’ang dynasty rose from the death knell to the tottering Tang empire. The
widespread rebellions that took place to empire split into five rival states, until it was
establish a strong centralised empire. Li Yuan reunited under a new dynasty, Sung. Trade and
who organised the rebellion made Yang You industry flourished during the reign of Sung
the emperor of China. As Yang you was killed dynasty. Iron and steel industries became highly
by one of his royal officials, the Chancellor, Li organized.
Yuan proclaimed himself emperor. Several
hundred kilometres of the Great Wall were The quantity of iron
rebuilt along the north-west frontiers. China produced in
Military campaigns extended the empire’s 1078 A.D. (C.E.)
influence into Korea in the east and as far as exceeded 114,000
the borders of Persia and Indo-China in the tons (England
west. produced only
68,000 tons even
in 1788). China
Great Wall of
excelled in ceramics
China: Between
and porcelain-making. This technique
8th and 7th
was not known to Europe for another
centuries B.C.
700 years. Gun powder was in use by
(BCE), the
1044. China possessed printed books
warring states
half a millennium before Europe. (Chris
in China built
Harman, A People’s History of the World,
defensive walls to protect themselves from
p. 111.)
enemies from the north. During Chin (Qin)
Dynasty, the separate walls were connected
and consequently the wall stretched from Fall of Sung Dynasty
east to west for about 5000 kilometres. This Sung period was also a period of great
wall, considered to be one of the wonders prosperity to the landowning class, officials and
of the world, served to keep nomadic tribes rich merchants. The peasants, by contrast, had to
out. The Wall was further extended and suffer grinding poverty. Before any internal crisis
strengthened by the succeeding dynasties. could develop, there were two external invasions
Now it is 6,700 kilometres in length. from the north that ended the Sung dynasty. The
6. The Middle Ages 78

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Mongols established their rule in the name of country (aborigines) are known as “Ainus.” The
Yuan dynasty. original religion of Japan was Shinto. It was a
mixture of nature and ancestor worship.
Yuan Dynasty
(1279–1368 A.D. (C.E.)) Japan remained in isolation for many
The Mongols, who overran Persia and the centuries. This gave them the benefit of enjoying
whole of Central Asia, did not spare China freedom from the foreign invasions. In Japan
either. Mangu Khan became the Great Khan in Buddhism came through Korea.
1252 who appointed Kublai Khan the Governor
of China. The Mongol presence from one end
of Eurasia to the other played a key role in
spreading Chinese technological advances to the
less developed societies in the west. Though the
Mongol court in Beijing impressed a foreigner
like Marco Polo, the poverty of peasantry
continued. There were revolts of religious
sects and secret societies. Finally, the leader of
“Red Turbans” Chu Yuan Chang captured the Shinto Religion
Mongol capital, Beijing and proclaimed himself In Japan also the leading families opposed
emperor in 1369. and fought each other to gain power. Their
emperor Mikado was an autocrat but a puppet
in the hands of a few powerful families. The first
great family that controlled the state was the
Soga family. Shotuku Taishi was the leader. He
made the central government strong.
After the death of Shotuku Taishi, his
Kublai Khan Mongol Court
family was driven out by Nakatom no Kamatari,
Ming Empire the founder of the Fujiwara family. Kamatari
(1368–1644 A.D. (C.E.)) adopted many Chinese methods and made
the central government further strong. He
The Ming Empire, which replaced the
made Nara the capital. From 794 AD (CE)
Mongol empire, consciously discouraged
Kyoto remained the capital for more than one
industry and foreign trade in order to
thousand years until it was replaced by Tokyo.
concentrate on agriculture. This resulted,
Fujiwara family emperors in later years retired
economically China lagging behind in the
to monasteries and lived as monks. Yet they
16th century. Other parts of Eurasia, building
continued to exercise authority.
on the techniques of the Chinese, began to
march ahead. During the two-hundred-year rule of
Fujiwaras, a new class of large landholders
emerged. These landholders were also military
6.2 Japan men, called Daimyos (meaning great names-
Many of ancestors of the Japanese came lords). The Daimyos became powerful with their
from Korea and some from Malaysia. It was retainers and armies. Out of the fight between
two chief families, the Tara and the Minamota,
through Korea that Chinese civilisation
Yoritomo emerged successful. In AD (CE) 1192,
reached Yamato (Yamato was the original
the emperor gave him the high sounding title of
name of Japan). The original inhabitants of the
Sei-i-tai-Shogun, which means the Barbarian-

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subduing-Great-General. The title carried

full power to govern hereditarily. The Shogun
became the real ruler. In this way began the rule
of Shogunate.
Yoritomo established his military capital

at Kamakura. Therefore, the first Shogunate is
called the Kamakura Shogunate. Japan followed
China in all spheres of life but in its own way.
The emperor became a ceremonial head. The
government was a feudal military government Mecca
administered by samurai or warriors. The 6.3 (a) Arabian
Mongols, who changed the course of history Abu Bakr and Omar who succeeded Prophet
in Asia and terrified Europe, were successfully Mohammad as Khalif or Caliph (both religious
repulsed by the Japanese under this Shogunate. and temporal leader) laid the foundation for an
Yet the decline of the ruling dynasty started and Islamic Empire. In a short period of time, the
in 1338 AD (CE), the Kamakura Shogunate Arabs defeated both the Eastern Roman Empire
ended. A new line of Shogunate came to power and the Sassanid King of Persia. Jerusalem, the
known as Ashikaga Shogunate that lasted for holy city of Jews and Christians, was won by the
235 years. But this was a period of conflict and Arabs, and the whole of Spain and Persia came
war. Three men ultimately rescued Japan from under the new Arab Empire.
the prolonged civil war. They were Borbunaga, Islam advocated simplicity and equality.
a Daimyo or noble, Hideyoshi, a peasant and These two ideas impressed people fed up with
Tokugawa Iyeyasu, one of the distinguished the old order of oppression and exploitation.
nobles of the time. By the end of 16th century The Arabs easily overran many regions.
the whole of Japan was again united. Egyptians had suffered much under the Roman
Empire and so they opted for Arabs. Led by
6.3 Islam and the Rise of the General Tariq, the Arabs, after conquering
Islamic Empires Morocco and Africa, crossed into Europe and
took Spain which they ruled for many hundreds
Prophet Mohammad established Islam. Islam gave of years. The Arabs, until then largely nomads
a message of brotherhood. Mohammad laid stress from the deserts, became the rulers of a mighty
on the equality of all those who were Muslims. empire. They were called Saracens (from sahra
This message of equality and brotherhood had and nashin - the dwellers of the desert).
great appeal not only for the Arabs, who were
divided into warring tribes, but also for people Birth of Sunni and Shia Sects
in other parts of the world. However, faced with
The quarrel for the leadership of Arabia led to
persecution in his place of birth, Mohammad and
a division in Islam. The two sects formed out
his followers moved to the city of Yethrib. The
of the division were the Sunnis and Shias. The
flight of Mohammad from Mecca in 622 AD (CE)
Sunnites, Sunni Muslims, maintained that the
is called Hijrah in Arabic. In honour of his coming,
head of the Islamic state and successor to the
the people of Yethrib renamed the city to Madinat-
Prophet should be elected by representatives
un-Nabi-the city of the Prophet. It is now known
of the whole body of believers. The Shiites,
as Medina. Mohammad died ten years after the
the followers of Shia sect, opposed elevation
Hijrat (AD (CE) 632). By the time of his death,
to any highest political and religious office
united under a common faith, the Arabs became
other than those related to the Prophet by
a powerful force.
blood or by marriage.

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Rule of Ommiad or Umayyad

Baghdad- a city known as the city of
dynasty
Arabian Nights, ‘was a vast city of palaces
The Caliphs, belonging to a branch of and public offices and schools and colleges,
Mohammad’s family, known as Ommiads or and great shops and parks and gardens. The
Umayyads ruled for about 100 years. Damascus merchants carried on a vast trade with the
was their capital. They developed a new style of East and West.... Visitors came to Baghdad
architecture known as Saracenic architecture. from all over the world, especially learned
The arches, the pillars, and the minarets and men and students and artists Nehru,
Glimpses of World History.
domes came to India later and blended with
Indian ideas.
Arabs’ Scholarly Pursuits
Abbasid Caliphs did not attempt to
conquer new lands. Instead they tried to
consolidate the Empire. They were more
interested in scholarly pursuits. The A r abs h a
d a scientific spirit of inquiry. In some subjects
like medicine and mathematics they learnt
much more from India. Many students
from Arabia went to Taxila to learn
Medical Education, By that time Taxila
was a popular Medical University. Indian
scholars and mathematicians came in large
numbers to Baghdad. Sanskrit books on
Saracenic Architecture medicine and other subjects were translated
The Muslim Arabs carried Islam far and into Arabic. In medicine and surgery, Arab
wide. But while they were fighting at distant physicians and surgeons earned a great
lands, the Arabs at home were quarrelling. Ali, reputation.
the son-in-law of Prophet Mohammad and 6.3 (b) Disintegration of Arab
his son Hussein were murdered. Umayyads Empire and Rise of Seljuq Turks
were overthrown by Abbasids. This branch The Abbasid Empire was at the height
descended from Prophet Mohammad’s uncle of its glory during the reign of Harun-al-
Abbas and hence his followers were called Rashid. Soon after his death, the Arab
Abbasids. Empire started disintegrating.
Independent kingdoms
Rule of Abbasids
arose everywhere. The
Abbasid Caliph became more
rule began and more powerless to
in 750 control those kingdoms.
A.D. (C.E.) The Turks (known as Seljuq
assuming the Turks), who had become Muslims,
title of “the succeeded in taking possession of
Commander Baghdad City Baghdad. They also defeated the
of the Faithful”, Abbasid Caliph wielded Byzantine army of Constantinople and
posed a challenge to the European
authority as any other Emperor. The Abbasids
states. The Christian pilgrims to the holy
tried to rival the old empires in splendour.
city of Jerusalem were put to a lot of
The capital was shifted from Damascus to hardships by the Turks. The resultant
Baghdad in Iraq. conflict led to the Crusades.

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6.3 (c) Crusades and Fall of

Seljuq Turks
The Pope and the Church called upon
all the Christian peoples of Europe to march
to the rescue of the “holy city” (Jerusalem).
The Crusaders had to fight against the Seljuq
Turks who controlled those parts. The struggle
between Christianity and Islam beginning
in 1095 continued for nearly 200 years and is
called the Crusades. Jerusalem
The Crusades did not achieve the desired
end. Jerusalem continued to remain in Ottoman 6.3 (d) Impact of Crusades
hands for another 700 years. This continuous Crusades ended the feudal relations.
fighting associated with Crusades weakened the Many of the nobles who went to East to take
Seljuq Turks. The Mongol invasion from the East part in the Crusades either stayed too long
side-lined this cause and Christians and Muslims a period or did not return. The serfs took
alike started shifting their attention towards the advantage of their absence to break away from
advancing Mongols, led by Chengiz Khan. The their bondage to the soil. Increasing demand
destruction of Baghdad in 1258 A.D. (C.E.), by for products of the East led to expansion
the Mongols, put an end to what remained of the of trade. Venice, Genoa and Pisa emerged
Abbasid Empire. as important commercial centres in the
Vienna Aral
sea
HUNGARY
N Ca
sp
W E
Black sea
ian
S
BALKANS Istanbul
sea
TURKEY
ALGERIA
IRAN
Med
TUNISIA iter
ran SYRIA IRAQ
ean Baghdad
sea CRITI CYPRUS
Tripoli PALESTINE Pe
ris
an
Cairo Gu
lf
AR
AB
EGYPT
IA
Medina
Re
Mecca
d
Se
a
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Map not to scale

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Mediterranean region. Constantinople ceased 6.5 Feudalism

to be the middle man in the trade between the
East and the West. The elimination of powerful 6.5 (a) State
nobles had its influence in strengthening Despite the hold of powerful religions such
the monarchy in France and England. One as Christianity and Islam, the economic life of
notable outcome of Crusades was the loss of people was governed by feudal relations.
prestige suffered by Pope and Papacy.
KING
Mongols and Chengiz Khan

Mongols were nomads. Fief and Peasants
They were herdsmen. Loyalty Military Aid

LORDS (VASSALS TO KING)
The Mongols were

experts in warfare and
produced a remarkable
Food Protection Shelter
Homage Military Service
chief, Chengiz Khan. KNIGHTS (VASSALS TO LORDS)
He was a great military

genius. Mongols’ hold Food Protection Shelter
over Russia for about Chengiz Khan Farm the

Land PEASANTS (SERFS)
Pay
Rent
300 years made Russia technologically

backward from the rest of Europe until
the end of Middle Ages.”
Feudalism
The king, supposed to represent God on
6.4 Ottoman Empire earth, was at the head of the feudal regime.
When the Mongols advanced across Asia, Immediately after him were the great nobles,
Ottoman Turks (different from Seljuq Turks) known as dukes, counts, earls. The relationship
fled and took asylum under Seljuqs in western was one of a vassal. The nobles in turn had
Asia. But when the Seljuq Turks weakened, the vassals of their own, dividing and distributing
Ottomans extended their power. They crossed their fief to lesser nobles called viscounts or
over to Europe and occupied Bulgaria and barons. Last in this order were the knights,
Serbia, and made Adrianople their capital. whose fiefs could not be divided. At the bottom
Instead of directly attacking Constantinople were the villeins or serfs they are called slaves.
they surrounded it and were biding their In the feudal system which centred
time. The conquest of Constantinople around vassalage, there was no idea of equality
in 1453 A.D. (C.E.) by Mohammad II, or freedom. There were only rights and
helped establish Ottoman supremacy in the obligations. The Bishops, Abbots and Cardinals
Balkans, Black Sea and the Middle East. the priest next to pope Cardinals Bishops -
For some time, Ottomans were strong religious head in district level Abbots -chief
and Christian Europe was scared of them. among the christian priest and the Church
After conquering Egypt, they assumed the title came under this socio-political structure. The
of Caliph. They became a major player in the nobility and the clergy did not do any physical
international power politics of the day. Though work. So the burden of producing the food and
weakened during the 19th century it formally other necessities of life fell on the peasants and
ended only with World War I. artisans.

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6.5 (b) Church The growth of the Church in the later

New elements were included in Christian Middle Ages was accompanied by the rise
theology. They were the theory of priesthood and of ambitious political leaders. In the conflict
the theory of sacraments. These two elements between German Emperor Henry IV and
increased the power of the clergy. Pope Gregory VII, Pope by means of Interdict
succeeded in making the emperor to abdicate
the throne. By means of interdict Pope
Excommunication meant depriving a
Innocent III forced King John to recognize
person of all the privileges of a Christian.
England and Ireland as fiefs of the papacy.
He was denied the right to sacraments
Many pious Christians now began to resent
in Church. His or her body could not
Pope’s intrusion into state affairs.
be buried in the consecrated ground.
Interdict was to deny benefits of religion
to a ruler’s subject, intended to kindle their
resentment against him.
India in the Corresponding Period

The Huns
Around the time when Europe fragmented into multiple small Germanic kingdoms after
the collapse of Roman Empire, the Huns (white), a fierce and warlike people from Central
Asia, invaded Northeast India. Though they were repulsed by Skandagupta, they entered
India after his death and settled all over Central India. Toramana and Mihirakula were
the two well known Hun rulers in India. They persecuted Buddhists and burnt all the
monasteries. Yasodharman of Malwa is credited to have ended the rule of Huns in India
around 528 A.D.(CE).
Skandagupta's Gold Coin Skandagupta's Silver Coin Yashodharman Victory Pillar, Mandsaur
Chalukyas' (of Badami or Vadabi)
relationship with Persia
The Chalukya kingdom existed contemporaneously with the rule of
Sassanid dynasty in Persia. Khusrau II, the last great king of Sassanid
dynasty, who had a close relationship with the Tang dynasty in China, and
the Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II exchanged ambassadors. The Chalukya
kingdom comprised the Maharashtra country with Badami as capital.
Hiuen Tsang speaks highly of their courage. According to him, ‘they
are warlike and proud-spirited, grateful for favours and revengeful for
wrongs’.

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Recap
EXERCISE
China which rivalled Rome during
the Christian era, after experiencing
political instability, accomplished unity I. C
hoose the
and was ruled by the Sung dynasty for correct answer
about three centuries. 1. was the original
religion of Japan
Sung dynasty was overthrown by the
Mongols who established Yuan dynasty (a) Shinto
in China. (b) Confucianism
Japan, which remained in isolation, (c) Taoism
joined the mainstream in the sixth (d) Animism
century AD (CE) with Mikado 2. means great name - lord.
becoming its emperor. Japan followed (a) Daimyo (b) Shogun
China in all walks of life.
(c) Fujiwara (d) Tokugawa
The emperors slowly lost their control 3. The Arab General who conquered Spain
and the government was taken over by was
the military general, who founded the
(a) Tariq (b) Alaric
Kamakura Shogunate.
(c) Saladin (d) M ohammad the
Kamakura Shogunate was replaced by
Conqueror
Ashikaga Shogunate.
4. Harun-al-Rashid was the able emperor
Islam, established by Prophet of
Mohammad, began to spread.
(a) Abbasid dynasty
Arabs who took to Islam early succeeded (b) Umayyad dynasty
in establishing Islamic kingdom first in
(c) Sassanid dynasty
Spain and later in other parts of Europe.
(d) Mongol dynasty
Umayyads ruled from Damascus, while
5.
F eudalism centred around
the Abbasids from Baghdad.
The fight for the leadership of Arabia (a) vassalage (b) slavery
after the death of Prophet Mohammad
led to division in Islam as Sunni and (c) serfdom (d) land
Shia. II. Fill in the blanks
The architecture developed by Arabs is 1. were the original
known as Saracenic. inhabitants of Japan.
The takeover of the holy city of 2. was the original
Jerusalem by Seljuq Turks resulted in name of Japan.
the Crusades. 3. was the original
The weakening of Seljuq Turks led to name of Medina.
the rise of Ottoman Turks. 4. were the barbarians
posing a threat to the Chinese in the
The capture of Constantinople by
north.
Ottoman Turks ended the Middle Ages.
5. established Ottoman
supremacy in the Balkans.

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III. F
ind out the correct statement 4. Assertion (A): Buddhism went to China
1 (i) C hengiz Khan was an intolerant from India
person in religion
R eason (R): The earliest Indian
(ii) M
ongols destroyed the city of inhabitants in China were the followers
Jerusalem of Buddhism.
(iii) Crusades weakened the Ottoman a) A
is correct; R is wrong
Empire b) Both A & R are wrong
(iv) Pope Gregory succeeded in making c) Both A & R are correct
King Henry IV to abdicate the d) A is wrong R is irrelevant to A
throne by means of Interdict
5.
Assertion (A): The fall of Jerusalem
(a) (i) is correct
into the hands of Seljuk Turks led to the
(b) (ii) is correct Crusades.
(c) (ii) and (iii) are correct Reason (R): European Christian pilgrims
(d) (iv) is correct were denied access to Jerusalem.
2. (i) Mangu Khan was the Governor of a) A
is correct; R is not the correct
China. explanation of A
b) A
and R are correct
(ii) Mongol court in China impressed
c) A
and R are wrong
Marco Polo.
d) A
is correct, R is the correct
(iii)
T he leader of Red Turbans was
explanation of A
Hung Chao.
(iv) Mongols established their rule in IV. Match the Following
China in the name of Yuan dynasty.
1. Red Turbans – Kamakura
a. (i) is correct
b. (ii) is correct 2. Seljuk Turks – Mohammad II
c. (ii) and (iv) are correct
3. First Shogunate – City of Arabian Nights
d. (iv) is correct
4. Baghdad – Chu Yuan Chang
3. (i)
B oyang and Changon were built
during Sung dynasty. 5. Capture of – Central Asia
(ii) Peasant uprisings led to the collapse Constantinople
of Tang dynasty.
(iii) S eljuq Turks were a tribe of Tartars. V. A
nswer the following briefly
(iv) Mongols established their rule in 1. The Great Wall of China.

China in the name of Yuan dynasty. 2. Impact of Crusades.
(a) (i) is correct
3. How was Feudalism organized in the
(b) (ii) is correct Middle Ages?
(c) (iii) is correct
4. Write about the two instruments used
(d) (iv) is correct by Medieval Pope to assert his authority.

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REFERENCES
1. Write about crusades and its impact.
2. Who were the Mongols? How did they 1. Chris Harman, People’s History of the
rule China? World, Verso, 1999
FUN WITH HISTORY 2. Philip Ralph and Edward McNail Burns,

The World Civilisation : From the Stone
Student Activities Age to the New Millennium, Library of
In an outline map of Europe, the students Congress, 1968.
are to sketch the extent of Ottoman Empire
3. Richard Overy (ed.), Complete History of
at the height of its glory.
the World, Harper Collins, 2007
Students are to be guided by teachers to
look through Google the architectural 4. Jawaharlal Nehru, Glimpses of World
splendours of Saracenic architecture. History, Penguin.
5. Paul Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great
Assignment with teacher’s
Powers: Economic Change and Military
guidance
Conflict, Harper Collins, 2007.
Sketching Ottoman family tree and
attempting a biographical account of 6. வ. இராசாராம் - சீனா, ஜப்பான் மற்றும்
Saladin of Egypt and Suleiman the தென்கிழக்காசிய நாடுகளின் வரலாறு
Magnificent of Ottoman Empire. (கி.பி. 1066 வரை) த.பா.ம.க.ப. கழகம்,
Attempting an account of the Crusades சென்னை-6 (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு - ஆகஸ்ட்
led by Richard the Lion-Hearted of 2017).
England and German Emperor Frederick 7. அ. உஸ்மான் ெஷரீப் - உத்மானிய
Barbarossa. து ரு க் கி ய ர ்க ளி ன் வ ர ல ா று ,
த.பா.ம.க.ப. கழகம், சென்னை-6
(ஆவணப்பதிப்பு - ஆகஸ்ட் 2017).
8. தி.வை. சொக்கப்பா - அரபு மக்களின்
வரலாறு, த.பா.ம.க.ப. கழகம்,
சென்னை-6 (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு -
ஆகஸ்ட் 2017).

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UNIT State and Society In

Medieval India
7 From the Cholas to the Mughals
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
Successive dynasties and the resultant political outcomes from the times
of the Cholas to the Mughals
Influence of Islam and Islamic state on the socio-cultural life of the
people
Institutional and administrative changes during Chola, Pandya and
Vijayanagara periods in the south
Development of literature, art and architecture
Transformation in agriculture and manufacturing sector
Progress in maritime trade, commerce and urbanization
Introduction Major Political Changes
The ‘medieval’ period from the 7th century The expansion of the Chola empire from
A.D.(CE) till the beginning of Mughal rule in the time of Rajaraja I which eclipsed the
the 16th century. The Mughal era, from the 16th Pandyan and Pallava kingdoms, extending
to 18th century is referred to as the early modern north till Orissa.
peroid. From the twelfth century, the beginning of
The political scenario in all parts of India several centuries of Muslim rule in Delhi,
underwent momentous, definitive changes extending throughout north India and the
which transformed the social and economic spread of Islam to different parts of the
fabric and development of the country. country.
7. State and Society In Medieval India 88

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By the end of the 13th century the eclipse 7.1 Political Changes
of the great empire of the Cholas and (1000–1700)
the consequent rise of many Religious
kingdoms in south India. This ultimately 7.1 (a) North India: The Advent
culminated in the rise of the Vijayanagar of Islam
empire which exercised authority over all Muslim rule was established in Delhi at the
of south India and came to be considered end of the 12th century by Muhammad Ghori,
the bastion of Religious rule in the south. Arab Muslim merchants had been trading in
The consolidation of Muslim rule under the the ports of the west coast, especially Kerala,
Mughals in the north, beginning in 1526 as early as the 9th century. Similarly, Muslim
A.D. (C.E.) with the defeat of the Ibrahim invaders from west Asia had set up Sultanates
Lodi by Babur. At its height, the Mughal in Gujarat and Sind since the 8th century.
empire stretched from Kabul to Gujarat to The impact of Muslim rule was felt during
Bengal, from Kashmir to south India. the reign of Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 A.D.
The coming of the Europeans, beginning (C.E.)) who sent military campaigns to the
with the Portuguese who arrived on the south. The primary objective was to plunder
west coast of India in 1498. the wealth, rather than to expand his territory.
IMPORTANT PLACES OF
INDIA IN THE LATE
Kabul
KASHMIR 14th & 15th CENTURIES
N
lum ab
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Jhe
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Ravi W E
Lahore
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Delhi
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Amber Agra map

un
SIND
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a
Aymer JAUNPUR
Jodhpur Jaunpur
bal
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wa
MEWAR
am
Banaras
Bet
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Ahmedabad MALWA
GUJARAT Narmadha
SH
I N D I A BENGAL
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Tapti Burhanpur han
adh
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Devagiri
BAHAMANI
Godavari
Ahmadnagar
Warangal
Bidar
ARABIAN Gulbarga Golconda
Bijapurrishna
SEA K
Raichur BAY OF BENGAL
Doob
VIJAYANAGAR
Dwarasamudra
nda A
av
ma
L a ks h a d w e e p i s l a
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I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale
89 7. State and Society In Medieval India

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Devagiri (near Aurangabad) was captured by remained independent,

Alauddin Khalji. Renamed Daulatabad, it was but was subservient to
the second stronghold of his growing kingdom. the Cholas. The empire
Alauddin Khalji’s slave and commander, Malik expanded further
Kafur, was sent on military expeditions further under Rajendra I
south in the first decade of the 1300s A.D. (C.E.). who had successfully
The Tughlaq kings who came after taken his armies as
Alauddin also sent their armies to the south. As far to the northeast as
a result, the generally more isolated southern the river Ganges. He
part of the country came into the orbit of the had also sent naval
rulers of the north. Governors were appointed expeditions against the
in various provinces in the Deccan region, and a Sailendra Kingdom
Sultanate was even established in Madurai. of Sri Vijaya (in
Indonesia), Kadaram
During (Kedah) and Ceylon.
the reign of This earned him
Muhammad bin the title “the Chola
Tughlaq, there who had conquered
was a revolt in the Ganga and
Daulatabad. King Raja Raja Chola I
Kadaram” (gangaiyum
A l au d d i n kadaramum konda cholan). Ceylon remained
B a h m a n a province of the Chola empire for a few
Shah set up decades. The empire was further consolidated
the Bahmani through marriage with the eastern Chalukyas
sultanate in 1347 Muhammad bin Tughlaq under Rajendra’s grandson Kulottunga I, and
A.D. (C.E.), with extended up to the border of Orissa.
his capital in Bidar. The Bahmani kingdom
survived for nearly a century and a half, mainly Maritime trade with south-east Asia and
due to the able administration of Mahmud China expanded greatly during the Chola
Gawan, a great statesman and loyal minister. period. The continued interaction with Tamil
After his death, many viceroys declared their merchants resulted in the spread of the influence
independence, and by the end of the fifteenth of Indic culture and art into south-east Asia, as
century, five sultanates came up in the Deccan: seen in the magnificent temples of Angkor Wat
Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmednagar, Berar, and in Cambodia.
Bidar. Bijapur and Golkonda were the largest of
these sultanates and the region entered a phase 7.1 (c) Vijayanagar and South
of considerable economic growth and expansion India after the Cholas
of trade. The Deccan sultanates were conquered The Chola Empire
by Aurangzeb in the 1660s A.D. (C.E.), and the began to decline after the
entire region, as far south as Madras (Chennai) middle of the 13th century.
became a part of the Mughal empire. The last known Chola
emperor was Rajendra III.
7.1 (b) The Chola Empire in the
The empire died out in 1279
South
A.D. (C.E.). Several power
The territorial expansion of the Chola
centres came up after this in the region. Further
empire began under Rajaraja I. The Pallava
to the south, the Pandya kings again sought to
kingdom had already been assimilated into
regain the glory they had lost under the Cholas.
the Chola kingdom. The Pandya kingdom

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Many brilliant Pandya kings like Jatavarman and eventually to Chandragiri near Tirupati.
Sundara Pandyan ruled at the end of the The empire (or what remained of it) finally
13thcentury. Further to the north was the withered away in the middle of the seventeenth
Hoysala kingdom, with its capital at Belur and century.
later Halebidu. This kingdom extended through 7.1 (d) The Mughals
much of the present day state of Karnataka. The (1526–1707 A.D. (C.E.))
Kakatiyas ruled from Warangal (Telangana)
while the Yadavas ruled in Devagiri until The Mughal empire was founded by
Devagiri fell to Alauddin Khalji’s forces at the Babur in 1526 A.D. (C.E.) after he defeated
end of the 13th century. These states did not exist Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat. The first six Mughal
in peaceful cooperation, and the region was emperors are referred to as the ‘Great Mughals’.
beset by many internal wars and conflicts. Aurangzeb was the last of the great Mughals.
Akbar consolidated the Mughal empire
The establishment of the kingdom
through conquests and through a policy
(subsequently empire) of Vijayanagar was
of conciliation with the Religious based
the most momentous development in the
kingdoms of Rajasthan. The Mughal empire
history of south India in the medieval period.
though began to disintegrate after Aurangzeb,
The kingdom was established by Harihara
continued to exist nominally till 1857 A.D.
and Bukka, two brothers. They were the first
(C.E.) when the British finally ended the
rulers of the Sangama dynasty. They founded
virtually non-existent empire.
a new capital city on the southern banks of
Tungabhadra which they named Vijayanagara A new power centre rose in Maharashtra in
(city of victory). Harihara was crowned in the seventeenth century, and the Marathas under
1336 A.D. (C.E.). The Sangama dynasty ruled the leadership of Shivaji seriously undermined
Vijayanagar for nearly one and a half centuries. the authority of the Mughals in western India. At
This was followed by the Saluva dynasty which its height, the empire stretched over most of the
was in power only for a brief period. The Tuluva Indian sub-continent. Only the south-western
dynasty then succeeded as rulers. Krishnadeva region of Kerala and southern Tamilnadu were
Raya, the greatest ruler of Vijayanagar, belonged not directly under Mughal rule.
to this family. 7.1 (e) The Arrival of the
Europeans
Kingdom: a country ruled by a king
During the fifteenth century the Europeans
or queen.
were pre-occupied with trying to find a direct
Empire: a group of countries sea route to India, bypassing the overland route
controlled by one ruler (an emperor).
through west Asia and the Mediterranean.
The spice trade from India was controlled by
As the empire expanded, kingdoms to Muslims up to Alexandria. By gaining direct
the south, such as the Hoysalas and the Tamil access to India the Europeans could exercise
region, were also assimilated into Vijayanagar. more direct control over the spice trade and
The rulers of Vijayanagar were almost obtain the spices at more favourable prices. In
continuously at war with the Bahmani sultanate 1498 A.D. (C.E.), Vasco da Gama landed on the
as well as with the Religous based kingdoms of Kerala coast having sailed around the Cape of
Kondavidu and Orissa. Finally, the combined Good Hope in South Africa. Barely five years
forces of the five Deccani Sultanates defeated later, the Portuguese built their first fort at
Vijayanagar in 1565 A.D. (C.E.) at the Battle of Cochin in 1503 A.D. (C.E.). Goa was captured
Talikota. The Vijayanagar emperors then shifted in 1510 A.D. (C.E.) and became the centre of the
their capital further south to Penugonda, Portuguese state in India. Because of their naval

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superiority, the Portuguese were able to conquer known as brahmadeya. Marketing centres
many ports from east Africa up to Malacca, and and towns were known as nagaram. The ur,
could effectively control the maritime trade nadu, brahmadeya and nagaram each had its
over the entire region. own assembly. They were responsible for the
maintenance and management of the water
resources and land; the local temples; resolving
local issues and disputes; and for collecting the
taxes due to the government.
The Cholas notable feature was the great
increase in the construction of temples.
This had two dimensions: new temples were
Trade in Masulipattinam
constructed, and existing temples became
Other European nations soon followed multi-functional social and economic
the Portuguese, most notably the Dutch, institutions. The construction of great temples
English and French. The activities of the latter also was a reflection of the growing prosperity
were carried on through the respective East in the kingdom, since the activity involved
India Companies. While these were all private great expenditure. The temple was no longer
trading enterprises, they all had a strong a mere place of worship, but became an
political agenda. During the seventeenth important economic entity as an employer,
century, when Mughal authority was still consumer and land-owner.
powerful, the European companies were able
to trade in the Mughal empire, but could not The establishment of Islamic Rule in
have their own territorial base within the Delhi made a big impact on Indian society.
boundaries of the empire. In South India, Initially, Islam did not cause any social tension.
however, political authority was fragmented Arab merchants, for instance, when they came
and much less cohesive, and they had their and settled on Kerala coast, married local
own enclaves over which they exercised women and led a peaceful life. The situation
complete authority. The Dutch were in changed when Islam became a state power.
Pulicat (and later Nagapatnam), the English For a medieval ruler one way of asserting
in Madras, the French in Pondicherry and the imperial authority was to demolish the place
Danes in Tarangampadi (Tranquebar). of worship of the enemies. Otherwise Islam as
a monotheistic religion had its positive impact
in Indian society. It played a decisive role in
7.2 Impact on Polity the evolution of a composite culture.
In Indian history had far-reaching Muslim kingdoms in Delhi, as well in the

consequences on administrative institutions, Deccan, also attracted migrants from Persia
society and the economy across the sub- and Arabia who moved to India and took
continent. up service in these states and many became
important and well-known statesmen. This also
The CHOLA PERIOD was an enterprising
opened up Indian society to steady interaction
period when trade and the economy
with west Asia resulting in the transfer of
expanded, accompanied by urbanization. The
cultural and technical influences. Muslim
administrative machinery was re-organised
merchants and craftsmen also migrated from
during Chola rule. The basic unit of local
the north of India to the south in the wake of
administration was the village (ur), followed
the military expeditions. Society became more
by the sub-region (nadu) and district (kottam).
heterogeneous and hybrid in character. A new
Tax-free villages granted to Brahmins were
composite culture evolved. This could be seen

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most vividly in the Deccan sultanates of Bijapur Resources realized from the land were
and Golkonda whose rulers were extremely transferred to the empire by the nayakas not as
broad-minded and secular in outlook. tax revenue, but as tribute. Thus, the resources
A notable development was the profusion of the core regions, especially in the Tamil
of contemporary historical accounts of the region, were utilized for military purposes.
Muslim Sultanates by Arab and Persian This administrative set-up effectively destroyed
historians. Al beruni, Ibn Batuta, and Ferishta the decentralized, local institutions which
are among the best known of the Muslim managed local resources, temples and affairs
historians. These historians provide valuable which had come up during Chola rule. The
information about the rulers and events of the appointment of Telugu nayakas also resulted
medieval period. They also provide an alternate in the migration of Telugu-speaking people
historical point of view of Islamic rule in India from the north. These included soldiers,
as seen through the eyes of Muslim writers. agriculturists, craftsmen and Brahmins.
The establishment of the VIJAYANAGAR The MUGHAL EMPIRE transformed
EMPIRE changed the administrative and the economy and society of north
social institutional structure of south India, India. The empire was consolidated
especially in the Tamil country. Perhaps under Akbar through his policy of
because the new kingdom was threatened co-opting the Hindu Rajput rulers under the
from the beginning by the hostility of the umbrella of Mughal rule. At the height of
Bahmani sultanate in the north, Vijayanagar its power the Mughal empire was one of the
evolved as a militaristic state. This empire largest, richest and most powerful empires in
needed two kinds of resources to feed its the entire world.
military establishment – revenue and men. In part due to Aurangzeb’s reversal to
This was achieved through re-organizing the orthodox Islamic principles of governance
administration of the conquered territories, which alienated the Rajput rulers and the
especially in the Tamil region. Military officers, Hindu subjects, the over-extended empire
known as ‘nayakas’, were appointed as chiefs began to collapse under its own weight by the
of various localities in Tamilnadu and received beginning of the eighteenth century.
land grants from the emperor. There were also The ARRIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS in
lesser military leaders known as palayakkarar India ultimately culminated in the establishment
who essentially supplied the manpower for the of colonial rule in India under the British,
army. Many forts were also built which were and this is what is considered foremost when
under Brahman commanders. discussing the impact of the European presence.
Three major nayaka kingdoms, owing There was an explosion in the demand for
allegiance to the Vijayanagar emperor, came up Indian textiles in the European markets, often
between 1500 A.D. (C.E.) and 1550 A.D. (C.E.) referred to as the ‘Indian craze’. This led to a
in Madurai, Tanjavur and Gingee (Senji). These significant expansion of textile production in
nayakas had formal roles in court ceremonials India, which was accompanied by an expansion
at Vijayanagar. This became the new political of the production of commercial crops like
order in Tamilnadu during the sixteenth cotton and indigo and other dyes.
century. The nayaka chieftains as well as the 7.3 Society
three nayaka kings were all strong supporters
of Hindu temples. The three capitals became 7.3 (a) Caste
great cultural centres under the patronage of Caste is the most distinctive aspect of
the nayaka rulers who promoted literature and Indian society. We first need to understand
the performing arts. two dimensions of the term ‘caste’. First, the

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four-fold division of society as specified in the who was instrumental in making the fishing
religious texts, referred to as varna. community to take to Christianity in the
Improving the status of their jati was a Tuticorin region. Another notable Jesuit was
major pre-occupation for all caste groups. Roberto de Nobili, a scholar, who was based
This is particularly evident after the fourteenth in Madurai.
century when the traditional local assemblies In the north a new religion, Sikhism, was
which controlled the resources and social founded by Guru Nanak, who lived during 15th
interactions began to weaken. In traditional and 16th century. Sikhism grew in strength in
society many castes were denied various social spite of severe repression by Aurangzeb. Foreign
rights and privileges. Caste also created a religions also came to India when Jews and
mythical genealogy to establish its origins; this Zoroastrians (Parsis) migrated to India. The
was used to justify the claim for the right to a Parsis, who fled Persia to escape persecuation,
higher status in the hierarchy. These genealogies settled in Gujarat, while the Jews lived in
are found in many of the manuscripts collected Kerala. Parsi merchants were among the richest
by Colin Mackenzie. and most prominent in the port of Surat, and
subsequently, in Bombay under the British.
7.3 (b) Religion
7.4 Culture
Diverse institutions
with different ideologies Literature, Art and Architecture
came up within the bhakti The Chola period was an era of remarkable
movement during the cultural activity. These were the centuries
medieval period. Mathas when major literary works were written. The
or mutts were established Roberto de Nobili best known classical poet, Kamban, wrote
under different gurus Ramayana in Tamil which was formally
or religious leaders like Vidyaranya; Saivite presented (Arangetram) in the temple at
movements came up like the Tamil Saiva- Srirangam. Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam, similarly
siddhanta, and the Virasaivas in Karnataka; was presented at the temple in Chidambaram.
in Maharashtra the Varkarisampradaya Among the other great works of the period is
(tradition) of the devotees of Vithoba arose in Kalingattup-parani and Muvarula.
the 14th century.
The monumental architecture of the
Buddhism had faded out in India. Jainism Cholas is visible in the great temple of Tanjavur,
also lost ground in most parts of India due to Gangai-konda-cholapuram and Darasuram, to
emergence of bhakti movement under Sankara name only a few. Stone images were sculpted
and Ramanuja. However, it continued to thrive on the temple walls and pillars. Bronze images
in parts of Gujarat and Marwar, especially of great beauty and artistry were made by the
among the trading communities. With regard ‘lost wax’ process. The best known of them is
to Christianity, there were a small number the iconic representation of Siva as Nataraja,
of Christian groups in Kerala claiming their performing the cosmic dance.
origins to the time of St Thomas, the disciple
of Jesus. But Christianity took roots when A distinct Islamic cultural tradition
the Portuguese arrived in Kerala and set developed in India with the establishment of
themselves up in Goa. In Goa itself the local Muslim rule. The sultans built forts, tombs,
population was under great pressure to convert mosques and other monuments in Delhi
to Christianity, among the fishing communities as well as in south India which came under
on the Pandyan coast. The best known among their rule. The Mughal period particularly
the Jesuit missionaries was St Francis Xavier was a brilliant epoch in the cultural history of

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India. The Mughals were well-known for their

aesthetic values, and were great patrons of the
arts. They left behind numerous monuments,
in addition to constructing entire cities like
Shahjahanabad (Delhi) and Fatehpur Sikri,
gardens, mosques and forts. Decorative arts
– especially jewellery set with precious and
semi-precious gems for items of personal
use – flourished under the patronage of the
royal household and urban elites. The art of
painting also flourished in the Mughal period. Hampi
Primarily known as Mughal miniatures, they A large volume of religious literature,
were generally intended as book illustrations or especially in Sanskrit, was produced under the
were single works to be kept in albums. A large patronage of the nayakas and the Vijayanagar
volume of literature was produced, especially rulers. Telugu literature flourished under royal
in Persian, and also in Urdu, Hindi and other support. A new style of Tamil literature called
regional languages. In the performing arts, like Prabandham emerged during this period. The
Hindustani the name of Tansen is well-known great commentaries of the epic Silappadikaram
indicating the patronage extended to classical and Tirukkural were also written during
music under Akbar. this period. Venkatamakhi, son of Govindha
Dikshidar who codifying the ragas of Carnatic
music had lived in this period.
7.5 Economy
7.5 (a) Agriculture
India was predominantly
an agricultural country,
and a very large proportion
of the population lived in
rural areas and depended
Fatehpur Sikri Fort on agriculture for their
livelihood. Both in the north
In south India, the Vijayanagar rulers
and the south, agriculture depended heavily
and their military chiefs actively supported
on irrigation. Canals and wells added to the
temple construction. Many new temples were
water sources in addition to rainfall and rivers.
built by them. Besides this, new structures
The biggest network of canals known in India
like pavilions and halls with many pillars were
was built in fourteenth century by Firuzshah
added extensively to existing temples, with
Tughluq in the Delhi area. Construction of
elaborately carved pillars. Art historians point
lakes, tanks and reservoirs with sluices to let out
to the distinctive style of the temple sculptures
the water as well as the use of check dams all
of the Vijayanagar period. The intricately
increased the availability of water for irrigation.
carved lofty towers or gopurams at the
Cultivators were also encouraged to dig wells.
entrance to temples were all added during the
Lift irrigation was used to draw the water. In
Vijayanagar period. The walls of the temples
the north, the Persian wheel was used for lifting
were embellished with paintings.
water from wells. In the Tamil region, the Cholas
had created a network of canals for irrigation

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connecting the tributaries of Kaveri. Lakes and agricultural products like sugar, oil, textiles;
tanks also added to the water sources. metal work; precious gems and jewellery; ship
building; ornamental wood and leather work;
and many other minor products.
The organization of production basically
depended on the nature of the market for
which it was produced. A large part of the
production was intended for local use in the
village, or at most a rural region. These goods
were basic utilitarian goods like pots and pans,
implements like ploughs, basic woodwork
and coarse textiles. Generally the producer
marketed the product himself, and exchange
was probably conducted on barter.
Persian Wheel In economic terms, what was important
was specialized production by skilled craftsmen
An important feature of Indian agriculture
for an external market, especially in demand
was the large number of crops that were cultivated.
among the high income rural and urban upper
The peasant in India was more knowledgeable
classes. Such craft production was generally
about many crops as compared to peasants in most
located in cities, or in rural settlements close
of the world at the time. A variety of food grains
to the cities. Craftsmen generally worked on an
like wheat, rice, and millets were grown apart from
individual or family basis from their homes or
lentils and oilseeds. Many other commercial crops
workshops though larger manufacturing units
were also grown such as sugarcane, cotton and
(karkhanas) employing many craftsmen were
indigo. Other than the general food crops, south
set up under the Mughal state.
India had a regional specialization in pepper,
cinnamon, spices and coconut. 7.5 (c) Textiles
In general, two different crops were grown Nearly all the cloth that was produced was
in the different seasons, which protected the of cotton, though silk weaving had developed
productivity of the soil. Maize and tobacco were in Bengal where silk was produced, and in
two new crops which were introduced after the Gujarat. Each region of India produced a
arrival of the Europeans. Many new varieties range of highly specialized local varieties of
of fruit or horticultural crops like papaya, cotton cloth ranging from the coarse to the
pineapple, guava and cashew nut were also superfine, but all were intended for an external
introduced which came from the west, especially market. Dyed and printed/patterned cloth
America. Potatoes, chillies and tomatoes also involved the use of vegetable dyes. India had
became an integral part of Indian food. two natural advantages in cotton weaving. The
7.5 (b) Non Agricultural first was that cotton grew in almost all parts of
Production India, so that the basic raw material was easily
Up to the end of the seventeenth century, available. Second, the technology of producing
India was one of the largest manufacturing a permanent colour on cotton using vegetable
countries in the world though the economy dyes was known from very early times in
was primarily agricultural. Non-agricultural India. Cotton does not absorb dyes without a
production refers to both processed agricultural preparatory process using mordants, which was
products and craft production. Primarily the not known in the rest of the world. Indigo was
products can be grouped under: processed the most important dye crop that was grown

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in India, but other dye crops (like the chay India was also a major exporter of textiles,
root for red colour) were also grown in India. pepper, precious and semi-precious gems –
Dye woods and resins like lac were imported. especially diamonds which were then found
In addition, a range of colours were produced only in India – and iron and steel which were
by using flowers and fruits, and products like greatly in demand in the entire Asian region.
turmeric in various combinations. Textiles accounted for nearly 90 per cent of the
total exports from India. The major imports
from China and the east were silk, Chinese
ceramics, gold, spices, aromatic woods and
camphor. Silk, drugs, dye woods and sugar were
the main imports from Persia, while gold, ivory
and slaves were brought in from east Africa.
7.6 Urbanization
Travellers coming to India in the
Textile Production medieval period noted that there were a
number of urban centres of various sizes,
7.5 (d) Commerce
from cities to small market towns throughout
The large manufacturing sector essentially
India, though the country was primarily
produced goods for exchange, and not for self-
rural. The urban population was probably
use. Therefore, India had an extensive network
quite small as a proportion of the total, but
of trade for marketing these goods. The village
it had an economic and cultural significance
was the basic geographical unit of production,
which was much greater than its actual size.
and was essentially a subsistence economy and
What were the factors which facilitated
barter was the medium of exchange.
urbanization? It has been observed that cities
Big cities were usually major commercial and towns fulfilled diverse and overlapping roles
centres, with bazaars and shops. They were in the economy. The large cities were centres
also intermediate points in inter-regional of manufacturing and marketing, banking and
trade since they were connected by a network financial services. They were usually located at
of roads to other centres in other parts of the the intersection of an extensive network of roads
country. In addition to such overland trade,
In South India, especially the Tamil region,
smaller ships and boats were used in coastal
urbanization went hand in hand with temples.
trade along both the western and eastern
Temples were large economic enterprises requiring
coasts of the country. Finally, the major ports
a variety of goods and services to function. They
(Surat, Masulipatnam, Calicut etc.) were the
needed and employed a large number of people
nodal points in international, maritime trade.
to man the religious services, the kitchens and for
Maritime trade across the Indian Ocean, other work. Devotees coming to worship at the
extending from China in the east to Africa in temple needed many services and goods, so that
the west, had flourished for many centuries. temple towns also became marketing centres.
Thus ports like Malacca, Calicut etc. were
‘entrepots’ or intermediate points in this Conclusion
regionally segmented trade. In the seventeenth The medieval period covering more than
century, Surat in Gujarat, Masulipatnam in seven hundred years of Indian history was a
the Golkonda kingdom, Chittagong in Bengal, time when momentous changes took place in
Pulicat (Pazhaverkadu) and Nagapatnam on the political landscape which also transformed
the Coromandel Coast, and Calicut in Kerala the social and economic fabric of the country.
were all major ports in Asiatic trade.

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Events happening in Europe during this Period
Holy Roman Empire & Emperor Charlemagne

In the beginning of the 9th century A.D. (C.E.),
a new institution called Holy Roman Empire came
into existence in continental Europe. This had
nothing to do with the old Roman Empire which
had ceased to exist after 476 A.D. (C.E.). The newly
established Holy Roman Empire represented
Christianity and Christendom and, hence, it was
designated holy. The emperor was supposed to be
a Representative of God on earth like the Pope.
The emperor dealt with political matters, while Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I
the Pope dealt with the spiritual. The Emperor was
superior to everybody else in the world, except the
Pope. Charlemagne, the king of Franks, was the
first Holy Roman Emperor to assume the title (800
A.D. (C.E.)). Charlemagne was a contemporary of
Pallava king Nandivarman II and Pratihara ruler
Nagabatta I.
King John and the Great Magna

Carta
The nobles in England forced King John II to King John signing Magna Carta
sign a Charter of Liberty in 1215 A.D. (C.E.). It is Magna Carta or the Great Charter. This
Charter contained a promise that the king would respect certain liberties of the nobles and
the people of England. The theory of the supremacy of the ruler which prevailed in the Holy
Roman Empire was not accepted in England. King John of England was a contemporary of
Sultan Iltutmish in India. Thus in England, we find that the king’s power was checked early.
Recap
Major political changes commencing from the establishment of Muslim Rule in Delhi, are
dealt with.
The enterprising period of Cholas and the significance of Vijayanagar Empire in the south
are analysed.
The economy and the society during the Sultanate and the Mughal rule are highlighted.
Progress in art, literature and music are discussed.
Conditions of agriculture, trade, commerce and urbanization are examined.

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III. Find out the correct statement

1. i) The establishment of the Vijayanagar
Kingdom witnessed the most
EXERCISE
momentous development in the
history of South India.
I. C
hoose the correct answer
ii) The Saluva dynasty ruled for a longer
period.
1.
_ ________ was the second
stronghold of Ala-ud-din Khalji’s iii) The rulers of Vijayanagara had smooth
expanding Kingdom. relations with the Bahmani Sultanate.
a. Dauladabad b. Delhi iv) Rajput kingdoms attracted migrants

from Persia and Arabia.
c. Madurai d. Bidar
2. i) The Nayak Kingdom came up in Senji.
2. The Deccan Sultanates were conquered
by _________. ii)
The appointment of Telugu Nayaks
resulted in the migration of Telugu-
a. Ala-ud-din Khilji speaking people from Madurai.
b. Ala-ud-din Bahman- shah iii) Mughal Empire started declining from
c. Aurangzeb the time of Jahangir.
d. Malik Kafur iv) The Europeans came to India in search
3.
T he establishment of _________ of slaves.
empire changed the administrative and 3. i)Mythical geneologies were collected
institutional structures of South India. by Col. Mackenzie.
a. Bahmani ii)
Indigo was the most important
b. Vijayanagar beverage crop in India.
c. Mughal iii) Mahmud Gawan was the minister in
Alauddin Khalji's kingdom.
d. Nayak
iv) The Portuguese built their first fort in
4. Krishnadeva Raya was a contemporary
Goa.
of _________.
4. Assertion (A): India was an integral
a. Babur b. Humayun
part of maritime trade, extending from
c. Akbar d. Shershah China in the east to Africa in the west.
II. Fill in the blanks Reason (R): Geographical location of
1. __________ were Europeans who India in the middle of Indian Ocean.
arrived on the west coast of India. i) A is correct; R explains about A
2. The combined forces of the five Deccan ii) A is wrong; R is correct
Sultanates defeated Vijayanagar army
iii) A and R are wrong
in 1565 A.D. (C.E.) at the battle of
________. iv)
A is correct; R does not explains
about A.
3. Vijayanagara evolved as a _________.
5. i)
G old images of great beauty and
4. The tempo of urbanization increased artistry were made by Cholas.
during _________ period.
ii) The best example for Chola architecture
5. __________ was the enterprising period is Siva as Nataraja performing the
in the history of Tamil Nadu cosmic dance.

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a. (i) is correct (ii) is wrong

b. Both (i) and (ii) are correct guidance
c. Both (i) and (ii) are wrong Collect the pictures of Angkor Wat in
d. (i) is wrong, (ii) is correct Cambodia.
Arrange a debate in the class on the
IV. Match the following advantages and disadvantages of
1. Portuguese – Bengal urbanization.
2. Tansen – Kottam
3. Sericulture – Court of Akbar REFERENCES
4. Angkorwat – Goa
1. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of
5. District – Cambodia South India, 1966.
V. Answer the following briefly 2. Appadorai, Economic Conditions in
1. Write about the military expeditions of Southern India 1000–1500. 2 vols.,
Malik Kafur. 1990.
2.
W ho founded the Vijayanagar 3. Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib
Kingdom? Mention the dynasties that (ed.). The Cambridge Economic History
ruled over the kingdom. of India, vol.1, 1984.
3.
Mention the two natural advantages 4. Kanakalatha Mukund, The Trading
that India had in cotton weaving. World of the Tamil Merchant, 1999.
4. What were the factors which facilitated 5. Burton Stein, A History of India, 2012.
urbanization? 6. கே.ஏ. நீலகண்ட சாஸ்திரி -
5. What is sericulture? தென்னிந்திய வரலாறு (வரலாற்றுக்கு
முற்பட்ட காலம் முதல் விஜயநகர
பேரரசின் வீழ்ச்சி வரை) த.பா.ம.க.ப.
1.
Discuss the political changes during கழகம், சென்னை-6 (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு
1526-1707 A.D. (C.E.). - ஆகஸ்ட் 2017).
2. E xplain the commercial developments 7. டாக்டர் அ. கிருஷ்ணசாமி - விஜயநகர
in Medieval India. பேரரசின் வரலாறு, த.பா.ம.க.ப.
3.
“Chola Period was a enterprising கழகம், சென்னை-6 (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு
period in the history of Tamil Nadu” – - ஆகஸ்ட் 2017).
Elucidate. 8. கே.கே. பிள்ளை - ச�ோழர் வரலாறு,
FUN WITH HISTORY (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு - ஆகஸ்ட் 2017).
9. S.M. எட்வர்ட்ஸ், H.L.O. காரெட் -
Student Activities
இந்தியாவில் முகலாயரின் ஆட்சி-
On the outline map of India mark the 1, த.பா.ம.க.ப. கழகம், சென்னை-6
important places of medieval India. (ஆவணப்பதிப்பு - ஆகஸ்ட் 2017).
Collect pictures of architectural importance
of the Cholas.

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UNIT The Beginning of the

Modern Age
8
Learning Objectives
The objectives of this lesson are to acquaint ourselves with

Cultural, religious and economic changes that shaped the modern world
Humanism as an idea transforming the outlook of the people of the
Middle Ages
Protestant Reformation that emphasised more faith than rituals
Discovery of America and new sea routes to the East leading to
commercial revolution and establishment of colonies
Introduction based on mercantilism emerged. The modern

era was characterized by freedom of thought,
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, individualism, rationalism, and economic and
Western Europe underwent dramatic changes scientific progress. In this lesson let us look at
in the political, social, cultural, religious and the changes ushered in by the Renaissance,
economic spheres. The Italian humanist Reformation and Geographical Discoveries.
Petrarch’s Canzoniere, German theologian
Martin Luther’s 'Ninety-five Theses' and 8.1 Causative Factors
Portugal Prince Henry’s Navigation School
8.1(a) Growth of Trade and Rise
heralded the dawn of the modern era. The
of Towns
Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Church
became weak and discredited. In their place With the decline of Feudalism, Europe
nation states, new Churches that emphasized was gradually moving towards urbanisation.
individual faith, and a commercial revolution This process started first in Italy because
101 8. The Beginning of the Modern Age

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of its prosperous Mediterranean trade. The by the Ottoman Turks. This acted as a catalyst
Arabs brought spices from the east and then for the birth of Renaissance. It also led to the
transported them by land to the ports of the discovery of new land routes. Following the
Mediterranean region. Italian city-states such as Turkish occupation, a number of scholars,
Venice and Genoa profited immensely from this artists and artisans left Constantinople, which
trade. Following the expansion of trade, a strong was for many centuries the cultural capital of
network of banking and financial institutions the Western world, to the Italian city states.
too developed in Italy. In this context, new ideas
leading to the Renaissance, Reformation and 8.2 Renaissance
Exploration through sea voyages were born.
With the coming of the scholars and
8.1(b) Invention of the Printing artists from Constantinople there was a surge
Press of enthusiasm and interest in studying classical
literature and art of Greeks and Romans in the
The invention of the
Italian city states. This creative upsurge was
printing press accelerated the
reflected in their writings, art, architecture and
process of modernisation.
music. This cultural florescence is known as the
Earlier, manuscripts were
renaissance. The origin of the word renaissance
written by hand on animal
is from the Italian word renascita meaning
skin called Vellum. Only
rebirth. Greek scholar Manuel Chrysoloras
the privileged few could
who taught Greek classics in Italy, Guarino
access them. Johannes Gutenberg (1394-1468
and Giovanni Aurispa, to name just a few,
A.D. (C.E.)) invented the printing press in
visited Constantinople several times to collect
Germany in the middle of the fifteenth century.
Greek manuscripts. Later they printed what
The printing press enabled the production of
they collected. This provided stimulus to the
multiple copies of a manuscript and their spread
flowering of renaissance.
all over Western Europe. In less than fifty years
after the invention of the Gutenberg printing 8.2(a) Why Italy became the
press, about six million books had been printed. birth place of Renaissance?
The invention of printing press not only spread
Italian city-states such as Florence,
knowledge widely, but also promoted critical
Milan, Venice, and Rome profited immensely
thinking.
from the Mediterranean trade. This led to the
emergence of a rich and vibrant urban culture.
The rich families of these city states such as
Medicis of Florence patronized literature, art
and music. The highpoint of this period was
between 1475 A.D. (C.E.) and 1525 A.D. (C.E.).
Italian universities taught humanities viz.,
lingustic, grammar, rhetoric, history, science
and ethics, which prepared the students for
public life, commerce and administration.
The study of humanities was so popular in
the Italian Universities that students from all
Gutenberg's Printing Press over Europe flocked there. Classical Greek
and Latin literature introduced the idea of
8.1(c) Fall of Constantinople Humanism which got reflected in the paintings,
In 1453 A.D. (C.E.), Constantinople, the sculptures, architecture, music and writings of
capital of the Byzantine Empire, was captured that period.
8. The Beginning of the Modern Age 102

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8.2(b) Humanism in Literature

The idea of humanism was first expressed
in literature. The humanists were critical of
medieval ideas and institutions and criticized
them satirically in their writings. They argued
that man was endowed with reason and the
ability to attain true knowledge and greatness.
Petrarch (1304-1374 A.D. (C.E.)) was the first to
adopt ideas of classical humanism in his works
and is therefore called the Father of Humanism.
Dante, influenced by the classics, wrote Divine
Comedy. Machiavelli wrote a political treatise Mona Lisa
called The Prince. In this book, he wrote about the In the field of art, great artists like Leonardo
virtues that a ruler should possess. He declared da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael dominated
that a ruler should be Lion and Fox in one. For the scene and produced some of the finest artistic
him, the end was more important than means. works. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519 A.D.
Erasmus (1466-1536 A.D. (C.E.)), known as the (C.E.)) was a versatile genius. He was a painter,
Prince among Humanists, wrote In Praise of Folly, sculptor, architect, military
a satirical work on the activities and rituals of engineer, anatomist, and poet.
the Church. Sir Thomas More of England wrote His paintings of Mona Lisa (La
Utopia, a satire on the political evils of his time. Giaconda), The Last Supper
Cervantes of Spain wrote Don Quixote, another and The Virgin on the Rocks
satire on medieval chivalry and valour. are illustrious examples of his
talent.
Humanism
The idea of humanism was a central
feature of renaissance. It laid emphasis on
human dignity and nature. In the medieval
period, man was considered a mere
agent of the God on earth to do his will.
Renaissance humanism promoted the view
that humans are endowed with attributes
that are to be used to achieve greatness.
It turned the gaze of the people from the
other world to this world, from spiritual
world to material world. The focus shifted
from life after death to life in this world.
Madonna
8.2(c) Impact on Art Michelangelo (1475-1564 A.D. (C.E.))

was a painter, sculptor, architect and poet. His
Renaissance paintings and sculptures were
marble sculpture of David depicts the youthful
realistic and naturalistic. They improved over
strength and energy of the giant slayer. He is
medieval paintings and sculptures which were
also famous for his paintings in the ceilings of
stylized, unrealistic and two dimensional. They
the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Raphael (1483-
portrayed natural landscapes, human anatomy,
1520 A.D. (C.E.)) painted beautiful Madonnas
emotions and ideas.
(Virgin and the Child). His painting of the

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School of Athens reveals the ideological debate impelled the mariners to sail into the high
of his times, namely, the conflict between seas.
spiritualism and humanism. Similarly, inquisitiveness and empiricism
8.2(d) Science during of renaissance combined with knowledge of
Renaissance the classical science led to new inventions in
science – Copernican revolution in astronomy
The advances in science were inspired by
and William Harvey’s contribution to human
Ptolemy, Archimedes, Euclid and others of
anatomy.
the classical period. In the medieval period
the Aristotelian view that earth was the centre 8.3 Reformation
of the universe strengthened the Church’s view
of creation and its own centrality to mankind. The Roman Catholic Church was a
However, the influence of Plato and other powerful institution during the Middle
classics challenged it, laying the foundations of Ages. The Church enjoyed both spiritual and
modern science. William Harvey discovered temporal powers (apart from religious control
the circulation of blood. Copernicus proved it also exercised political control in certain
that earth revolved around the sun through areas such as the Papal States). The Pope was
a mathematical model. Galileo provided its head. His office was known as Papacy.
further astronomical proof with the aid of The Pope wielded spiritual authority over
the telescope he invented. However, he was the Christians of Europe cutting across the
forced by the Inquisition to withdraw his territorial boundaries. He lived a luxurious
findings on the threat of death penalty. The life like a prince. Many of his officials were
Church thus continued to prevent the growth corrupt and the offices of the Church were
of science as it undermined its importance. sold for a price. The Church made the people
Nevertheless, scientific discoveries and believe that they would suffer in purgatory
inventions continued apace leading to the because of their sins. The people were further
Scientific Revolution. told that if they repented their sins and did
penance, they would be absolved from sins
8.2(e) Effects of Renaissance and go to heaven. Otherwise they would suffer
The impact of renaissance was profound and in hell. The Church prescribed a number of
far-reaching. Its most important contribution penances for various sins. People were made
was the idea of humanism. It marked a definite to believe that participation in the Mass (a
shift towards individualism, secularism and ceremony in Christianity) would reduce the
nationalism. sins. The Church even began to grant pardon
The introduction and practice of writing in known as the sale of indulgences, (payment to
the vernacular, starting from Dante, enriched the catholic church)
the growth of vernacular languages which in
turn provided the intellectual basis for the rise Inquisition
of nation-states. Renaissance made a beginning Inquisition was an institution of the
in criticizing the corrupt and worldly practices Catholic Church to deal with heresies
of the Church. Erasmus and Thomas More beliefs in opposition to the Catholic faith.
indirectly encouraged the reformation Those found guilty and who recanted
movement. were awarded milder punishments and
imprisonment, and those who refused to
The curiosity kindled by the renaissance
recant were burnt at the stake. The most
played a decisive role in the discovery of new
infamous inquisition was the Spanish
land routes and remapping of the world. The Inquisition.
spirit of adventurism and quest for knowledge

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8.3(a) Martin Luther (1483– cause. Thus, Luther’s reformation marked the

1556 A.D. (C.E.)) first successful break from the Church and
establishment of the Protestant Church. When
Martin Luther, a
some of the German Princes protested against
monk of the Augustinian
the imposition of faith on them in the Diet of
Order and a Professor of
Speyer or Spires, they came to be known as the
Theology in the University
Protestants and the reformation that followed
of Wittenberg, was a devout
also came to be known as the Protestant
Christian and a scrupulous
Reformation.
follower of the Catholic Martin Luther
faith. However, on his visit to Rome he was 8.3(b) Other Protestant Reforms
shocked by the luxurious life of the officials
The Lutheran reformation opened the
of the Church. At about this time, a church
gates for other Protestant reformations. Though
official Johann Tetzel came to Wittenberg to sell
inspired by the very same reasons as that of the
indulgences and Church offices at an auction.
Lutheran reformation, they showed differences
Martin Luther wrote a pamphlet against the sale
in their doctrinal approach.
of indulgences, sale of offices and other corrupt
practices. He listed out ninety five points and Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531 A.D. (C.E.))
pasted them on the Church door of Wittenberg. of Switzerland and John Calvin (1509-1564) of
Later the points he raised became the famous Geneva followed Martin Luther in protesting
Ninety Five Theses. Soon they were printed and against the Church. Like Luther they were also
circulated widely. When attempts of the Church unhappy with the functioning of the Church
to make him withdraw his criticisms failed, Pope and questioned the sale of indulgences and
Leo X issued a Papal Bull excommunicating ecclesiastical offices. Zwingli worked from Zurich
him. Martin Luther signalled his revolt by and was against all forms of rituals. Like Zwingli,
publicly burning the Papal Bull. He was then John Calvin too opposed all forms of display of
summoned to the Diet that met at Worms in wealth. Calvin codified his views in his book
1521 A.D. (C.E.). Luther attended the Diet to Institutes of Christian Religion. He controlled the
defend himself, despite his friends’ cautions. He government of Geneva between 1541 A.D. (C.E.)
was fortunately saved by his patron Frederick, and 1564 A.D. (C.E.).
the Wise, the Elector of Saxony. Frederick hid In England, the reformation was brought
him in his Wartburg Castle, where Martin about due to the personal reasons of the King
Luther translated the Bible into German. Henry VIII. Henry VIII longed for a son who
Luther further elaborated his differences would succeed him to the throne. For this
with the Church. He rejected the belief that purpose Henry wanted to marry again and
ceremonies and penances would lead to therefore appealed to the Pope to annul his
salvation. He argued, that by faith alone that marriage with Catherine. However, the Holy
one could attain salvation. He put forward the Roman Emperor was Catherine’s nephew
doctrine of justification by faith. The grace of and he pressurized the Pope not to agree to
God would be bestowed by the divine will alone his request. As the Pope kept evading his
and not by the deeds of the people. Further, the decision, King Henry VIII grew impatient
Bible could be read and interpreted by all and and broke his ties with Rome. By a series
not by the Church alone. Thus, he rejected the of Acts he established a separate Anglican
role of the Church as an intermediary between Church. He confiscated the properties of the
the individual and God. His teachings became Catholic Church and monasteries in England
popular throughout Germany. Not only many and declared himself the Supreme Head of
Princes but the peasants also supported Luther’s the Anglican Church.

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8.4 Counter Reformation navigational instruments such as the mariner’s

compass and the astrolabe.
The Protestant reformation posed a threat
to the Catholic Church. In order to meet the The impulse for seafaring and
challenge Pope Paul III and his successors adventurous spirit to explore uncharted sea
introduced a number of rigorous reforms in the waters was kindled by the curiosity generated
Church. They dealt with corruption severely and by the Renaissance and the travel accounts
stopped the sale of offices. The Council of Trent of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta. This was
reemphasized the importance of ceremonies and further fuelled by the crusading spirit of
the significance of the mass. It also pronounced the Missionaries who dared to undertake
that only the Church could interpret the dangerous voyages to spread the gospel to the
scriptures. Further, it revitalized the Inquisition non-believers in distant lands.
to deal with opposition to the Church. It also But the primary factor was economic.
gave official sanction to the Society of Jesus. When the Ottoman Turks blocked the land route
This reformation of the Catholic Church from between the East and the West, spices and other
within is known as Counter Reformation. goods became costlier. The European traders were
deprived of the huge profits they were earning
out of their trade in spices. This intensified the
St. Ignatius Loyola and
Society of Jesus urge to discover a new sea route to Asia.
St. Ignatius Loyola founded the A breakthrough was made in the fourteenth
Society of Jesus to propagate Christianity. century when a copy of Ptolemy’s Geography was
Its main work was through education and brought from the Byzantine Empire to the West.
service to the destitute. It started a number By the middle of the fourteenth century, thanks
of educational institutions, orphanages to the printing press, multiple copies were made
and homes for the destitute. Soon their and circulated widely. It greatly increased the
missionaries were present in all parts of knowledge of the sea routes.
the world to spread the Catholic religion.
8.5(b) Portuguese Explorations
The sailors of
Prince Henry had
travelled into Atlantic
upto the islands of
Azores and Madeira.
They explored the
west coast of Africa.
Lopo Gonzalves was
St. Ignatius Loyola
the first sailor to cross
the equator. Till then Henry the Navigator
sailors did not dare to venture beyond, as they
8.5 Geographical harboured fears about boiling waters and sea
Discoveries monsters. Bartholomew Diaz ventured further
down the African coast reaching cape point or
8.5(a) Causes
the southern tip of Africa in 1487 A.D. (C.E.). He
Henry the Navigator of Portugal laid the named it the Cape of Storms as he encountered
foundation for long distance sea voyages. He fierce storms there. However, King John II of
established a navigation school to train sailors. Portugal renamed it as Cape of Good Hope as it
In his school, he taught them how to use provided hope to reach India by sea.

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Sea Routes
The Portuguese established trading posts that they had stumbled upon a new continent.
along the west coast of Africa dealing in Hence, he called it the New World. Later, a
lumber, ivory and slaves. The establishment of German cartographer, while preparing a map of
trading posts enabled them to buy slaves and the world, named the new world after Amerigo
transport them directly to Portugal. The slaves Vespucci and called it America.
were employed in the sugarcane plantations,
and sugar was exported to Europe. Slaves were 8.5(d) Portuguese–Spanish
purchased from the African slave market and Rivalry
transported to the colonies under inhuman The Portuguese claimed the territories
conditions in slave ships. They were chained and discovered by Columbus. The dispute was
cramped into narrow spaces with insufficient air referred to the Pope Alexander VI who drew
to breathe. Many died during the journey. For an imaginary line north to south west of Azores
those who survived, the suffering continued in and declared that the territories to the west of
the plantations. Slave trade increased with the that line belonged to Spain and that of the east
discovery and colonization of America.
to the Portuguese.
8.5(c) Spain and Discovery of In 1497 A.D. (C.E.) Vasco da Gama sailed
the New World from Portugal as the head of four ships to find a
In 1492 A.D. (C.E.), Columbus, with the sea route to India by going around Africa. After
support of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella reaching the Cape of Good Hope, he set sail to
of Spain, set sail in three ships. He crossed India with the help of an Arab navigator. On 20th
the Atlantic Ocean and reached the Bahamas May 1498 A.D. (C.E.) he reached Calicut on
Island, Cuba and Haiti. Columbus thought he the Malabar Coast. At Calicut Vasco da Gama
had reached the frontier areas of Asia. Hence,
was astounded to find pepper and other spices,
he called the natives he encountered as Indians.
a precious commodity in Portugal, available
Amerigo Vespucci, another sailor, made three
at low prices. He bought as much spices as
or four voyages and landed on the American
mainland. He realized that it was not Asia and possible. Back home he earned huge profits.

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Later the Portuguese navy defeated the Zamorin Plants such as maize, potatoes, sweet
of Calicut and captured Goa and made it its potatoes, tomatoes, pineapple, beans and
headquarters for all its possessions in the East. cocoa, and animals such as turkey and guinea
Thus the foundation of the Portuguese Empire in pigs, were transported from America and
the East was laid. introduced in Europe. And from Europe went
sugarcane, wheat, rice, horses, cattle, sheep
and goats to America. Europe also exported
deadly diseases such as small pox, measles,
chicken pox, malaria, typhus, etc. Apart from
guns and horses, the most dangerous weapons
the natives had to encounter were these deadly
diseases against which they were defenceless.
It led to the near annihilation of the natives in
most parts of the Americas.
The introduction of sugarcane led to the
Vasco da Gama establishment of sugarcane plantations in the
Caribbean islands and South America. These
In 1519 A.D. (C.E.), Ferdinand Magellan
plantations initially employed natives. The
sailed westward and crossed the Straits, which
mass extinction of the native population led
later came to be known as Magellan Straits.
to the import of slaves from Africa. Gambia,
As the sea was calm he called it the Pacific
Senegal, Goree, El Mina and Congo became
Ocean. On reaching an island he named it as
important centres of slave trade in Africa. The
Philippines after the Spanish Prince Philip. He
Trans-Atlantic Trade was a triangular trade.
was killed in a war with the locals. However,
The European countries purchased slaves from
the ship in which he had travelled returned to
Africa who were transported to America. In
Spain. Thus the first circumnavigation of the
return they got sugar and other raw materials
world had taken place.
from America. The European countries profited
8.6 Impact of Geographical immensely from this trade.
Discoveries
The geographical discoveries transformed
the European understanding of the world. It led
to the redrawing of the world map. As a result of
the discovery of new lands and new sea routes,
the economic centre of Europe shifted from the
Italian city states to Spain and Portugal. Both
Spain and Portugal established colonies that led
to their economic prosperity.
One of the most important outcomes

of the conquest of Americas by the European .
colonial powers was the movement of plants, Ship carrying slaves
animals, technology, culture and strange Geographical discoveries led to
diseases between the Americas and Europe or Commercial Revolution. The chief features of
between the New World and the Old World. commercial revolution were the emergence
This is known as Columbian Exchange. of banking, joint-stock companies and
growth of trade.

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As a result of geographical discoveries, the

Recap
seventeenth century witnessed the emergence
of various East India Companies such as the The Renaissance, Reformation and
English East India Company, the Dutch East Geographical Discoveries are heralds
India Company, and the French East India of the modern age.
Company.
The new ideas of humanism,
The Portuguese, after discovering a new individualism, rationalism and
sea route to India, enforced its monopoly on nationalism provided the basis for the
the spice trade of East Indies, eliminating beginning of an era of enlightenment.
competition of the Arabs, Egyptians and
Scientific development led to
Venetians by use of military force. The Spaniards
invention of new instruments and
established monopoly over the mining and
discovery of new sea routes to the east.
transportation of gold and silver in its colonies
in the New World. There were revolutionary changes
in political, economic and cultural
The English East India Company had
spheres.
monopoly trade in India and amassed huge
wealth. Thus, the chief feature of mercantilism
was exploitation of the resources of the colonies
for the benefit of the colonisers. It represented
an important stage in the development of
modern capitalism.
India at the dawn of Modern Age in Europe

The Mughal rule had started
since 1526 A.D. (C.E.). Vijayanagar
state, founded in 1336, was a great
power under Krishnadeva Raya
(1509-29 A.D. (C.E.)). Portuguese
established their empire in the
East (India, Malacca, Ceylon)
and controlled the sea with Goa
as headquarters. In Tamilnadu
Madurai Nayak rule began
dividing the Pandya kingdom
into seventy two palayams. The
arrival of Jesuit Missions and the
work of St. Francis Xavier, as a
member of Society of Jesus, led to
conversion of fishing community
to Christianity (Catholicism) in
Thirumalai Nayakkar Mahal
Thoothukudi region.

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8. The continent of America was named

after _____________.
EXERCISE a. Amerigo Vespucci
b. Christopher Columbus
I. C
hoose the c. Vasco da Gama
correct answer
d. Hernando Cortez
1. Who among the following is known as the 9. ___________ was the headquarters of
Father of Humanism? the Portuguese possession in the East.
a. Leonardo da Vinci b. Petrarch
a. Manila b. Bombay
c. Erasmus d. Thomas More
c. Pondicherry d. Goa
2. The School of Athens was painted by
a. Raphael Sanzio 10. Which among the following plants were
introduced from America to Europe?
b. Michelangelo
c. Albrecht Durer a. Sugarcane b. Sweet Potato
d. Leonardo da Vinci c. Rice d. Wheat
3.
W illiam Har vey discovered
____________. II. Fill in the blanks
a. Heliocentric theory 1. In 1453 Constantinople was captured by
b. Geocentric theory _____________.
c. Gravitational force 2. _ _______________ was known as

d. Circulation of blood Prince among Humanists.
4. Who wrote the 95 Theses? 3. ________________ is famous for his
paintings in the ceiling of the Sistine
a. Martin Luther b. Zwingli Chapel.
c. John Calvin d. Thomas More 4. The reformation of the Catholic Church
Who wrote the book Institutes of
5. is known as _________________.
Christian Religion? 5. T he chief features of Commercial

a. Martin Luther b. Zwingli Revolution were ___________,
___________ and _____________.
c. John Calvin d. Cervantes
6. Which sailor was the first to cross the III. F
ind out the correct
Equator? statement
a. Henry, the Navigator
1. a. Martin Luther broke away from the
b. Lopo Gonzalves Catholic Church because he was
c. Bartholomew Diaz discriminated.
d. Christopher Columbus b. John Calvin’s government in Geneva
7. __________ named the sea as Pacific was liberal and fun-filled.
Ocean as it was very calm. c. King Henry VIII had deep theological
a. Columbus differences with the Catholic Church.
b. Amerigo Vespucci d. C ouncil of Trent reemphasized the
c. Ferdinand Magellan importance of ceremonies and
significance of the mass.
d. Vasco-da-gama

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2. a. Discovery of new lands and sea routes

FUN WITH HISTORY
shifted the economic centre from Italian
city states to Spain and Portugal. Activities for students
b. Horses were native to America.
In an outline map of World, mark,
c. During the begining of the Modern
the routes of Bartholomew Diaz,
Age, State did not interfere in
Vasco-da-Gama, Columbus, Magellan.
economic activities.
d. The Portuguese collaborated with the Collect pictures of European explorers.
Arabs in its trading activities in India. Create a model of Mariner’s Compass.
Construct a model ship of medieval
Europe.
1. Feudalism – Monopoly Trade
2. Humanism – Trial of Heretics Assignment with teacher’s
guidance
3. Inquisition – Movement of goods
between America Prepare an album with masterpieces of
and Europe Italian art.
4. Mercantilism – Hierarchical socio- Write a brief biography of Martin Luther.
economic structure Visit the nearby printing press and compare
5. Columbian – Human dignity it with the earliest printing device.
Exchange
V. A
nswer the following
questions briefly
1. E xplain how the invention of printing
press influenced Renaissance,
Reformation and Geographical
discoveries.
2. Write a short note on the impact of
Renaissance.
3. Outline the differences of Martin Luther
with the Catholic Church.
4. Write a brief note on Counter

Reformation.
5. What is Columbian Exchange?
VI. A
nswer the following
in detail
1. Discuss how Renaissance, Reformation
and Geographical discoveries heralded
the modern age?
2. Examine the outcome of the geographical
discoveries.

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REFERENCES INTERNET RESOURCES

1. Eugene F. Rice Jr., & Anthony Grafton,
The Foundations of Early Modern 1. https://www.italian-renaissance-art.
Europe, 1460-1559, W.W. Norton & com/
Company: New York, 2004 2. ht t p s : / / w w w. l o u v r e . f r / e n / r o u t e s /
2. Edward MacNall Burns, et al., ed., italian-renaissance
World Civilizations: Their History and 3. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/
Their Culture, Vol. B, W.W. Norton & archaeology-and-history/magazine/
Company: New York, New Delhi, 1991 2017/09-10/histor y-martin-luther-
3. Euan Cameron, ed., Early Modern religious-revolution/
Europe: An Oxford History, OUP: New 4. h t t p : / / w w w. l o c . g o v / r r / h i s p a n i c /
Delhi, 2004 portam/role.html
4. H.G. Koenigsberger, Early Modern
Europe, 1500 – 1789, Longman: London,
1989
5. Arvind Sinha, Europe in Transition:
From Feudalism to Industrialization,
Manohar: New Delhi, 2017
6. கி.ர. அநுமந்தன் - இடைக்கால
நாகரிகத்தின் வரலாறு (கி.பி.
(ப�ொ.ஆ.) 476 முதல் 1453 வரை),
7. L.C.A. நெளல்ஸ் - பத்தொன்பதாம்
நூற்றாண்டில் கிரேட் பிரிட்டனில்
த�ொழில், வாணிபப் புரட்சிகள்,

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UNIT
The Age of Revolutions
9
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
I The American War of Independence

The foundation of colonies by European powers in America and the
later amalgamation and formation of 13 colonies under Britain
Factors leading to the conflict between the colonies and England
The opposition of the colonies to ‘Taxation without Representation’ leading to
American War of Independence
The course and outcome of the American War of Independence
The American Revolution and the idea of democracy in the modern world
II The French Revolution

The causes for the outbreak of French Revolution, political, social, economic and intellectual
Circumstances leading to the convening of Estates General and the defiance of Third
Estate to the orders of the French Monarch Louis XVI
The Tennis Court Oath and Fall of Bastille resulting in the overthrow of monarchy and
establishment of National Assembly
The National Assembly and the conspiracy of the dethroned king with other European
powers to crush the revolution, leading to invasion of France by Austria and Prussia
113 9. The Age of Revolutions

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Formation of revolutionary government of National Convention. Execution of Louis

XVI and proclamation of Republic in France.
Abolition of feudalism, confiscation of church property, declaration of the rights of
citizens and the introduction of a constitution
Jacobins capturing power and the dictatorial functioning of Robespierre.
The fall of Robespierre and the end of Revolution
I English possessed a theoretical claim to the

North American mainland in view of the
9.1 A
merican War of voyage of John Cabot (1497) off the coast of
Independence Nova Scotia. But they neither had the means
nor the desire to back up that claim during
the 16th century. Jamestown was the first
Introduction British colony in America (1607). The ship
Three great revolutions in the eighteenth Mayflower had taken a batch of Puritans from
century brought about striking changes in Plymouth, England, to America in 1620. They
Western Society: the American Revolution, landed in the north
the French Revolution and the Industrial and called the place
Revolution. The American Revolution was New Plymouth.
the first political revolution. Though not so Another Puritan
vital as the French Revolution, which was to group led by John
shake the social foundations of Europe, the Winthrop set up
political changes engendered by the American the Massachusetts
Revolution provided inspiration for other Bay Colony. Ship Mayflower
anti-colonial struggles.
Thomas Jefferson, who drafted the
“Declaration of Independence,” asserted even Reformers who led a religious
at the beginning of 1776 that Americans had movement to reform the Church of
‘neither wish nor interest to separate from England dispensing with the teachings
English monarchy’. In July 1776 the same and practices of Roman Catholic Church
Jefferson got his Declaration of Independence were known as Puritans. The Stuart kings,
adopted at a “Continental Congress” of the James I and Charles I, did not tolerate
13 colonies with its assertion that ‘all men their attempts to reform the Church of
are created equal.’ It was a revolutionary England. The persecution of Puritans
statement at a time when respect to kings prompted many to leave England and
and nobles was universal. In this lesson we settle. In the colonies they founded they
trace the foundation of English colonies organized a Puritan way of life.
in America and narrate the revolt of the
colonies.
Many other groups before the Puritans
Colonies of European Powers had reached other parts of the North
American coastline and soon many more
The Portuguese and the Spanish were
followed, till there were colonies dotted all
the pioneers in geographical explorations and
over the east coast from north to south. There
the founding of colonies. The English lagged
were catholic colonies, and colonies founded
far behind in their colonisation efforts. The
9. The Age of Revolutions 114

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by Cavalier south) were: Rhode Island, New Hampshire,

nobles from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New
England and Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
Quaker colonies Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina
(Pennsy lvania and Georgia. By 1775, the population of
was named after the thirteen colonies had grown steadily
the Quaker reaching nearly 3 million, a third of Britain’s
Penn). Puritans Fathers population.
Plantations and the Slave Labour

Q u a k e r s
were members As the Native Americans resisted
of a Christian attempts to make them work in the
group called the plantations, the European planters, chiefly
Society of Friends of tobacco, in the southern states– Virginia,
who, while laying Carolinas and Georgia– in their search for
emphasis on labour resorted to acquiring slaves from
George Fox Africa. The innocent people of Africa were
the Holy Spirit,
rejected outward rites and an ordained captured in man-hunts and sent across the
ministry. George Fox was the founder seas in a cruel and inhuman manner. In the
of the society in England. Quakers have northern States conditions were different.
the reputation of actively working for There were compact farms, and not huge
peace and opposing war. plantations as in the south. Large numbers
of workers were not needed for these farms.
Thus two economic systems developed in
The Dutch founded a town and called it these colonies. Native Americans had no
New Amsterdam. The English later changed place in either of these. So these people were
the name to New York. There were also gradually pushed back to the west. This was
Germans, Danes and Frenchmen. By the end made easier by the disunity and divisions
of the eighteenth century, there were thirteen among the Native American tribes.
colonies on the east coast all under British
control. The 13 colonies (from north to Increasing incidence of Taxation
Each colony had a Governor and the
legislatures acted as a check on his powers.
N
THE THIRTEEN W E
AMERICAN COLONIES
S
Thus, initially, there was no conflict between

Maine
(Part of Massa
the British and American interests. The
chuses)
English King and many big landowners in
Hampshire
New
k
Yor
New Massa England had large financial interests in these
chuses
cut colonies. The Seven Years War of 1756-63
nec
Rho
Pennsylvania Con
d
and
between Britain and France had centred on
eI
sl
M New Jersey
Delaw
ar
an
the control of colonies, especially in North
y
d e
L
Virginia
ar
America. Britain defeated France and took

North Carolina A T L A N T I C
O C E A N
control of Canada. But the war cost the English
South Carolina
heavily. The British ministers proposed that
Georgia the American colonists pay some of the cost
of the war. So a series of taxes were imposed
Not to Scale
on the colonists. It should be noted that the

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materials in the colonies be produced on

Even before the arrival of stamped paper produced in London, carrying
Europeans in America, there was an an embossed revenue stamp.
indigenous population, called Native
Americans (they used to be referred to Townshend Acts
as ‘Red Indians’; it is now considered
The British Finance Minister Charles
demeaning, and historians do not use
Townshend introduced new duties on
this term any more), spread over the vast
imports in 1767, known as the Townshend
American continent. They belonged to
Acts. They introduced duties on imports
various tribes and many of them were at
to colonies such as glass, paper, paint, lead
war with each other. Besides they refused
and tea. Further, the British officers were
to work under conditions of slavery.
empowered to search homes and businesses
Through a combination of violence and
for smuggled or illegal goods.
diplomacy Europeans conquered and
defeated many of these tribes. Greatly There were widespread protests against
reduced in numbers today they live in the Townshend Acts. Merchants of Boston
various reserves. organized boycott of British goods. Soon other
colonies joined the protest. The women formed
their own organization called the ‘Daughters of
Liberty’. The leaders insisted on constitutional
methods and asked the people to remain calm.
The British mobilized more troops to encounter
the protests. This angered the people further. In
March 1770, resentment rose in Boston, when
troops fired on a crowd which had thrown
snowballs at them. There was firing by the
troops resulting in many deaths. This incident is
known as the Boston Massacre. It led to intense
Native Americans anti-British propaganda through newspapers,
posters and pamphlets.
As a result of protests and boycotts, the
Americans did not have representation in the
British Parliament repealed the Townshend
British Parliament.
Acts. However, it retained the tax on tea, with
The Sugar Act of 1764 prohibited and the intention of encouraging the business of
imposed duties on molasses, wines, silks, the East India Company by making it easy for
coffee and other luxury items. As the Act it to take its tea to America and sell it there.
was enforced ruthlessly, it led to protests by This harmed the local tea trade and so it was
merchants in legislatures and town meetings. decided to boycott this foreign tea.
The preamble of the Sugar Act provided the
slogan ‘No Taxation without representation’. Boston Tea Party
Soon the Currency Act was passed that In many places the colonists obstructed the
insisted on colonies repaying the debt only import of tea. In Charlestown, they unloaded
in gold or silver. It was a huge burden on the the tea and let it rot in the dock. In New York and
colonial economy. The Quartering Act of Philadelphia ships carrying tea were blocked.
1765 required the colonies to pay for the cost In December 1773, a group of men disguised
of keeping British troops in America. The themselves as Native Americans boarded the
Stamp Act (1765) required that many printed cargo vessels and threw the tea overboard.

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Hailed as the Boston Tea Party, Thereafter, the members drafted a resolution to
this was done publicly before form the Continental Congress. Soon members
a large sympathetic crowd. It joined from other colonies. On 5 September
was a challenge which led to 1774 the First Continental Congress met in
war between the rebellious Philadelphia. The Congress agreed to vote by
colonies and England. the representatives of colonies and endorsed
the resolution declaring the Intolerable Act
American War of Independence null and void. It called for economic sanctions
against the British. The Congress adopted a
In 1774, a little Declaration of American Rights.
before war began
Second Continental Congress
between the colonies
May – 10, 1775
and England, George
Washington stated that The Second Continental Congress met
no thinking man in on 10 May 1775 at Philadelphia. John Adams,
North America desired Sam Adams, Richard Henry Lee and Thomas
independence. And yet Jefferson were some of prominent members of
he became the colonists’ the Congress. It organized the army gathered
commander-in-chief and George Washington around Boston as the Continental Army
later the first president and placed it under the command of George
of the American Republic. So the colonies did Washington. Still hoping for a truce, the
not begin fighting for the sake of independence. Congress dispatched ‘the Olive Branch Petition’
Their grievances were taxation and restrictions to the king and adopted the Declaration of the
on trade. They challenged the right of the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms.
British Parliament to tax them against their will. As the war progressed, the Continental
“No taxation without representation” was their Congress assumed the functions of government.
famous battle cry. In July 1775, it appointed Commissioners to
negotiate with Native Americans. It also established
First Continental Congress , a Postal Department with Benjamin Franklin as
September 5, 1774 Postmaster-General. A Committee was formed to
Disturbed by the explore the possibility of foreign aid.
developments in Boston Battle of Bunker Hill
harbour, the British
government appointed On 17 June 1775 the Battle of Bunker
General Gage as governor Hill, the first major battle was fought in
of Massachusetts with Massachusetts. The 2200 strong British troops
a mandate to quell were twice forced to retreat. On the third
the resistance. It also attempt British troops emerged victorious
dispatched troops to with a heavy casualty of nearly 1000 soldiers.
Boston and passed the Thomas Jefferson After the battle Washington assumed control
Intolerable Acts which of the American forces. Soon the British
decreed that all those who broke the laws would forces retreated from Boston.
be taken to Britain for trial. In May 1774, in the Declaration of Independence
Virginia Assembly, Thomas Jefferson declared
In January 1776, an anonymous pamphlet
that 1 June 1774 would be a day of fasting
under the title Common Sense was published.
and prayer. In response to this declaration,
It was authored by Thomas Paine who had
the colonial governor dissolved the assembly.
recently migrated to America from England.

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American War of Independence
It attacked the allegiance to the Crown and French Alliance

called for complete independence. More
In 1777 the British attempts at splitting
than 100,000 copies of the pamphlet were
the colonies into two by a campaign from
sold quickly. George Washington remarked,
the north failed. However, they managed to
“Common Sense is working a powerful change
occupy Philadelphia. Washington’s efforts to
in the minds of men.” On June 7, 1776 Richard
take a town near Philadelphia were spoiled
Henry Lee of Virginia moved a resolution
by Lord Cornwallis. But the British were
for independence. After much debate the
defeated at Saratoga. This defeat paved the
Declaration of Independence, drafted by
way for an alliance between France and the
Thomas Jefferson, was adopted by the Congress
Americans. On 6 February 1778, France and
on July 4, 1776. This day is celebrated by the
America signed two treaties by which France
Americans as Independence Day.
recognized the United States of America
and offered trade concessions. By June 1778
War
England and France were at war.
On 2 July 1776, the British under General.
Howe attempted to regain what they had lost. Victory at Yorktown
Washington was forced to evacuate Long In September Washington attacked
Island. The main American army managed Yorktown, with a combined American and
to reach Pennsylvania. While Howe waited in French troops. On 19 October 1781 Cornwallis
New York for the winter to pass, Washington surrendered. In 1783, the Peace of Paris was
made a daring attack on Christmas night at signed. Great Britain agreed to the independence
Trenton. The British forces were defeated in of the United States. The military band played
Princeton. the tune ‘The World Turned Upside Down’ as
British forces departed from Yorktown in 1781.

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Cornwallis: Born into an aristocratic family and educated at Eton

and Cambridge, Cornwallis joined the army in 1757. Upon his father’s
death in 1762 he became Earl Cornwallis and entered the House of
Lords, the upper house of Britain. His military action in the American
War of Independence was praiseworthy, inflicting defeats on the
American army in a few battles though finally he had to surrender
his army at Yorktown. Despite this defeat, Cornwallis retained the
confidence of successive British governments and continued to
enjoy an active career. Knighted in 1786, he was appointed Governor
General by the East India Company government in British India. Cornwallis
Results II
The immediate result of the war was America’s
independence. For the first time a colonial power
9.2 The French Revolution
was overthrown by the colonised, leading to the
Introduction
establishment of a republican government in the
United States. The colonists wanted to get rid of the The French Revolution exploded in 1789.
feudal inequalities of Europe and they succeeded. The French monarchy of the ancien regime
For many followers of the Enlightenment in (political and social system that prevailed in
Europe, the language of the Declaration of France before the Revolution of 1789) had
Independence seemed a living fulfillment of their enjoyed unchallenged power for 140 years.
ideals. The Declaration of Independence of 1776 Louis XIV and his great palace at Versailles had
stated that “all men are born equal.” symbolized royal absolutism and the greatness
of France. Yet, in the summer of 1789, that
By 1777 nearly all the colonies had a written
power suddenly begun to shake. Louis XVI had
constitution. These constitutions protected
summoned the Estates General in May 1789.
individual rights, freedom of press and freedom
This body consisted of the representatives of
of religion. The Continental Congress had drafted
three classes or “estates,” as they were called:
the Articles of Confederation. The Church and
the clergy (men and women ordained for
the State were separated. Thomas Jefferson
religious duties), the nobles and the commons
in his Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
(comprising lawyers, rich merchants, bankers
introduced freedom of religion. It was later
and businessmen and wealthy landowners).
incorporated into the American Constitution.
But the representatives of the third estate,
Lafayette, who namely the commons had refused either to bow
fought the British on to the nobles or to obey the orders of the King.
Washington’s side through
to the conclusive battle
at Yorktown in 1781,
later during the French
Revolution served the
French National Guard
as its Commander. He
penned the Declaration Lafayette
of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen, with the help of Jefferson, which
the National Assembly of France adopted on
August 27, 1789. Tennis Court Oath

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They proclaimed themselves a National Estates - the nobles and the clergy. Their
Assembly and gathering on a tennis court after advice was not only disregarded but they
the King had cleared them out of their hall, themselves were dismissed from service. To
swore on oath not to disperse until he gave meet the resource crunch the government
them a constitution. Thus began the revolution borrowed heavily resulting in a huge fiscal
of 1789 in France. deficit. Nearly half the revenue went towards
payment of interest for the loans. Under the
Causes of the Outbreak circumstances, the French monarch Louis XVI
was forced to convene the Estate-General, the
Political
combined body of three estates comprising
Louis XV succeeded nobles, clergy and commoners respectively.
his great-grandfather
Social
Louis XIV and reigned
for fifty nine years. He The condition of the already impoverished
learnt no lesson that the peasants worsened due to a series of bad
king is not above law but harvests. It resulted in the rise of the price of
bound by law from the bread. The peasants of the countryside and
English Revolution and the labourers and artisans of the towns were
the beheading of the King the worst affected. There were hunger riots
Charles I. In 1774 he was Louis XVI at the beginning of the reign of Louis XVI.
succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI. He was They were followed later by fresh peasant
entirely under the influence of his wife Marie risings. A vast number of people had become
Antoinette, who believed, more than the King, professional beggars. It was officially declared
in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship - the in 1777 that there were eleven lakhs of beggars
theory that the king was representative of in France. The peasants were hungry not only
god on earth and therefore for all his actions for food, but were also hungry for land. They
he was accountable only to god and not to hated the nobles and the clergy because they
anybody else. Both the King and the Queen enjoyed many privileges, notably exemption
were hated by the people. from taxation.
The clergy, despite being a minority,
Economic
numbering only about 130,000, occupied a
On the eve of the French revolution preeminent position in France. They collected
France was going through a period of tithe (one tenth of the annual produce or
economic crisis. The French treasury was earnings) from the common people. The
bankrupt because of its involvement in nobility, also a minority, numbering about
the Seven Years War that ended in defeat. 110,000, was a landowning class enjoying
French participation in the American War of feudal rights. They collected feudal dues from
Independence made the financial condition the peasants. Their land was tilled by the
worse. The luxurious lifestyle of the royalty peasants. The farm produce of the peasants
and nobles in Versailles court, in contrast to had to be processed in the mills of the feudal
the grinding poverty of the common people, lord. The traditional hereditary nobles known
made the people accept the new ideologies as nobles of the sword enjoyed hunting rights.
of French philosophers of the eighteenth They were against the rising middle class
century. The Finance Ministers of the King, (bourgeoisie) or a new class of nobility, the
Turgot, Necker, Calonne and Brienne one status that was conferred by the king for their
after the other suggested reduction of royal services. These nobles were known as nobles
expenditure and taxation of the first two of the robe.

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The middle class and the peasants part in preparing the people of France for
together formed the Third Estate. The the great revolution. He famously said in his
bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) were the book Social Contract, “Man is born free, but is
privileged few but the bulk of the Third everywhere in chains.” He argued that the laws
Estate was constituted by the representatives are binding only when they are supported by
of peasants. The peasants paid taxes to the the general will of the people.
state such as taille (land tax), gabelle (salt tax), Montesquieu (1689-
etc., and provided free labour (corvee) for the 1755), who wrote The
construction of public roads. Burdened by the Persian Letters and
demands of the state, nobility and clergy, the The Spirit of the Laws,
peasants were in despair at the prospect of also defended liberty.
dying of starvation. He put forward the
Inspiration from French theory of separation of
Philosophers powers: The liberty of
the individual would be
There were many best protected only in a Montesquieu
notable thinkers and government where the
writers in France in the powers of its three organs, viz., legislature,
eighteenth century. The executive and judiciary were separate. It
most famous writer of would put in place the necessary checks
the time on rationalistic and balances to prevent any one organ from
and scientific subjects assuming more power to itself.
was Voltaire (1694-
1778). When imprisoned An Encyclopaedia also came out in
and banished, he had Voltaire Paris about this time and this was full of
to live at Ferney near articles by Diderot and Jean d’Alembert.
Geneva. Voltaire, Montesquieu (1689-1755) These philosophers and thinkers, opposed to
and Rousseau criticized the then existing religious intolerance and political and social
conditions in France. Voltaire, was a prolific privileges, succeeded in provoking large
writer and activist, and was vehement in his numbers of ordinary people to think and act.
criticism of the Church. His most famous
work was Candide. His famous quote was: American War of Independence
“those who can make you believe absurdities The American Revolution that broke out
can make you commit atrocities.” He is said in 1776 and ended with the establishment of
to have once exclaimed, “I disapprove of what the American Republic inspired the French
you say, but I will defend to the death your Revolution and provided them with a model.
right to say it.” The French participation in the American
Another great War of Independence supporting the
writer, a contemporary American cause against the British directly
of Voltaire, but younger affected the French Revolution in two ways:
than him, was Jean one, it cost the French treasury heavily
Jacques Rousseau (1712- and the other, the French like Lafayette
78). His political theory who participated in the American War of
set the minds of many Independence came back with democratic
afire with new ideas and ideals and played an active role in the French
new resolves. His ideas Revolution.
played an important Rousseau

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Course of the French Revolution

Declaration of
The Fall of Bastille the Rights of the
Man and the Citizen:
This declaration was
drafted by Lafayette,
Thomas Jefferson
and Mirabeau. Based
on Natural Law, that Mirabeau
asserts that certain
rights are inherent by virtue of human
nature, the rights of humans were
declared universal… and valid at all
times and in every place. Inspired by
Fall of the Bastille
the Enlightenment philosophers, the
Declaration was a core statement of the
The critical moment came after the values of the French Revolution and had
king shut out the commoners and the latter a major impact on the development of
assembled in the Tennis-Court and took an freedom and democracy worldwide.
oath that they would not disperse until they
found a way out to their problems. The King
tried to use force but his own soldiers refused The idea was taken from the American
to obey his orders. Louis then intrigued to Declaratiòn of Independence. But the
get foreign regiments to shoot down his American declaration is short, while the French
own people. This provoked the people to one is long. The Rights of Man include the rights
rise in revolt in Paris on 14 July 1789. They which were supposed to ensure him equality
stormed the Bastille prison and set free all the and liberty and happiness. The Assembly
prisoners. The fall of the Bastille was the first brought about many other reforms. The vast
great turning point in the revolution. 14 July property of the Church was confiscated by the
is celebrated as the National Day of France to State. A new division of France was made into
this day. The subsequent popular risings all eighty departments. The old feudal courts were
over the country emboldened the National replaced by better law-courts.
Assembly to act swiftly. March to Versailles
National Assembly
This Assembly comprised moderate
liberals, who wanted a constitution on
the model of England and America. Their
leader was Mirabeau. The Assembly was
controlled by the middle classes and there
was no representation to the peasants and
the common masses. This National Assembly
abolished serfdom, feudal privileges,
including exempting nobles and clergy from
taxation, even titles, and feudal courts. The
Assembly then passed a Declaration of the
Rights of the Man and the Citizen. March to Versailles

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However, the crisis intensified in Paris continued to be the Executive head, but his
due to the high price of bread. Riots broke out. powers were considerably limited. But the
The women of Paris marched to Versailles to common people who had stormed the Bastille
demand bread from the King. The crowd was were disillusioned with the developments and
in an aggressive mood. The crowd demanded found another outlet for their revolutionary
that bread be provided to them. The royal energy. This was the Paris Commune. This
family, including the King, was mobbed. They Commune was in direct touch with the
forced the King and the royal family to go masses. The Commune became the rival
with them to Paris. of the National Assembly composed of the
moderate middle class.
Flight to Varennes
Emigres and the
The King’s position was increasingly Revolutionary War
shaky. He was not able to reconcile to the
legislations passed by the National Assembly. In August 1792 ordered an attack on
He decided to escape from Paris. Dressing the King’s palace. Though the King ordered
himself as a valet, he escaped along with his shooting by his Swiss guards, he was finally
family to Varennes, a border town. However, deposed and imprisoned. The people of Paris
he was recognized there by a postman, arrested angered by the action of the Swiss guards in
by the National Guards and brought back to shooting and killing many of them hunted
Paris. From then onwards, he remained in down the supporters of monarchy under their
Paris virtually a prisoner. leader Marat. In three days, from September
2, about 1500 suspected dissidents were put in
Girondins and Jacobins prison. After a trial, they were killed and this
The moderate liberals wanted to keep incident is called “September Massacres.” In
the King as a limited monarch. They called September also occurred the first victory of
themselves the party of the Girondins. The the French troops over the invading Austrians
hardcore republicans were the Jacobins. In and Prussians at the battle of Valmy. This saved
foreign countries especially in England, there the Revolution. On September 21, 1792 the
were the émigrés, the French nobles who National Convention met.
had run away from the Revolution and were National Convention and
continually intriguing against it. All the kings the Reign of Terror,
and emperors of Europe, who were frightened June 1793-July 1794
by this mass upsurge were ranged against
revolutionary France. The first action of the National Convention
was to proclaim the formation of a republic. The
Constitution of 1791 trial of Louis XVI was taken up immediately and
In September 1791, the National he was condemned to death. He was guillotined.
Assembly framed the first From the very steps of the
constitution. It provided guillotine, Danton, a great
for a Constitutional leader of the Revolution,
m o n a r c hy. The addressed the assembled
Legislature consisted of crowds and threw an
a single chamber of 750 open challenge to other
members. The franchise European kings. The
was limited to those who new republic of France,
owned a certain amount through conscription,
of property. The King built up a strong army.
Marat Danton

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The wars particularly against Austria, Prussia and his supporters who had
and later England engaged Republican France. organized the festival were
As a consequence it was not possible to deal sent to the guillotine. This
with local social problems. caused the first split in the
Jacobin party.
In order to depart totally from the
ancient regime, the Convention created a new Danton and others
Republican calendar for France. All references protested against Robespierre for sending too
to religion found in the old calendar’s name many people to the guillotine. But they were
were deleted, and a 10-day week followed. In also executed. Surrounded by enemies and
this secular calendar, the twelve months of the totally alienated from the people, Robespierre
year were named after natural elements, while and his clique chose to intensify the Terror.
each day was named after a seed, tree, flower,
fruit, animal, or tool, replacing the saints’-day
names and Christian festivals. (The republican
calendar was abandoned by Napoleon on 1
January 1806.) The existing system of measures
was replaced by a metric system based on the
kilogram and the metre.
In September 1793 the Convention passed

the Law of Suspects, which authorized the arrest
of persons suspected of opposing the revolution.
A month later twenty two Girondins’ deputies of
the Convention were tried by the Revolutionary
Tribunal and sentenced to death. Thus began
the ‘Reign of Terror’.
Danton, Herbert and Guillotine
Robespierre emerged as The Law of Suspects made spreading of
the main leaders of the false news to divide or instigate the people
National Convention. a punishable crime. Under this Law, large
However, they were groups of persons were tried together and
divided on many issues. sentenced. This Terror lasted for forty six
Robespierre controlled days. On 27 July 1794, the Convention
the Committee of Public suddenly turned against Robespierre and his
Safety and eliminated supporters. The next day Robespierre was
his rivals. There was a Robespierre sent to the guillotine.
massive peasant revolt in
the Vendee partly because of the unwillingness The Reign of Terror ended with the fall of
of the peasantry to accept conscriptions. Robespierre. Robespierre, the dictator of the
The Vendee revolt was suppressed with great Convention, though he was honest, patriotic
cruelty. There was a strong movement against and a person of integrity, earned notoriety
Christianity. The proponents of this movement by sending many of his colleagues to the
proposed the worship of Reason. There was guillotine. In October 1795 the Convention
great Festival of Liberty and Reason in Notre broke up and a Directory of five members
Dame Cathedral in Paris. But Robespierre was assumed power.
conservative in religious matters and neither he The Directory was short lived and was
nor Danton approved of this movement. Herbert replaced by the Consulate with Napoleon

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as the first Consul.

Recap
This Consulate was
abolished by Napoleon
I The American War of
Bonaparte, who later
Independence
crowned himself as the
Emperor of France. The The foundation of European colonies
Revolution thus failed, in the wake of discovery of America and
shattering the dreams Britain’s triumph over other European
of the idealists and the powers in bringing 13 colonies under
hopes of the poor. Yet its direct control are described.
the republican idea and Napoleon as Consul The burdensome taxation and
principles of liberty, colonial exploitative policies of
equality and fraternity continued to influence England, depriving the colonies of
generations to come. their autonomy and independence are
discussed.
Impact of French Revolution
The proclamation of the colonists
The French Revolution had many lasting ‘No Taxation without Representation’
results. It marked the end of the system of prompting England to declare war
absolute monarchy in France. All feudal against the colonies is explained.
privileges were abolished and the power of
clergy was curbed. The Revolution united the The import of tea against the protest
people of different sections and paved the way of colonies triggered a revolt in Boston
for the enhanced power of the state. It also led leading to the outbreak of American
to the growth of feelings of nationalism and War of Independence.
the emergence of an assertive middle class. The important battles at Lexington,
Revolution upheld the theory of people’ Bunker Hill and York Town between
sovereignty and laid the foundation for the the Colonists and the British forces are
birth of liberal constitutional governments highlighted.
in Europe. Liberty, equality, and fraternity The Continental Congress Meet in 1774
became the watchwords of freedom loving and the adoption of the Declaration
people all over the world and inspired of American Rights, as well as the
many later day political movements for Second Continental Congress giving
the establishment of liberal democracy in the command of the army to George
Europe and elsewhere. Washington are detailed.
The surrender of Lord Cornwallis who
commanded the British forces and the
signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783,
that recognized the independence
of the United States of America, are
elaborated.
II The French Revolution

The outbreak of French Revolution
in the wake of summoning of Estates
General by Louis XVI is explored.

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Timeline
The privileged life of the nobility
and the clergy is contrasted with the Meeting of the
wretched conditions of peasantry, 5 May 1789
Estates General
artisans and other sections of
commoners who formed the Third Third Estate
Estate. becomes
17 June 1789
the National
The role of French Philosophers in
Assembly
creating consciousness and inspiring
the revolutionaries to revolt against the Tennis Court
unpopular monarchy is highlighted. 20 June 1789
Oath
The Tennis Court Oath of members
National
of the Third Estate followed by events
Assembly
like storming of the Bastille and the
9 July 1789 becomes the
historic march of women to Versailles
Constituent
are explained.
Assembly
The National Convention turning
against Robespierre and sending him Storming of the
14 July 1789
to guillotine is related. Bastille
Setting up of Directory followed by Declaration of
Consulate and grabbing of power 27 August 1789 the Rights of
by Napoleon Bonaparte who later Man and Citizen
declared himself the French monarch
are summed up. Paris mob
5 & 6 October 1789 marching to
Though the rise of Napoleon Versailles
marked the end of the revolution,
the revolutionary ideals of ‘Liberty, Flight of the King
20 & 21 June 1790
Equality and Fraternity’ continued to to Varennes
inspire many later political movements
and laid the foundation for the Meeting of
emergence of liberal democracy in 10 August 1792 the National
Europe and elsewhere. Convention
September
2 & 3 September 1792
Massacres
Execution of
21 January 1793
Louis XVI
Execution of
27 July 1794
Robespierre

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8. The moderate liberals who wanted to

EXERCISE retain Louis XVI as a limited monarchy
were called .
a. Girondins b. Jacobins
I. C
hoose the
correct answer c. Emigres d. Royalists
9. American War of Independence was
1. The first British colony
ended with the Peace of Paris in the year
in America was .
.
a. New York b Philadelphia
a. 1776 b. 1779
c. Jamestown d. Amsterdam
c. 1781 d. 1783
2. The pioneer of French Revolution who
10. Thomas Paine’s famous pamphlet was
fought on the side of Washington against
.
the British was .
a. Common Sense
a. Mirabeau b. Lafayette
b. Rights of Man
c. Napoleon d. Danton
c. Bill of Rights
3. Lafayette, Thomas Jefferson and
Mirabeau wrote the . d. Abolition of Slavery
a. Declaration of Independence
b. Declaration of Pilnitz
1. The Postmaster General of the Postal
c. D
eclaration of Rights of Man and
Citizen Department of the government of
second Continental Congress was .
d. Human Rights Charter
2. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on
4. The defeat of British at
.
paved the way for the friendship
between France and America. 3. The Act insisted on
repaying the debt in gold or silver.
a. Trenton b. Saratoga
c. Pennsylvania d. New York 4. The leader of National Assembly of
France was .
5. was the symbol of
“Royal Despotism” in France. 5. was guillotined for organizing
a Festival o f Liberty a nd Reason.
a. Versailles Palace
6. Louis XVI was arrested at
b. Prison of Bastille
with his family when
c. Paris Commune
he tried to escape from France.
d. Estates General
6. The forces of Austria and Prussia were III. C
hoose the correct
defeated by the French Revolutionary statement
forces at . 1. i) The Portuguese were the pioneers of
a. Verna b. Versailles naval expeditions.
c. Pilnitz d. Valmy ii) New Plymouth was named after the
7. Candide was written by Quaker Penn.
. iii)
Q uakers have the reputation of
a. Voltaire b. Rousseau encouraging wars.
c. Montesquieu d. Danton iv) The English changed the name of
New Amsterdam to New York.

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a. i & ii are correct IV. Match the following

b. iii is correct 1. John Winthrop - France Finance
c. iv is correct Minister
d. i & iv are correct 2. Turgot - July 4
he American War of Independence
2. i) T 3. The Spirit of laws - Britain and France
was as much a civil war as a war 4. Marie Antoinette - Massachusetts Bay
against the British.
5. Seven years war - Louis XVI
ii) The British forces emerged victorious
6. American - Montesquieu
in York Town.
Independence Day
iii) The nobles in France were supportive
of the rising middle class. V. A
nswer the following
iv) The British Parliament repealed the questions briefly
Townshend Act except the tax on
1. Who were Puritans? Why did they leave
paper.
England?
a. i & ii are correct
2. What do you know about the Quakers?
b. iii is correct
3. Point out the significance of “the Boston
c. iv is correct Tea Party”.
d. i & iv are correct
4. Attempt an account of “September
3. Assertion (A): Merchants of Boston Massacres”.
boycotted the British goods 5. Explain the composition of “Three
Reason (R): The British Finance Estates of France”.
Minister introduced new duties on 6. Sketch the role of Lafayette in the French
imports into American colonies Revolution.
a. A
is correct and R is not the 7. What was the background for the
explanation of A storming of Bastille Prison?
b. A
is incorrect and R is not the 8. What were the taxes the peasants had to
explanation of A pay in France on the eve of Revolution?
c. A
is correct and R is the
explanation of A VI. Answer in detail
d. Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are incorrect
1. “Taxation without Representation” led
4. Assertion (A): There was a massive to the outbreak of American War of
peasant revolt in the Vendee against Independence – Explain
conscriptions.
2. Highlight the contribution of French
Reason (R): The peasants as supporters Philosophers to the Revolution of 1789
of the king did not like to fight against
him.
a. Both A and R are incorrect
b. Both A and R are correct
c. A is correct and R is incorrect
d. A is incorrect and R is correct

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FUN WITH HISTORY REFERENCES

Student Activities 1. George Brown Tindall and David E. Shi,
If any Government becomes bankrupt America: A Narrative History, Vol. I,
like the Government of Louis XVI, what W.W. Norton, New York, 1993.
measures do you think are required to 2. John A. Garraty, A Short History of
overcome the crisis. the American Nation, Harper Collins
Attempt a comparative study of American College Publishers, New York, 1993.
War of Independence and Indian 3. James A. Henrietta, et al., America’s
Independence Movement. History, Vol. 1, Worth Publishers, New
York, 1997.
guidance
History, Penguin, 2004.
Attempting an account of Bastille prison.
Reading the essence of Les Miserable 5. Chris Harman, The People’s History of
(a historical novel by Victor Hugo) the World, Orient Longman, 2007.
6. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution,
1789-1848, Vintage Books, New York, 1996.
7. Edward MacNall Burns, World
Civilizations, Vol. II, W.W. Norton, 1968.
8. David Thomson, Europe Since Napoleon,
Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1990.
9. C.D.M. Ketelbey, A History of
Modern Times since 1789, OUP, New
Delhi, 1997
ICT CORNER
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS
Through this activity you will know

the States in their proper location on
the map of United States of America.
Procedure
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step - 2 Click the game icon to enter the game page
Step-3 Click the Place of States game
Step-4
Drag and put the States in their proper location on the map
URL:
https://bensguide.gpo.gov/ (or) scan the QR Code
Pictures are as indicators only

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UNIT
Industrial Revolution
10
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with
The essential features of Industrial Revolution in 18th century England
Favourable Conditions prevailing in England for the Industrial Revolution
Inventions that facilitated revolution in textile production
Steel industry quickening the processes of industrialisation in England
Rise of working class movement and its consequences in England
Second Industrial Revolution in France, Germany and America
Great Rail Road Strike and Hay Market Massacre in the US
Impact of Industrial Revolution in India
Introduction
In the latter half of the 18th Century major society and politics. Society transformed
changes occurred in the method of production from an agrarian and handicraft economy
that changed the history of humankind. This to one dominated by factory and machine-
profound transformation is described as production. Starting in England first, it
the Industrial Revolution. Goods began to spread to other parts of the world. Although
produced not by hand but by machines. This it used earlier by French writers, but the term
increased the volume of goods produced Industrial Revolution was popularized by the
exponentially. The changes were not only English economic historians to denote Britain’s
economic but made a profound impact on economic development from 1760 to 1840.
10. Industrial Revolution 130

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10.1 Attributes of Invention of Steam Power

Industrial Revolution In the 18th Century, British mine-owners
were faced with the problem of water seeping
Use of new basic into the mines. Water had to be removed to
materials: iron and steel extract coal. So they employed additional
Use of new energy labourers to pump the water out. Employing
s ou rc e s : coal, human labour cost a lot of money. It was at
electricity, petroleum that juncture the British engineer, Thomas
Invention of new Newcomen invented a contrive to pump the
machines such as the spinning jenny water out of mines. But the mechanism he
and the power loom that increased the developed consumed too much fuel. James Watt,
production with a minimum expending a Scottish engineer, converted a stationary
of human energy steam engine to a rotary engine which
Emergence of a new organization consumed less fuel.
known as the factory system, which
entailed increased division of labour and
specialisation of work
Development in transportation and
communication
Increasing application of science to
industry
The use of new technology
Beginnings
The Industrial Revolution began in
England first because, it had certain external
factors. They were:
England had abundant resources and
possessed colonies, with “India being the
A scene in an English factory
brightest jewel in the British Crown”
Access to coal, iron and raw cotton from Development in Textiles
the colonies Before the Industrial Revolution, the
England possessed the required spinning and weaving of cloth were undertaken
infrastructure for textiles, developed by for domestic and local consumption. It was
immigrant artisans from the Netherlands done at home or in a small hired place. The
England had a developed banking system, production also took place on a cottage
a growing entrepreneurial class, and scale. The manually operated spinning wheel
potential investors required four to eight spinners to supply yarn
to one handloom weaver. In 1733 John Kay
Encouragement of the Royal Society of
invented the ‘Flying Shuttle’ which, when
England for scientific discoveries and
operated by hand, increased the speed of the
inventions
weaving of cloth. In 1764 James Hargreaves
Political stability of England to bestow its invented ‘the spinning jenny’. This machine
full attention to industrial growth spun eight threads at one and the same time.
Two years later Richard Arkwright invented
131 10. Industrial Revolution

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the ‘waterframe’. This spinning frame used Iron and Steel

water power in the place of manpower. The
The rolling mill (machine for rolling steel
‘waterframe’ was too big to be run at home.
or any other metal into sheets) proved to be
Thus was born the factory. In 1779 Samuel
fifteen times faster than hammering wrought
Crompton invented his ‘spinning mule’ which
iron. Hot blast greatly increased fuel efficiency
included a combination of both the ‘spinning
in iron production. In 1856, Henry Bessemer
jenny’ and the ‘water frame’. It spun hundreds
discovered a faster and cheaper method of
of threads simultaneously and produced eight
producing steel. In course of time, iron and steel
fine and coarse threads. Eli Whitney invented
came to be used in making all machines and in
the cotton gin in 1793, removing the seed
all industries.
from the cotton.
John Kay James Hargreaves Iron and steel industry

Mining
Textile manufacture was at the heart of the The development of factories by
Industrial Revolution. Over a span of fifty years, Arkwright and the improvement of the steam
the textile manufacturing industry in Britain engine by James Watt further increased
witnessed a transformation in the method of demand for coal. As a result, coal mines
production from handmade to machine-made became deeper and deeper, making it more
goods. The newly invented machines enabled and more dangerous. As miners used oil
factories to produce textile goods in large lamps in the mines the risk of explosion was
quantities. Derbyshire, Lancashire, Cheshire, high leading to the death of miners. This was
Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire, and Yorkshire reduced by the invention of a safety lamp by
became the major factory centres. The most Sir Humphrey Davy in 1815.
notable was Manchester which had more than
50 mills in 1802. These factories involved The coal production in England increased
in mass production were organized on the from 4.7 million tonnes in 1750 to 250
principle of division of labour. million tonnes in 1900.
Lancashire Coal mines

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Transportation and 10.2 Effects of Industrial

Communication
Revolution in England
Industrial Revolution was dependent on
Industrial Revolution led to the expansion
good transportation. As production increased
of trade, the production of more food,
raw materials had to be brought from afar to
emergence of factory workers as a new class.
the factories. After the goods were produced
The rise and growth of cities resulting in
they had to be transported to the markets. As
rapid urbanisation and organised working-
a result new networks of canals, roads and
class movements, seeking voting rights and
railroads were built. Macadamised roads and
regulation of their service conditions, brought
George Stephenson’s steam locomotive helped
about a new dynamics in politics.
to improve road and railway transport system
in the country. Impact on Environment and
John Loudon McAdam was a pioneering Living Conditions
Scottish Engineer who single-handedly The use of chemicals and fossil fuels that
changed the way roads were built around the replaced wind, water and firewood resulted in
world. Macadamised road came to be adopted increased air and water pollution. The Industrial
world over. Revolution marked a major turning point in
The railways date back to sixth century earth’s ecology and humans’ relationship with
B.C. (BCE) in Corinth, Greece. They were the environment.
man or animal driven. In the sixteenth The Industrial Revolution helped create
century Germany had horse-powered rail opportunities for employment for all members
transport. Modern rail transport commenced of the family. However, the life for the labouring
with the British development of the steam class was miserable. Children were employed
locomotives in the early 19th century. The in textile mills because they worked for lower
first railway line in England was opened wages. In 1842, the British Parliament published
between Stockton and Darlington in 1825. a report about the state of coal mining – the
In the next forty years15000 miles of railway Mines Report .
network was completed. Robert Fulton of the
Safety was very poor in early industrial
US invented the steamboat called Clermont
factories and mines. The injuries from machinery
in 1807 that sailed from New York to Albany,
would vary from mild burns, arm and leg injuries,
covering 150 miles. After a few years,
to whole fingers to be cut off, or amputation of
steamboats carrying cargo shuttled on the
limbs and even death.
rivers and coastlines. By 1830, the 40 miles
between Manchester and Liverpool could be The housing was tiny, dirty, and sickly for
covered in an hour and a half. the labouring class. Workers had no time to clean
or change their own atmosphere even if they
wished to, leading to the outbreak of typhoid,
cholera, and smallpox.
Urbanisation
With the advent of the Industrial
Revolution, England became the workshop
of the world. There was however, a general
decline in agriculture. This resulted in the flow
of population from villages to industrial towns.
The railways
Population growth, migration and urbanisation

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were the major social changes taking place qualification for members of the parliament,
during this period. In pre-industrial society, annual parliamentary elections and equal
over 80% of people lived in rural areas. As representation.
the migration from the countryside began to
intensify, small towns became large cities. The 10.3 Spread of Industrial
city of London grew from a population of two Revolution
million in 1840 to five million in forty years. Industrial Revolution in France
Manchester’s cool climate was ideal
for textile production. Further it was situated France did not possess as much natural
close to the port of Liverpool and the coalfields resources as England. The political instability
of Lancashire. Manchester became the textile caused by the French Revolution and the
capital of the world, drawing huge numbers of prolonged Napoleonic Wars wrecked the
migrants to the city. In 1771, Manchester was country. Many of those French businessmen
a sleepy town of 22,000 people. Over the next who had sought refuge in Britain during the
fifty years, its population exploded and reached Revolution, on their return to France after
upto 180,000. Napoleonic Wars, used British technology. This
helped to accomplish industrial revolution in
Socio-economic Consequences their country. The adoption of British-made
While the peasants were pauperized and spindles led to a two-fold increase in French
the working class suffered, the middle class textile production during 1830-1860.
became wealthy by investing capital in trade The Francois de Wendel family brought
and industry. The governments of the day were British technology to Lorraine. The family
influenced by them. All legislations safeguarded introduced steam engine in coal mining and
their interests. Labourers were not permitted puddling kilns for iron smelting. By the 1860s the
to form trade unions. It was under these de Wendel family employed over 10,000 workers.
circumstances that Socialism as a new ideology By diversifying its business, it entered other
was born in Europe. Karl Marx advocated heavy industries such as railroad construction
scientific socialism for the protection of the and shipbuilding.
working class from the exploitative policies
The town of
of the capitalist class. By the latter half of the
Mulhouse in the
nineteenth century there were strong working
province of Alsace rose
class movements all over western Europe which
to prominence for its
demanded economic as well as political rights.
dyes that brought many
Labour Movement designers there. From this
The Reform Bill of 1832 granted voting foundation, Mulhouse
rights only to the propertied middle class. diversified into the
Frustrated by this, the working class in a large growing heavy industry
gathering prepared a charter of demands and of the region and became
obtained signatures from millions of fellow prominent as a maker Francois de Wendel
workers. The charter was presented to the House of machines. Saint-
of Commons (the English Lower house in the Chamond saw developments in iron production.
Parliament, England). Known as Chartism, this In 1820, the British technology of refining cast iron
working class movement was active between began to be used in this town.
1836 and 1848. The Chartists called for voting In 1832, the first French railroad, St. Etienne–
rights to every man over twenty-one years of Andrezieux line was opened. Numerous railroad
age, secret ballot (voting), abolition of property lines followed. By the end of the nineteenth

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century France had become prominent for Railroads served Germany well in its
its automobiles. The two biggest automobile industrial development as also in its Unification.
companies of today’s France were started in The first railroad line opened on December
1891. Arman Peaugot produced his first batch 1835 and ran between Nuremberg and Furth.
of automobiles. In 1898, Louis Renault built the In 1842, the Prussian government created
quadricycle, from which he began to produce in the Railway Fund in order to finance railroad
large quantities under his company, the Societe construction project. In Prussia, Berlin became
Renault Freres (Company Renault Brothers) a centre of the railroad network. Railroads
connected the members of the Zollverein and
made trade and commerce more vibrant.
With the use of steam engines, the number

of factories in Prussia grew from 419 in
1837 to 1,444 in 1849. The production of
coal increased from one million ton in
1820 to over 6 million in thirty years. From
Old model Renault cars 46,000 tons of iron produced in 1810, iron
production rose to 529,000 tons by 1850.
In 1806, agriculture employed about Railroads increased from 3,638 miles in
65.1% in France. It decreased to 42.5% in 1850 to a distance of 11,600 miles in 1870.
1896. During the same period industries
had grown in its share of employment from In 1871, Prussia finally united Germany.
20.4% in 1806 to 31.4% by 1896. Germany emerged as the most industrialised
country by the end of the 19th century.
Industrial Revolution in Germany
Germany surpassed the home of the
Germany had the natural resources industrial revolution, Great Britain, and
required for an industrial revolution. Large proved a competitor to the United States. In
coal reserves were located in the areas of Saar, electrics, Germany offered companies like
Ruhr, Upper Silesia, and Saxony. Iron was Siemens. In chemicals, Germany excelled
deposited in the areas of Erzgebirge, Harz in the production of potassium salt, dyes,
Mountains, and Upper Silesia again. pharmaceutical products, and synthetics.
Germany’s main challenge was its feudal Companies like Bayer and Hoechst led the
socio-political structure, perpetuating the chemical industry of Germany. Germany
practice of serfdom and their unhelpful became a leader in automobile industry.
licensure policies for establishing factories. Daimler and Benz became the most popular
In addition, only two major ports, Bremen brands of automobiles in Germany and the
and Hamburg, had clear and secure access world.
to the North Sea. But the most significant
challenge to Germany’s industrial revolution
was its political setup. Before 1871 Germany
was made of numerous German states with
Prussia being the biggest.
Cartel is an association of manufacturers

or suppliers with the purpose of maintaining
prices at a higher level and of restricting
competition. Daimler Company

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10.4 Second Industrial After the Civil War, industrialisation

Revolution in United went on at a frantic pace. In 1869, the first
States of America transcontinental railroad was completed to
transport people, raw materials and products.
A shift from manual labour-based to more There was unprecedented urbanisation and
technical and machine-based manufacturing territorial expansion in the US. As a result,
industry marked the Industrial Revolution in the between 1860 and 1900, fourteen million
United States. Samuel Slater, a citizen of England, immigrants came to the country, providing
having worked at a cotton mill from age 10, had workers for a variety of industries. The
gained enough experience to operate a mill. On invention of electric bulb by Thomas Alva
learning that Americans were interested in the Edison (1879) and telephone by Alexander
new techniques, Slater departed for New York in Graham Bell (1876) changed the world
1789 illegally. Slater offered his services to Moses beyond recognition.
Brown, a leading Rhode Island industrialist, who
Andrew Carnegie
had earlier made an unsuccessful attempt to
established the first steel
operate a mill. Brown agreed and in consequence
mills in the U.S for mass
the mill became operational in 1793, being the
production. He acquired
first water-powered roller spinning textile mill
business interests in the
in the Americas. By 1800, Slater’s mill had been
mines that produced
duplicated by many other entrepreneurs as
the raw materials for
Slater grew wealthier and his techniques more
steel, the mills and John D. Rockefeller
and more popular. Andrew Jackson, the U.S.
ovens that created the
President hailed him as “Father of the American
final product and the railroad and shipping
Industrial Revolution.”
lines that transported goods, thus controlling
every aspect of the steelmaking process.
John D. Rockefeller merged the operation of
many large companies to form a trust. His
Standard Oil Trust came to monopolise 90%
of the industry and reduced competition.
These monopolies affected the smaller
companies and even threatened them. The
Samuel Slater Andrew Jackson U.S. government supported the industrial
growth by providing land for construction
The United States in the nineteenth century
of railroads and protected the American
began to show technological innovation. Robert
industry from foreign competition.
Fulton established the steamboat service on the
Hudson River. Samuel F.B. Morse’s invention The Industrial Revolution quickened the
of the telegraph and Elias Howe’s invention of process of the transition of the United States
the sewing machine came before the Civil war from a rural to an urban society. Young people
(1860–1865). raised on farms saw greater opportunities in
the cities and moved there, as did millions of
In 1846, an American, Elias Howe immigrants from Europe. Providing housing
invented the ‘sewing machine’ to stitch for all the new residents of cities was a problem,
clothes. With the invention of new methods and many workers found themselves living
of bleaching, dyeing and printing, cloth with in urban slums; open sewers ran alongside
different colours could be produced during the streets, and the water supply was often
the early half of 19th century. contaminated, causing disease.

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10.5 Working Class Strikes by a combination of vigilantes, National

Guardsmen, and Federal Army.
T h e
difficult Haymarket Massacre
w or k i n g A labour protest took place on 4 May
conditions in 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. What
the factories, began as a peaceful rally in support of workers
long hours striking for an eight-hour day resulted in the
of work, killing of several workers by the police. To
Railroad Strike of 1877
low wages, commemorate the Haymarket Affair 1 May
exploitation of women 1887 is observed as the Labour Day or May
and children contributed Day or International Worker’s Day.
to the growth of labour
unions. After the Civil
War, workers organized
strikes. One major strike
was the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. Wage
cuts in the railroad industry, in the context
of a prolonged economic depression, led
to the strike, which began in West Virginia
and spread to three additional states over
a period of 45 days before being crushed
Haymarket Massacre
10.6 Important Inventions of the Industrial Revolution Era

Inventions Inventor Year
Blast Furnace (Iron & Steel) Abraham Darby 1709

Steam Engine Thomas Newcomer 1712
Flying Shuttle (Textiles) John Kay 1733
Improved Darby Process (Iron & Steel) John Smeaton 1760
Spinning Jenny (Textiles) James Hargreaves 1764
Spinning Frame (Waterframe) (Textiles) Richard Arkwright 1769
Newcomen’s Steam Engine Redesigned James Watt 1769
Spinning Mule (Textiles) Samuel Crompton 1779
Power Loom (Textiles) Edmund Cartwright 1785
Cotton Gin (Textiles) Eli Whitney 1793
Puffing Devil (the first steam powered locomotive) Richard Trevithick 1801
Air Pump (in Mines) John Bundle 1807
The Butcher (Locomotive) George Stephenson 1814
Safety Lamp (for Mining) Humphrey Davy 1815

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Telegraph; Morse Code (Communication) Samuel Morse 1844

Sewing Machine (Textiles) Elias Howe 1846
Cheaper method of Making Steel Henry Bessemer 1856
(Iron & Steel)
Telephone Alexander Graham Bell 1876
Incandescent Electric Bulb Thomas Alva Edison 1879
Wireless Signals (Communication) Marconi 1899
10.7 Impact of Industrial flooding of British factory-made cheap cotton

fabrics in Indian markets.
Revolution in India
The Collector of Madurai reported that
Until the middle of eighteenth century, families of about 5000 weavers did not have the
England was an agricultural country and India means to take more than one meal of rice a day. The
was known for its excellence in manufactures Collector of Tirunelveli observed that the weaving
as well as in agriculture. In the first quarter of population has ‘outrun its means of subsistence
eighteenth century, in the context of Indian and trammels of caste prevent them from taking
cotton manufactures flooding in England, a to other work.’ Millions died of starvation in
law was enacted prohibiting the use of Indian famines. To escape starvation deaths, peasants and
calicoes and silks. The invention of flying artisans had to move out of the country opting to
shuttle by John Kay and the inventions of working on plantations in British Empire colonies
Hargreaves, Arkwright and Crompton within as indentured (penal contract) labourers under
thirty years accelerated the process of spinning wretched service and living conditions.
and weaving. When the British established
their foothold in Bengal as a territorial power,
the loot from Bengal and the Carnatic provided Recap
the required capital and helped accomplish The main attributes of Industrial
Industrial Revolution in England. The weavers Revolution are presented
of Bengal suffered at the hands of the Company’s
Reasons for Industrial Revolution
officials and their agents, who first insisted on
taking place first in England are
payment of a transit duty for the commodities
explained
they carried from one place to another and later
for cultivation of commercial crops required for Inventions leading to development in
British industries in England. Because of loss textiles are discussed
of market for hand-woven cotton goods, India Use of iron and steel leading to
lost her old industrial position and became an mechanisation of all industries and
exporter of raw material. the rapid changes in transport and
By the first quarter of nineteenth century communication are detailed
the export of Dacca muslin to England Impact of Industrial Revolution on
stopped. Even the export of raw cotton environment and living conditions are
from India had steadily dwindled owing to highlighted
the competition from USA. Weavers who Spread of Industrial Revolution in
were eking out an independent livelihood France, Germany and America are
were thrown out of employment because of dwelt at length

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6. Which of the following is observed

Labour movement and the repressive
measures of the state in the US are to commemorate the Hay Market
particularly focused to demonstrate Massacre?
that the rights of working class were a. Independence Day
obtained after struggles and sacrifices b. Farmers Day
c. Labour Day
d. Martyrs Day
EXERCISE
7. Where was Zollverein Customs Union
formed?
I. C
hoose the a. England
correct answer b. Germany
1. Who established the first steam boat c. France
service? d. America
a. Arkwright 8. Who produced the first batch of
b. Samuel Crompton automobiles in France?
c. Robert Fulton a. Louis Renault
d. James Watt b. Armand Peugeot
2. Why was Manchester considered ideal c. Thomas Alva Edison
for textile production? d. McAdam
a. availability of land 9. What was the invention that removed
b. rich human resources seeds from cotton?
c. better living condition a. Rolling Mill
d. cool climate b. Cotton Gin
3. Who invented the sewing machine? c. Spinning Mule
a. Elias Howe d. Spinning Jenny
b. Eli–Whitney 10. Which of the following was
c. Samuel Crompton used as fuel in olden days to smelt iron?
d. Humphrey Davy a. Coke b. Charcoal
4. Which family introduced steam engine c. Firewood d. Paper
in France?
a. de Wendel II. Fill in the Blanks
b. de Hindal 1. called for voting
c. de Arman rights to men in England.
d. de Renault 2. changed the way
5. Who called Slater, the father of American roads were built around the world.
Industrial Revolution? 3. discovered a faster
a. F.D. Roosevelt and cheaper method of production of
steel.
b. Andrew Jackson
c. Winston Churchill 4. advocated scientific
socialism.
d. Woodrow Wilson
5. The first railroad line started in Germany
was in the year .

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III. F
ind out the correct a)
A is correct and R is the correct
statement explanation of A
1. i) British mine–owners were faced with
b)
A is wrong and R is the correct
the problem of water seeping into explanation of A
their mines c) Both A and R are wrong
ii) Employing human labour was cheap d) Both A and R are correct
for this work
iii) Newton invented a steam engine to IV. Match the following
pump water out of mines 1. Benz – U.S.A
iv) Water had to be removed to get coal 2. Safety Lamp – Louis Renault
in mines
3. Quadricycle – Humphrey Davy
a. (i) is correct
4. Great Railroad Strike – Lancashire
b. (ii) and (iii) are correct
5. Coalfield – Germany
d. iii) is correct
V. A
nswer the following
2. i) Trade Unions were formed by questions briefly
labourers to get their rights
1. What was the condition of labourers’
ii) G ermany ’s political setup was the
houses during Industrial Revolution?
most significant challenge for the
industrial revolution 2. Account for urbanisation in England
iii) To protect capitalists Karl Marx 3. Attempt a note on Haymarket Massacre
advocated socialism 4. What do you know of Louis Renault?
iv) There were no natural resources in 5. Highlight any two important results of
Germany
Industrial Revolution.
a. (i) is correct
b. (ii) and (iii) are correct VI. Answer in Detail
1. Enumerate the causes for the Second
d. iii) is correct Industrialization in the USA.
3. Assertion (A): Workers had rights to
2. What were the effects of Industrial
get holidays.
Revolution of England on India?
Reason (R): There were laws to protect
the workers.
a) A is correct R is wrong
b) Both A & R are wrong
c) Both A and R are correct
d) A is correct R is not correct explanation
of A
4. Assertion (A): Slater was called the
Father of the American Industrial
Revolution.
Reason (R): His spinning textile mill
was duplicated and his techniques
became popular.

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FUN WITH HISTORY REFERENCES

Student Activities 1. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution,
Organize a debate on the positive and 1789-1848, Phoenix Press, London, 1961
negative aspects of Industrial Revolution. 2. Eric Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire:
Prepare a list of fabrics and designs and the The Birth of the Industrial Revolution,
places of production in India. The New Press, 1999.
Assignment with teacher’s 3. Peter N Streams, The Industrial Revolution

guidance in World History, Routledge, 2018.
Collect the pictures of the inventions made 4. James E. Swain, A History of World
at the time of Industrial Revolution. Civilization, Vol. I & II, McGraw Hill
Write an assignment on the modern plastic Book Co, 1947.
road being made by used- plastics.
5. J.H. Nelson , The Madura Country: A
Manual (1868)
6. A.J. Stewart, A Manual of the Tinnevelly

District in the Presidency of Madras (1879).
ICT CORNER
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Through this activity you will know

about the world historic events
through interactive timeline.
Procedure
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 Click Search option and enter any Timeline (Ex. Industrial Revolution)
Step-3 Click on full screen mode
Step-4 Explore the Timeline events with pictorial descriptions.
URL:
https://www.timetoast.com/categories (or) scan the QR Code
Pictures are as indicators only

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UNIT Colonialism in Asia

and Africa
11
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with
The territories forming South East Asia
Establishment of colonies by the Portuguese, the Spanish, the Dutch, the French,
the British and the Americans
Impact of colonisation on the Malaya Peninsula, Indonesia, Burma, Indo-China,
Philippines
Conquest of Africa, and the colonial regimes of the Dutch, the British, the Portuguese,
the Germans, and the Belgians
British colonisation of India and colonial control of Indian economy
Economic impact of British rule in India
Introduction
usually involved the transfer of population
Colonialism is a process of domination, to a new territory, where the arrivals lived
involving the subjugation of one people by as permanent settlers while maintaining
another. Like colonialism, imperialism also political allegiance to their country of origin.
involves political and economic control Imperialism, on the other hand, (from the
over a dependent territory. The Stanford Latin term imperium, meaning to command)
Encyclopaedia of Philosophy differentiates the draws attention to the way one country
two as follows: The term colony comes from exercises power over another, whether
the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer. This through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect
root indicates that the practice of colonialism mechanisms of control.
11. Colonialism in Asia and Africa 142

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In World history, no continent possessed succession disputes among the neighbouring

so many colonies and justified their access to sultans. Gradually they extended their control
the world by means of a civilising mission as over Java, expelling the British from Bantam in
did modern Europe. Practically the whole non- 1682. They had already driven them out of the
Western world was under one European power Spice islands after the Massacre of Amboina
or the other for about four centuries until (1623) and by the seizure of Macassar (1667),
decolonisation happened after World War II. thereby forcing the English East India Company
In this lesson we discuss the colonisation to turn to the China trade. The Spanish
of South East Asia, Africa and India by established themselves, beginning from their
European powers. conquest of Manila, which expanded into a
larger territory of Spanish East Indies.
11.1 Colonisation of Asia
(South East Asia)
South East Asia
The term “South East Asia” has only been
used since the Second World War. It denotes
the area that originally covered Malaya,
Dutch East Indies, Burma, Siam, French
Indo-China and the Philippines. With the
exception of Siam (Thailand), which remained
independent, the area was divided between
the Dutch, the British and the French.
Malaya Peninsula Albuquerque

When European traders crossed the Indian Anglo-Dutch Rivalry
Ocean at the close of the 15th century, they
Penang Island had been brought to the
came for the spices of south-east Asia. When the
attention of the East India Company by Francis
Portuguese conquered the great international
Light. In 1786, the settlement of George Town
emporium of Malacca for the king of Portugal,
was founded at the north eastern tip of Penang
the empires of SriVijaya and Majapahit had
Island; this marked the beginning of British
split into many small states. Albuquerque, the
expansion into the Malay Peninsula. In 1819,
Portuguese soldier who conquered Goa and
Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key
Malacca, and his successors were interested
trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the
in the spice trade. Towards this end they built
Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824
a chain of fortified trading stations linked by
when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their
naval power. Initially they did not interfere
respective interests in Southeast Asia. By 1826
with the native rulers. After the arrival of the
Singapore and Malacca had been linked with
Dutch and the English there was a challenge
Penang to form the Strait Settlements.
to the presence of Portuguese and the rivalry
of these three European powers dominated the Between 1874 and 1895 there was a
seventeenth century. civil war between the remaining five Malay
States. The British intervened and signed an
The Dutch began their conquest of the
agreement with each of the sultans. British
Portuguese settlements by capturing Malacca
Residents were appointed to the courts
in 1641. After establishing a base at Batavia
of sultans, who had to act in accordance
(now Djakarta) in 1619, they interfered in
143 11. Colonialism in Asia and Africa

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with the advice given by the Residents. under their control by 1887. Indo-China
In 1896 four of the states were formed into the consisted of Annam, Tongking, Cambodia
Federated Malay States. In 1900 there were and Cochin-China. Laos was added six years
the Straits Settlements, the four Federated later. Of them only Cochin-China was directly
Malay States and Johore. The population was under French control, i.e., as a French colony.
about a million, of whom, half were Malay The remaining four were protectorates. Under
and the remainder were Chinese. Most of this system, the local rulers remained, but they
the merchants, planters and workers in the governed under the instructions of French
ports and big plantations were Chinese. Residents. Hanoi was the capital of the French
Economically Malaya was prosperous. government. Rice, rubber and wheat were the
main exports. Laos remained undeveloped.
Indonesia
The Dutch had occupied Java and Sumatra
(Indonesia) as early as 1640. But they conquered
the other outer islands of East India only in the
second half of the nineteenth century, excepting
the British possession of North Borneo, Brunei
and Sarawak. Initially the Dutch were not
interested in politics but focused on exploiting
Indonesia ruthlessly. But from the beginning of
the twentieth century they adopted measures
for the social and economic advance of the
people they governed. Most Indonesians were French in Indo-China
fishermen and small peasants and worked on
The Philippines
European sugar, tobacco, tea, coffee plantations.
Heavy investments in these plantations and
other concerns, and the discovery of oil in 1900
made Indonesia a valuable colony for the Dutch.
Burma
The British conquered Burma after
fighting three wars. Burma remained part
of India from 1886 to 1937. Burma was
administered by a Lieutenant Governor with
the assistance of a nominated Legislative
Council. Burma teak was shipped overseas. Spanish in Philippines
In addition, Burma with its fertility of soil Spain ruled the Philippines for over 300
became a big exporter of rice and most of years, imposing its language, culture and
south India was dependent on Burmese rice. religion. Consequently the population became
During World War II when Burma fell to predominantly Roman Catholic. Nationalism
the Japanese, south India experienced acute developed among the Filipinos during the latter
scarcity of rice leading to a famine. part of the nineteenth century. There were two
serious revolts in 1872 and 1896, which were
Indo-China
crushed by the Spanish colonial government.
The French conquered Indo-China after In 1898, however, Spain was defeated by the
strong resistance from the people. Starting in United States in a war over Cuba, and as a
1858, they brought the Indo-Chinese Union result Philippines became an American colony.

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Siam (Thailand) known as the Boers) held the states of the

Transvaal and Orange Free State. In 1886
Thailand was spared the experience of
the discovery of gold in the Transvaal led
foreign rule, though it too was greatly affected
to a large number of British miners settling
by the power politics of the Western powers.
in and around Johannesburg. The Boers
The administrative reforms of the late 19th
feared and hated the miners whom they
century, continuing up till around 1910,
called Uitlanders (foreigners). In 1890, Cecil
imposed a Westernised form of government on
Rhodes, the Prime Minister of Cape Colony,
the country’s partially independent cities called
encouraged British expansion to the north of
'Mueang'. Western powers, however, continued
the Transvaal. This worsened the relations
to interfere in its internal and external affairs.
between the Boers and the British. Denied
of their political rights the British miners
11.2 Colonisation of Africa revolted. This led to the Boer War which
Until the last quarter of nineteenth lasted three years (1899-1902). In the end
century, Africa south of the Sahara (Sub- the Boer army was defeated and Pretoria was
Saharan Africa) was almost unknown to occupied. The British annexed the two Boer
the outside world. The interior of Africa was states but promised self government in due
unexplored. After 1875, European penetration course. Boer states were given full responsible
and colonisation began on a large scale. government in 1907. After discussions over
The Berlin Colonial Conference of 1884- the years the four states finally decided to
85 resolved to divide Africa into spheres of form a union and South Africa was created
influence of the various European powers. as a state in 1909.
European colonisation of Africa was thus
accomplished smoothly, without any outbreak
of war amongst major European powers.
The invasion, occupation, colonisation and
annexation of African territories by European
powers between 1881 and 1914, the era of
Imperialism, is called the Scramble for Africa
or the Partition of Africa.
Boer War
The Berlin Conference of 1884–85, The Zulu tribe
also known as the Congo Conference or was known for its
West Africa Conference, met to decide st rong f i g ht i ng
all issues connected with the Congo River spirit, represented by
basin in Central Africa. The conference renowned warriors like
proposed by Portugal to discuss its claim to Shaka Zulu who played
control the Congo river basin was rejected. a prominent role in
The general act of the Conference of Berlin building the largest Zulu
declared the Congo River basin to be nation in south-eastern
neutral and guaranteed freedom for trade Africa. British troops
and shipping for all states in the basin. Shaka Zulu
invaded Zulu territory
and divided it into thirteen chiefdoms. The
South Africa Zulus never regained their independence and
In South Africa the British possessed had to fight against deeply entrenched racism
Natal, Cape Colony, while the Dutch (locally in South Africa for about a century.

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Rhodesia East Africa

The British South African Company British: In 1886 the possessions of the Sultan
founded in 1889 conducted an expedition with of Zanzibar were divided into British and
600 men- each of them were promised a 3,000 German spheres of influence. For the first few
acre farm. The African king was tricked into years, the British area was administered by
believing that all that the Europeans wanted the British East India Company, but in 1895
was gold. But they had come with a definite the British government assumed authority
plan of colonising the Bechuanaland. During and formed the East African Protectorate,
the next ten years African opposition was which included Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar.
crushed. White immigrants were provided A large part of Uganda was made up of
with farm lands and railways, and a telegraph Buganda, a kingdom ruled by Kabaka.
system developed. The colony came to be Germans: The Germans established their
called Rhodesia, after Cecil Rhodes. rule in what became German East Africa.
West Africa Like King Leopold in the Congo, the Africans
here were economically exploited, leading to
The coastal states of Gold Coast became a number of rebellions. The most serious was
a British colony in 1854. Nigeria was used for the Maji-Maji rebellion (1905-1907).
slave trading posts on the coast. In 1886 the
Royal Niger Company was formed which was Portuguese Angola and
taken over by the British government in 1900. Mozambique
French West: Senegal had been a French The Portuguese had used these two
base in West Africa. Her later possessions of colonies on the west and east coasts of
Guinea, Ivory Coast and Dahomey were linked southern Africa, along with Portuguese
up with the whole area of south of Sahara. Guinea since 16th century.
Congo: Leopold II, king of Belgium, showed African Rule in Liberia and Ethiopia
interest in Congo and so the Berlin Conference
agreed to the rule of Leopold in Congo Free Only two
State. This State was given a monopoly of the countries managed
trade in ivory and rubber, the two most valuable to evade European
products of the Congo. These products were colonialism – Liberia
collected with harshness. Africans were and Ethiopia. Liberia
subjected to forced labour. Each village was was formed in the
given a quota, and if quotas were not fulfilled, early 19 th century as
they were flogged and mutilated. The public a home for African
outcry over the economic exploitation of Blacks repatriated
Emperor Menelik
Africans persuaded the Belgian Government f rom America.
to inte r ve ne. Ethiopia, with its traditional polity, was ruled
Leopold was forced by the Emperor Menelik.
to relinquish his
“sovereign right” and 11.3 Colonisation of India
in 1908 sovereignty Towards the close of the 15th century,
over the Congo Portugal became the first European power to
passed from Leopold establish a trade link with India. Rounding the
to Belgium. Cape of Good Hope Vasco da Gama arrived in
Leopold II Calicut in 1498. Soon other European powers
joined Portugal in establishing their presence

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in India. The European powers in India since But soon it managed to establish strong ties
16th century are given below: with Indian merchants who sold their textiles
and other goods from the interior. Before
Portuguese 1505-1961 it gained dominion in India the East India
Company carried on a very profitable business
Dutch East India Company 1605-1825 selling Indian-made cotton textiles and silks
(Netherlands) and printed cloth. According to the Indian
Danish East India Company 1620-1869 nationalist economist R.C. Dutt, "weaving
(Denmark) was the national industry of the people
French East India Company 1668-1954 and spinning was the pursuit of millions of
women". Indian textiles went to England and
British East India Company 1612-1757
other parts of Europe, to China and Japan
British Company Rule 1757-1857 and Burma and Arabia and Persia and parts
of Africa. It was during this period that the
British Imperial Rule 1858-1947 textile lobby in Lancashire and Birmingham
succeeded in making the Parliament enact a
In the rivalry among four major European law prohibiting the import of Indian textiles.
powers – Portuguese, Dutch, French and Those who were
English – the English, after three Carnatic found in possession
Wars, eliminated the French by the end of the of or dealing in Indian
eighteenth century. The British conquered all cotton goods were
the regional powers, in particular the most fined 200 pounds.
potential challengers, the Mysore Sultans In the 1750s and
and the Marathas, by defeating them in three the early 1760s, Robert
Anglo-Mysore and three Anglo-Maratha Clive gained control
Wars. The conquest of the Gurkhas (1816), of the wealthiest part
Robert Clive
the Sindhis (1843) and the Sikhs (1849) of the old Mughal
enabled them to emerge as a territorial power Empire. The Company exacted concessions
in India. such as exemption of Company goods from
transit duties, which even Indian merchants
The Colonialisation of Indian
had to pay. After the Battle of Plassey (1757),
Economy
the Company got 1.2 million pounds out of
We can divide the process of the which Clive himself took 31,500 pounds
colonialisation of India into three phases besides a jagir which provided an annual
a. Phase I Mercantilist Capitalism income of 27,000 pounds. After the Battle of
Buxar (1764), the Murshidabad treasury was
b. Phase II Industrial Capitalism looted. The Company acquired the Diwani
c. Phase III Financial Capitalism right in 1765 and became the revenue farmer
of the Mughal Emperor.
a.
C olonialisation of Indian Economy:
Mercantilist Phase (Outright Plunder; 18th b.Industrial Capitalist Phase: 1st half of the
Century). Nineteenth Century
At the beginning of the 18th century the By the beginning of nineteenth century
East India Company was still a marginal force the Company had emerged as a territorial
in India. It relied on concessions from Indian power. During this period India was
rulers for its trading posts along the coast. converted into a market for British textiles

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and a great source of raw materials. The Under the system, the peasant was the
Company government’s expansionist policies proprietor and paid tax on the land. The
led to wars against regional rulers. The cost government dealt with him directly, without
of these internal conquests was imposed on the intervention of a middleman or a tax-
India. farmer. He was entitled to remain in possession
of land acquired by him so long as he paid the
Financial Capitalist Phase: 2nd land revenue. In case of default, apart from
half of the Nineteenth Century eviction and attachment of livestock, even
During this phase managing agency household property or personal belongings
firms, export-import firms, and exchange could be attached. The Ryotwari System
banks began to prosper. In its bid to provide introduced the concept of private property in
an outlet to the investible surplus capital in land. The individual holders were registered
England, the Company government decided and permitted to sell, lease out, mortgage or
to make a massive investment in railroads, transfer their right over the land.
the postal system, irrigation, modern
banking and education. The capital exported Land Revenue and the
was predominantly for railway construction. Pauperisation of Peasantry
The railways helped to move British troops The land tax which was the main source
quickly across the country. It also enabled of revenue to the British was collected
the conquest of the Indian market to the forcibly. Even in times of famines no
maximum extent. Slavery was abolished in remission was given to the peasants. They
India (1843) and the system of indentured had to even mortgage or sell their property
labour was introduced. including their land to pay the landlord’s rent
and the land tax. As no credit facilities were
11.4 Economic Impact of provided by the state, they had to depend on
British Rule moneylenders to borrow money. A system of
money lending was followed by professional
Agrarian Conditions money-lenders who belonged to various
communities such as mahajans, sahukars,
Governor General Cornwallis, himself
and bohras. In the Tamil speaking areas there
a big landlord in England, wanted to create
were Nattukottai Chettiyars.
landlords in India on the English model.
There were already revenue farmers under The colonial state pursued a policy
the Mughals. Cornwallis came to a settlement of ‘commercialization of agriculture’.
with them, treating them as landlords. The Commercial crops like cotton, jute,
outcome was that for the first time in India groundnuts, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco, etc.,
there was a class of zamindars or landlords with
a right to own, bequeath and inherit land. The
cultivators, on the other hand, were reduced to
the position of mere tenants. The British dealt
with the landlords or zamindars directly, and
gave them total freedom to do what they liked
with their tenants. This settlement made with
the zamindars of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa is
called the Permanent Settlement (1793).
The Ryotwari System was a different
revenue system introduced in south India.
Arthur Cotton Pennycuick

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depending on the market demands fetched protected irrigation became possible in

better prices than food grains. So in his bid to certain areas. Even where such efforts were
clear his debt and to pay up the revenue dues taken, the British collected an extra cess
to the state, instead of producing for home adding to the misery of the peasants who
consumption, the peasant began to raise crops were already groaning under the oppressive
for the market. He had to depend on the price land revenue system.
trend in international markets for selling his
agricultural goods. Ignorant of market forces Famines
the peasants often came to distress, when the The policy of free trade and the forcible
demand in the local market, which was now collection of land revenue resulted in the
linked to the world market, crashed. outbreak of famines. The Odisha famine of
1866–67, was a severe and terrible event in the
history of that region in which about a third
Colonel Pennycuick was an army
of the population died. The famine of 1876–
Engineer and Civil Servant who also
78, also known as the Great Famine of 1876–
served as a member of the Madras
78 (called Thathu Varusha Panjam in Tamil),
Legislative Council. He decided to divert
caused a large migration of agricultural
the west-flowing Periyar river draining
labourers and artisans from southern India
into the Arabian Sea to the east so that it
to British colonies, where they worked as
could irrigate lakhs of acres of dry land
indentured labourers on plantations. The
dependent on the Vaigai river. Though
death toll—about 10.3 million—was huge.
Pennycuick and other British engineers
went ahead with the construction,
braving nature’s fury and the dangers of
poisonous insects and wild animals, the
construction was disrupted by relentless
rain. Since he could not get adequate
funds from the British government,
Pennycuick went to England and sold
his family property to mobilise money to
fund the project, which was completed
Odisha famine of 1866
in 1895. The Mullai Periyar Dam
continues to irrigate agricultural lands In the Madras Presidency, the famine
in Theni, Dindigul, Madurai, Sivaganga of 1876-78 was preceded by droughts. The
and Ramanathapuram districts. situation was made worse because of the
colonial government’s policy of laissez faire
Irrigation in the trade of food-grains. For example,
two of the worst famine-afflicted areas in the
The British neglected irrigation in Madras Presidency, the districts of Ganjam
the first half of nineteenth century. Major and Vizagapatam, continued to export grains
irrigation canals were built only after throughout the famine. These famines were
millions of people died in a series of major typically followed by various infectious
famines that broke out periodically from the diseases such as bubonic plague (spread by
middle of 19th century. Even then the money dead rats) and influenza, which attacked
earmarked for irrigation was meagre, but and killed a population already weakened by
due to the initiative of some well meaning starvation. The memory of this famine is still
British officials and engineers like Arthur preserved in various folk songs and ballads.
Cotton, and later Pennycuick guaranteed

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Pacific Ocean (Fiji), as well as contributing

The Indenture system was a penal to the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-
contract system. The contract made African population.
punishable the refusal of an indentured
labourer to work or his abstention from
work, or his defiance of the orders of his Famines in British India: The Bengal
master or absconding, by forfeiture of famine of 1770, took a heavy toll of about
wages or imprisonment with or without 10 million people or nearly one-third of the
hard labour. population in Bengal. This is how British
rule commenced in India. Similarly the
Between 1842 and 1870 a total of
British rule ended with a terrible Bengal
525,482 Indians emigrated to the British
famine of 1943 that claimed the lives
and French Colonies. Of these, 351,401
of nearly three millions. Amartya Sen,
went to Mauritius, 76,691 went to
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1998, who as a
Demerara, 42,519 went to Trinidad, 15,169
young boy saw people dying on the streets
went to Jamaica, 6,448 went to Natal,
of Kolkata wrote a path-breaking study of it.
15,005 went to Reunion and 16,341 went
to the other French colonies. This figure
does not include the 30,000 who went to
Mauritius earlier, labourers who went to
Ceylon or Malaya and illegal recruitment
to the French colonies. Thus by 1870 the
indenture system, transporting Indian
labour to the colonies, was an established
system of providing virtual slaves for
European colonial plantations.
Famine relief camp kitchen in Madras,

1876-1878
Picture by W.W. Hooper
Indian indentured Labourers in Trinidad
Indentured Labour Recap

The Indentured Labour System was a The rivalry of the Portuguese, the
form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Dutch and the English to possess
Indians were transported to various British colonies in Malayan Peninsula is dealt
colonies to provide labour for the plantations with
(mainly sugar). It started from 1843, the year The Dutch establishment of their base
of abolition of slavery in India and continued at Djakarta and gradually extending
until 1920. This resulted in the development their control over Java and Sumatra
of a large Indian diaspora, which spread from (Indonesia) is discussed
the Indian Ocean (Reunion and Mauritius) to

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The British from its base in Penang

taking in its possession the Federated
EXERCISE
Malay States, the Straits Settlements
and Burma is dwelt on
I. C
hoose the
Spain initially colonising Philippines
correct answer
which was later taken by the US is
pointed out 1. was brought to the
Britain conquering first Natal, Cape attention of the East India Company by
Colony and later the coastal states of Francis Light.
Gold Coast, the Dutch holding the a. Spice islands
states of Transvaal and Orange Free b. Java island
State are described c. Penang island
The British settling in Johannesburg d. Malacca
and coming into conflict with the
2. In 1896 states were
Boers resulting in Boer Wars are
formed into Federated Malay States
highlighted
a. Four b. Five
Britain founding a colony in
c. Three d. Six
Bechuanaland and later crushing the
resistance of the Africans taking over 3. was the only part of
it and naming it Rhodesia is focused Indo-China which was directly under
on French Control
French with its initial possession of a. Annam b. Tong king
Senegal annexing Guinea, Ivory Coast c. Cambodia d. Cochin-China
and Dahomey (today part of Benin in
African Union); Congo being handed 4. The Discovery of gold in the
over to the Belgians which was ruled led to a large number
by Leopold, all pertaining to West of British miners settled in and around
Africa, are detailed Johannesburg.
British Kenya, Uganda, and Zanzibar, a. Transvaal
German East Africa, the Portuguese b. Orange Free State
colonisation of Angola and c. Cape Colony
Mozambique, along with Portuguese d. Rhodesia
Guinea are dwelt on
How the Indian economy was 5. became the first
colonialised in the aftermath of the European power to establish trade with
establishment of British rule through India
three different successive phases is a. Portuguese b. French
explained c. Danes d. Dutch
The onslaught of British colonialism on 6. Indentured labour system was a form of
agrarian conditions of India resulting
in impoverishment of peasantry and
outbreak of famines forcing them to a. contract labour system
emigrate to colonies of British Empire b. slavery
as indentured labourers c. debt bondage
d. serfdom

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II. Fill in the blanks 3. Assertion (A): In the Madras Presidency,

the famine of 1876-78 was preceded by
1. Conference resolved
droughts.
to divide Africa into spheres of influence
of the various European Powers. Reason (R) : Because of the colonial
government’s policy of Laissez Faire in
2. The settlement made with the
the trade of foodgrains.
zamindars of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
is a. A is correct, R is wrong
3. was the main source b. Both A & R are wrong
of revenue for the British. c. A
is correct , R is not the correct
explanation of A
4. were money lenders
in the Tamil speaking areas. d. A
is correct, R is the correct
explanation of A
III. F
ind out the 4. Assertion (A): Berlin Conference
correct statement agreed to the rule of Leopold II in
Congo Free State.
1. i)
Until the last quarter of the 19th
century, Africa south of Sahara was Reason (R): Leopold II, King of
unknown to the world. Belgium, showed interest in Congo.
a. B
oth A and R are correct and R is the
ii) T
he coastal states of Gold Coast
correct explanation of A.
became a British colony in 1864.
b. B
oth A and R are correct and R is
iii) S pain ruled the Philippines for over
not the correct explanation of A
500 years.
c. A is correct and R is wrong.
iv) T he famine of 1876–78 occurred in
Odhisha. d. A is wrong but R is correct
a. i) is Correct
b. ii) is Correct
c. ii) & iii) are correct 1. Leopold - Ethiopia
2. Menelik - Vietnam
d. iv) is correct
3. Cecil Rhodes - Belgium
2. i) The French had occupied Java and
4. Bengal famine - Cape colony
Sumatra in 1640.
5. Bao Dai - 1770
ii) T
he Dutch began their conquest of
the English Settlements by capturing
Malacca . V. Answer the following briefly
iii) B
erlin Conference met to decide all 1. Distinguish between Colonialism and
issues connected with the Congo Imperialism.
River basin. 2. Write a note on Zulu tribe.
iv) T he possessions of Sultan of 3. State the three phases in the
Zanzibar were divided into French Colonialisation of Indian economy.
and German spheres of influence.
4. Colonel Pennycuick.
a. i) is correct b. ii) & i) are correct
5. Explain Home Charges.
c. iii) is correct d. iv) is correct

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VI. Answer in detail

REFERENCES
1. Discuss the economic impact of British
1. Irfan Habib, A People’s History of India
Rule in India.
Series - Indian Economy under Early
2. Explain the process of colonisation in British Rule, 1757-1857, Tulika.
Africa.
2. Irfan Habib, Essays In Indian History,
Manohar
FUN WITH HISTORY
3. Irfan Habib, Indian Economy, 1858-
Student Activities 1914, Tulika
Prepare an album with pictures and images 4. D.G.E. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia,
of famines that affected different parts of Macmillan
India during the British colonial rule.
5. R.D. Cornwell, World History in the
Attempt an account of the cultural relations
Twentieth Century, Longman, 1980.
between India and Southeast Asia.

guidance INTERNET RESOURCES
Arrange a debate in the class room on the
https: //www.ukessays.com (The Political
merits and demerits of the British rule in
Economy: Decolonisation in India. http://
India.
www.seasite.niu.edu/crossroads/wilson/
Explore the impact of colonialism in British
colonialism.htm (Constance Wilson,
Burma.
Colonialism and Nationalism in Southeast
Asia.

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GLOSSARY
Assemblage - A collection of artefacts and other objects unearthed

from archaeological sites.
Aboriginal - One living on a land from earliest times.
Ascetic - Self discipline avoiding any physical pleasure
Austere - Simple and plain
Abdicate - Give up
Aboriginal - One living on a land from earliest times.
Ascetic - Self discipline avoiding any physical pleasure
Austere - Simple and plain
Abdicate - Give up
Allegiance - Loyalty
Abortive - Unsuccessful
Bureaucracy - Government by unelected officials
cartel - A monopolistic association of manufacturers
Cardinal - Fundamental
Clad - Clothed (dressed)
Confederacy - An alliance, especially of states
commemorate - Celebrate the memory of a person or an event
Chiefdom - Is a hierarchical political formation and it is larger than the tribe-level for-
mation.
Dissension - Disagreement
Dock - A structure extending along shore or out from the shore into a body of
water, to which boats are moored
Dogmatic - Clinging to principles as incontrovertibly true / opinionated
Diaspora - Persons dispersed from their homeland
entrepreneurial
class -
A group characterised by the taking of financial risks in the hope of profit
Estampage
- The process of making copies of inscriptions using paper and ink.
Epoch
- A period of time in history
Embossed
- Carved
Encyclopaedia
-
A book containing a set of articles on many subjects and arranged alphabet-
ically
Emboldened
-
Giving the courage or confidence to do something
Emporium
-
A large commercial complex selling a wide variety of goods
Frustrated
-
Expressing feelings of despair
Flogging
-
Beat (someone) with whip or stick as punishment or torture
Guillotine -
A machine with a heavy blade used for beheading people
Heresy - Opinion which goes against the accepted belief

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Intriguing - Puzzling
Incorporated - Included
Impoverished - Poverty stricken
Manhunt - An organized search for a person
Molasses -
Thick dark brown syrup obtained from raw sugar during the refining process
Migrants - Persons who moved from one place to another in search of livelihood or for
settlement
Oligarchy - A small group of people having control of a state
Piety - Religious devotion
Proliferation - Increase in great numbers or large amounts
Penultimate - Last but one
Proponents - Persons advocating a theory or a proposal
Perpetuating - Keeping alive, continuing indefinitely
Penetration - Entry with force
Pauperized - Keeping alive, continuing indefinitely
Rationale - Reasons or a logical basis for a course of action
Resentment - Fury / anger
Repealed - Cancelled
Reconcile - To agree to
Remittance -
A sum of money sent, especially by mail in payment for goods or services or
as a gift
Relinquish
voluntarily -
To give up a post or office
Subsistence - Means minimum requirements for maintaining human existence.
Suzerainty - The control of one country over another country
Slaughter - Killing animals for food
Smelting - Heating and melting ore to extract metal
Subjugation -
Bring a person or a country under control
Tribe - Is a community of people who live in a region connected by kinship ties. They
are linked by social, economic, religious or blood relationships. They share a
common culture and dialect, under the control of a chief.
Tutelage - Guardianship
Tricked - Cheated
Vehement - Forceful

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GEOGRAPHY
156
9th_Geography_Unit_1_EM.indd 156 4/4/2022 5:12:24 PM

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UNIT Lithosphere – I
Endogenetic Processes
1
Learning Objectives
To know about the spheres of the Earth

To illustrate the internal structure of the Earth
To study the rock types and its cycle
To explain the internal processes of the Earth
To understand the processes of Earthquakes and volcanoes
Introduction 1.1 Spheres of the Earth

The Earth is a unique planet of the Earth’s surface is a vast area of
Solar family. The Earth is composed of four 510 million sq.km, where four spheres of the
spheres namely, the lithosphere, the Earth interact. The abiotic spheres are the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.
biosphere. This lesson focuses on the The biotic sphere is the biosphere. Together,
internal processes of the Earth. The these spheres constitute the planet, Earth.
sequence of lessons generally follows
the spheres of the Earth system in a 1.2 Structure of the Earth
comprehensive manner.
The outer surface and inner core of the
Earth are totally different in their nature and
Have you ever wondered what our Earth
structure. The structure of the Earth’s interior
is made up of? Or what lies underneath the
is divided into three layers namely the crust,
Earth’s surface?
the mantle and the core.
“The Earth can physically be described

as a ball of rock (the lithosphere), partly
covered by water (the hydrosphere)
and wrapped in an envelope of air
(the atmosphere). To these three
physical zones it is convenient to add
a biological zone which includes all
the living organisms (the biosphere).”
Arthur Holmes Spheres of the Earth
157 1. Lithosphere – I Endogenetic Processes

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The lithosphere is the solid outer The terms ‘lithosphere’ and

part of the Earth. ‘crust’ are not the same.
The atmosphere is a thin layer of The lithosphere includes
gases that surrounds the Earth. the crust and the uppermost
part of the mantle.
The hydrosphere is the watery
part of the Earth’s surface including oceans, All terrestrial planets have
rivers, lakes and water vapour lithosphere. The lithospheres of Mercury,
Venus, and Mars are much thicker and
The biosphere is the layer of Earth more rigid than that of the Earth.
where life exists.
Crust
Crust is the outer layer of the Earth,
where we live. It is the skin of our Earth, which
Oceanic Crust
Continental Crust
ranges between 5 to 30 km. It is the solid

and rigid layer of the Earth. The thickness Upper Mantle
of the crust is greater below the continents

than the ocean floor. The crust is classified Continental Crust And Oceanic Crust
as continental crust and oceanic crust. The Continental Crust is made up of SIAL and
major elements of crust SIAL are Silica (Si) Oceanic Crust is made up of SIMA
and Aluminium (Al) and SIMA (Si - Silica
and MA - Magnesium)
1. Lithosphere – I Endogenetic Processes 158

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Mantle Types of Rock
The interior part beneath the crust is called Based on formation, rocks are classified as:
mantle, which is about 2,900 km thick. In the Igneous,
upper part of the mantle, the rock remains solid, Sedimentary and
whereas in the lower part of the mantle, rocks
Metamorphic.
are in molten form. This molten rock inside the
Earth is called ‘magma’.
Fact
Core The ancient city of Petra in Jordan is an

example of an entire city carved out of rocks.
The core is the innermost and hottest layer There are many specimens of magnificent
of the Earth which lies below the mantle. It is rock-cut architecture in India, like the Ajanta
composed mainly of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe). and Ellora caves in Maharashtra, the Aihole
Hence it is called NIFE. The core is divided and Badami temples in Karnataka, the
into Solid inner core and Liquid outer core. Konark temple in Odisha and
The presence of large quantities of iron in the Mamallapuram in Tamil Nadu.
core is responsible for the Earth’s gravitational
force. As the Earth rotates on its axis, the liquid
outer core spins over the solid inner core and Igneous Rocks
generates the Earth’s magnetic field. This is The word ‘igneous’ is derived from
responsible for the functioning of the magnetic the Latin word Ignis meaning ‘Fire’. The
compass. Due to high pressure, the materials interior of the Earth contains very hot molten
in the inner core are unable to move and hence material called ‘Magma’. When the magma
remain solid. reaches the Earth’s surface, it is referred to
as ‘Lava’. The lava on the surface cools down
1.3 Rocks and gets solidified as rocks called igneous
The crust is a storehouse of rocks. An rocks. Granite and basalt are examples of such
aggregate of minerals on the Earth’s crust is rocks. Igneous rocks are also called Primary
called ‘rock’. It may be hard and compact like or Mother rocks because all other rocks are
‘granite’ or soft as ‘clay’ or loose as ‘sand’. directly or indirectly formed from them.
Sedimentary Rocks
Th e D e e p est Pl ac e These sedimentary rocks are named

ever reached by human after the latin word 'sediment' meaning
technology vary from time ' settle. Rivers, glaciers and winds carry
bits of rock and soil and deposit them in
to time. Till 2011 Kola
layers. After a few million years, these
Super Hole (12,262m)
deposits harden into compact rocks and
in Murmansk, Russia was the deepest
are called Sedimentary rocks.
place. But in 2012, Z-44 Chavyo Well
(12,376m) broke the record, and is The bodies of plants and animals that fall
supposed to be 15 times the height of on the deposits get embedded in the layers
and form Fossils. Sandstone, limestone,
Burj Khalifa in Dubai.The exploration
chalk, gypsum, coal and conglomerate are
of Earth’s interior continues.
examples of sedimentary rocks.

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Metamorphic Rocks down into relatively low elevated plains

and shapes the landform created by
The term ‘metamorphic’ is derived
Endogenetic process.
from the word ‘metamorphosis’, which
means, ‘change of form’. When igneous or Internal Processes
sedimentary rocks are subjected to extreme
heat and pressure, they undergo a complete The internal processes
change in their form and character .i.e., in generate heat and eject
course of time, granite may get transformed materials from deep below
to gneiss, basalt to schist, limestone to marble the Earth’s crust. Internal
and sandstone to quartzite. radioactivity is the
principal source of power
Rock Cycle for this process.
The Rock cycle is a continuous process Plate Tectonics
through which igneous, sedimentary and The lithosphere is divided into a number
metamorphic rocks are transformed from one of huge slabs of rocks called ‘Tectonic
form to another. plates.’ These tectonic plates are divided into
major and minor plates. These plates float
independently over the mantle. Collisions
Weathering
and erosion of these plates produce mountain ranges
Slow uplift to
Transport
and and other irregular surface features, both on
deposition
the surface
land and the ocean floor. This phenomenon
is called ‘plate tectonics’. The movement
Igneous rock
Sedimentation
Crystallization
of magma
of tectonic plates is due to thermal energy
Magma
Sedimentary rock
from the mantle. Now we have a better
understanding about the plate movements
Melting
Metamorphic rock
Burial, high temperatures
and pressures
and its relation to Earthquake and volcanic
Magma from molten
crust and mantle
activities.
Types of Plate Boundaries
Activity Convergent Boundary - Here the plate moves
Narrate the processes involved in the toward each other and sometimes, a plate
given rock cycle diagram in your own sinks under another. The location where the
words. sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction
zone (eg) Fold Mountain-Himalayas.
1.4 Geomorphic Processes

The forces that act from the Earth’s
interior towards the Earth’s surface are
called Internal processess or Endogenetic
processes. These forces build the landscape Divergent Boundary – Here the plates pull
and create topographic relief. away from each other as magma pushes up
from the mantle (eg) Mid Atlantic Ridge
The forces that act on the surface of
the Earth due to natural agents like running
water, glacier, wind, waves etc. are called
External processes or Exogenetic processes.
These external processes tear the landscape

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Conservative/Transform Boundary – Here lofty mountain ranges such as the Himalayas

the plates slide horizontally past each other. and the Alps
(eg) San Andres Fault. According to plate tectonics, the plates
are in constant motion with an average rate
of few centimetres per year. The movement
might seem slow, but over millions of years,
the plates and the continents riding on them
move a long way. For example, about 250
Movements of Continental Plates million years ago, the Indian Plate was a part
Due to lateral compressional forces, of the Gondwana land, which comprised of
the plates are forced to move upwards modern Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and
and downwards. This is called ‘Folding’. South America.
Mountains formed by folding are called fold
mountains. The process of folding creates
Convergent
Transform Divergent Continental Rift zone
plate boundary
plate boundary plate boundary (young plate boundary)
Convergent
plate boundary
Trench
Strato Oceanic crust
Strato Trench
volcano Continental crust
volcano
Lithosphere Oceanic crust
Hot spot Subducting

Asthenosphere plate
Plate boundaries and associated features

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Approximately 140 million years Seismic Waves

ago, the Indian plate broke away from the Earthquakes generate seismic waves. The
ancient super continent ‘Gondwana’ and nature, force and speed of these seismic waves
began moving north and collided with Asia. depend on the nature of the medium through
The collision with the Eurasian Plate along which it passes. Accordingly, there are three
the boundary between India and Nepal major types of waves.
formed the Orogenic belt that created the
Primary or P-waves are the fastest of all
Tibetan Plateau and the mighty Himalayan
the Earthquake waves and the first to reach
Mountains.
the epicentre. These waves pass through solids,
liquids and gases, either through push or pull
Activity with an average velocity of 5.3km per second to
Here is a list of a few mountains. 10.6 km per second.
• Ural Mountains, Andes Mountains, Fact
Vindhya Range, Alps mountains,
C.F. Richter devised a scale to measure
• S atpura range, Rocky Mountains,
the magnitude of Earthquakes. This
Sierra Nevada.
scale relates to the energy released at the
• Identify and Locate with help of atlas epicentre and provides an estimation of
the severity of an Earthquake. It is an open
Earthquake ended scale. The highest magnitude ever
Earthquakes are generally caused by recorded is 9.5 on Richter scale (Bio-Bio,
the sudden vibrations in the Earth’s crust, Chile in 1960).
which spreads outward in all directions as Secondary or S-waves travel only
waves from the source of disturbance. The through solids. These transverse waves shake
point of origin of an Earthquake is called the ground perpendicular to the direction in
‘Focus’ (Hypocenter) which generates a which they propagate. The average velocity of
series of elastic waves. ‘Epicentre’ is a point these waves is 1Km per second to 8 km per
on the Earth’s surface that lies directly above second.
the focus. The impact of the Earthquake is felt Surface Waves (or) L-waves are similar
the most at the epicentre. to P-waves but they travel primarily along
the ground surface. These waves travel
Profile of an Earthquake
comparatively slower and are the most
destructive waves. The average velocity of
these waves are 1 km per second to 5 km per
second.
The instrument which
records the Earthquake waves
Distance from Epicentre
Epicentre is called ‘seismograph’ or
Soil at the Site ‘seismometer’. The science
Di
st
an
ce
Fault that deals with Earthquakes is called
fro
m Depth ‘seismology’.
Fo
cu
s
Focus or
Magnitude
Tsunami
Earthquake
Magnitude The word ‘Tsunami’ is a Japanese term,
meaning harbour waves. It is adopted to describe

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large seismically generated sea waves caused iv. Crater - a bowl shaped depression found
by Earthquakes, submarine explosions and at the top of the volcano through which
landslides. These waves travel at a great speed the magma flows out.
(more than 500 km per hour) and the length of Based on the periodicity of eruptions,
the waves exceeds 600 km. These waves reach to volcanoes are classified into
a height of more than 15 m near the sea shore (i) Active volcano, (ii) Dormant volcano, (iii)
and are capable of causing destruction along the
Extinct volcano.
coastal area.
The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake that The term ‘volcano’ is derived
caused tsunami is the sixth-deadliest natural from the Latin term VULCAN,
disaster which travelled at a speed of 600 which is the name of Roman
km per hour with an estimated death toll of “God of Fire”.
2,80,000. The Earthquake which occurred
near Indonesia at 00.58 hours took nearly 7
hours to reach Chennai.
On 26 December 2004 a
tsunami occurred in the
Indian Ocean. It was the result
of the Indio-Australian Plate
subducting below the Eurasian
Plate. It was caused by an Earthquake
measuring a magnitude of above 9 in the
Richter scale. The Earthquake caused the
seafloor to uplift, displacing the seawater a Active Volcano
above.
Active volcanoes
are those which
Volcanoes constantly eject
A volcano is a vent or an opening on the volcanic lava, gases
surface of the Earth crust, through which hot and fragmented
solid, liquid and gaseous materials (Magma) materials. (eg.) Mount
erupt out to the surface from the Earth’s St. Helens in the United States.
interior. Magma rises up and ejects on the
b Dormant Volcano (or) Sleeping
surface as Lava. Volcanoes are also formed
when plates move apart. Volcano
Volcanoes that
Volcanoes generally have the following
do not show any sign
major components. They are:
of volcanic activity for
i. Magma chamber - a large pool of liquid a long period of time
rock found beneath the surface of the are known as dormant
Earth volcanoes. Sometimes there may be a sudden
ii. Vents - an opening serving as an outlet explosion which may cause unimaginable loss
for air, smoke, fumes, magma etc to life and property (e.g.) Mt. Fujiyama, Japan
iii. Volcanic cone - a landform built by the
magma ejected from the vent in the c Extinct or Dead Volcano
shape of a cone. When a volcano permanently
stops its volcanic activity, then it is

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called as extinct or dead volcano boundaries. One such area is the Circum-Pacific
(e.g.) Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania Ring of Fire, where the Pacific Plate meets many
surrounding plates. The Ring of Fire is the most
Activity seismically and volcanically active zone in the
Take a bottle filled with soda. Give it world. The other distinctive major belts are Mid-
a few shakes. Now twist the cap open. Oceanic Ridges ,Mid-Continental Belts and
What do you observe?s Alpine - Himalayan belt.
Volcanoes can also be classified based on Effect Of Volcanoes

their structure and composition as composite Constructive Effects
volcano, shield volcano and dome volcano Volcanic materials enrich the soil fertility
that promotes agricultural activities. The
d Composite Volcano
hot volcanic region helps in generating
Composite volcano, also known as strata geothermal energy. Many dormant and active
volcano, is a conical volcano built by many volcanoes are the most attractive tourist spots
layers of hardened lava, pumice and volcanic of the world. Most of the volcanic materials
ash. These are commonly found in the Pacific are used as building materials.
Ocean Eg. Mt. Fujiyama, Japan Destructive Effects
Volcanic eruption causes Earthquakes, flash
e Volcanic Dome
floods, mud slide and rock fall. Lava can travel
A lava dome or volcanic dome is roughly very far and burn, bury, or damage anything
a circular mound formed due to the slow in its path. The large amount of dust and ash
ejection of viscous lava from a volcano. As the makes breathing hard and irritable. Volcanic
lava is rich in silica with intense viscosity, it is eruptions can alter the weather conditions
prevented from flowing far from its vent. e.g. and disrupt transport (Iceland volcanic
Parícutin, Mexico eruption) in and around the volcanic region.
Hots
Recap
Pacific Ring of Fire — Most seismically and
volcanically active. Why? The spheres of the Earth are the
lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
f Shield Volcano and biosphere.
Shield volcanoes are formed by intense Earth’s interior is divided into three
viscous lava. layers - Crust, Mantle and Core.
These are shallow Based on composition, the crust,
mantle and core are referred to as
depositions with
SIAL, SIMA and NIFE respectively.
gently sloping sides.
The formation and deformation of
Hence the lava flows landforms on the surface of the Earth
out in all directions are due to continuous internal and
to create a shield. external processes.
E.g., Mauna Loa, Hawaii The lithosphere is composed of major
and minor tectonic plates.
Distribution of Earthquakes and
Volcanoes Earthquake is the shaking or
trembling of the Earth’s crust.
Most Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
Earthquake and volcanoes are useful
do not strike randomly, but occur along the plate
to understand the Earth’s interior.

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9. Th
e point of origin of an Earthquake is called
EXERCISE the _________
a. epicentre b. focus
c. seismic wave d. magnitude
I Choose the
correct answer II. Match the following
1. Endogenetic — Seismograph
1. is the rigid outer layer of the
Earth. process
2. Mantle — Subduction Zone
a. core b. mantle
3. Convergent — Volcanic
c. Crust d. inner core
boundaries
2. layer is made up of 4. Earthquake — Pacific Ocean
liquid iron 5. Composite — SIMA
a. Inner core b. Outer core volcano
c. Mantle d. Crust
III. C
onsider the given
3. Magma is found in the
statements:
a. crust b. mantle
1. i. Mt. Fujiyama is a dormant volcano
c. core d. None of the above
ii. Mt. Kil imanjaro is a dormant

4. The movement of tectonic plates is
volcano
induced by energy.

iii M
t. Tanzania is a dormant volcano
a. hydel b. thermal

Which of the statement(s) is are true
c. wave d. tidal
a. i is true b. ii is true
5.
In the ancient period, c. iii is true d. I, ii, iii are true
Gondwanaland moved towards 2. Statement: Magma gushes out when it
direction. finds vents.
a. north b. south Reason: Interior of the Earth contains

c. east d. west compressed hot magma
6. Many million years ago , India was a Which of the statement(s) is are true

part of the super continent a. Statements & reason are true
a. Gondwana b. Laurasia b. Statements is true, reason is false
c. Panthalasa d. Pangea. c. Statement is false reason is true
7. The movement of plates that creates d. Statement & reason are false
stress and tension in the rocks causing
3. Statement I: Mountain ranges are formed
them to stretch and cracks result
by the collision of tectonic plates
in .
Statement
II: The movement of
a. fold b. fault
tectonic plates is due to the thermal
c. mountain d. earthquake energy from the mantle
8. refers to a bowl-shaped depression
a. Statement I is false II is true
found at the top of the volcano.
b. Statement I and II are false
a. crater b. vent
c. Statement I is true II is false
c. chamber d. volcanic cone
d. Statement I and II are true

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IV. A
nswer in brief: VII. Write answers in a Paragraph
1. Write a brief note on the various spheres 1. Describe the structure of the Earth.
of the Earth.
2. Write a note on the internal and external
2. Mention the layers of the interior of the processes of Earth.
Earth.
3. How are volcanoes classified based on
3. Define Plate tectonics. the periodicity of their eruptions?
4. What is Tsunami? 4. Explain the effects of Volcanoes.
5. What is a Volcano? Mention its major
VIII. Map Skill
components.
On the given outline map of the world,
6. What is an Earthquake and how it occurs?
mark the following:
7. What are seismic waves and mention its
a. Pacific Ring of fire
types?
b. Earthquake prone zones (any two)
8. Write about the Pacific Ring of fire.
c. Locate any two active volcanoes of the
V. Give Reasons for the world.
following: d. Himalayas and Alps ranges
1. SIAL floats over SIMA. IX. Life Skills

2. Igneous rocks are also called Primary Imagine that you feel tremors or shocks in
Rocks or Mother rocks. your locality. What will be your role in saving
lives from destruction? List out the Do’s and
VI. Distinguish between Don’ts.
1. Core and crust.
2. Epicentre and Hypocentre
3. Divergent and convergent boundaries.
4. Primary waves and Secondary waves.
5. Shield volcano and volcanic Dome.

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UNIT Lithosphere – II
Exogenetic Processes
2
Learning Objectives
To comprehend the various external processes of the Earth

To study the different types of weathering and the resultant features
To learn how the weathered materials are transported by
different agents.
To study about the features formed by erosion transportation and
deposition of natural agents
Introduction Physical weathering

It is the breakdown of rocks without
The Earth is a dynamic system that
changing their chemical composition, through
undergoes various changes due to internal
the action of physical forces. The constant
and external processes. The continuous
freezing and thawing of rocks during the
interaction of these two processes controls the
night and day leads to the expansion and
structure of the earth’s surface. The external
contraction of rocks. Cracks are formed and
processes are the consequence of solar energy
disintegration occurs eventually. Exfoliation,
and gravitational forces, whereas the internal
block disintegration, granular disintegration,
processes are an outcome of the earth’s internal
are the Major types of physical weathering.
heat.
Exogenetic Process
Exfoliation
Weathering and
Mass Movement
Gradation The alternate heating and cooling on
rounded rock surfaces leads to the peeling
Physical Chemical Biological Degradation Aggradation of rocks, layer by layer like an onion. This is
Weathering Weathering Weathering
called exfoliation. sheeting and shattering
are the other forms of exfoliation.
2.1 Weathering
Weathering is the breaking, disintegration
and decomposition of materials of the earth’s
crust by their exposure to atmosphere.
There are three types of weathering
• Physical weathering,
• Chemical weathering and
• Biological weathering
167 2. Lithosphere – Ii Exogenetic Processes
9th_Geography_Unit_2_EM.indd 167 05-04-2022 13:26:29

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Granular Disintegration: Chemical Weathering. This is predominantly

Granular disintegration takes place in high in the hot and humid regions such
crystalline rocks where the grains of the rocks as the equatorial, tropical and sub tropical
become loose and fall out. This is due to the zones. Chemical weathering takes place
action of temperature. through the processes of oxidation,
carbonation, solution, and hydration. The
agents of Chemical weathering are Oxygen,
Carbon-dioxide, Hydrogen and water.
Block Disintegration:
Repeated expansion and contraction
of rocks during day and night respectively
causes stress on the joints of the rocks which Oxidation
results in block disintegration Oxygen in the atmosphere reacts with
the iron found in rocks, thus leads to the
formation of iron oxide.This process similar
to the rusting of iron, pressure of air and
water is known as oxidation, which results in
the weakening of rocks.
Carbonation
Carbonation is the mixing of water with
the atmospheric carbon-dioxide, forming
carbonic acid. Carbonation is important in
Hots the formation of caves, in limestone region.
Is weathering a pre-requisite in the When the carbonic acid reacts with the
formation of soil? carbonate rocks, the rocks get disintegrated.
Solution
Facts
The dissolution of rock substances in water
The disintegrated rock materials, in due result in the loosening of the rock particles. This
course of time, are w eathered further, to inturn breaks down the rocks.
form soil. Soil is a mixture of disintegrated
rock material and decayed organic matter Hydration
called humus.
Absorption of water into the mineral
structure, certain chemicals in the rock
Chemical Weathering enlarge in size in humid conditions. These
Disintegration and decomposition of minerals found in the rock swell and this
rocks due to chemical reactions is called results in the development of cracks and the
2. Lithosphere – Ii Exogenetic Processes 168

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rock wears down. This type of weathering is called catchment area and where it joins the
called hydration. sea is known as mouth.
Biological Weathering
Biological weathering occurs due to the
penetration and expansion of plant roots, Water fall
Meander Estuary
earthworms, burrowing animals (rabbits, Source of river
Tributary
rats) and some human activities. Ox bow Lake

Flood Plain
Delta
h
out
er M
Sea
Riv
Upper course Middle course Lower course
Courses of River:
Rivers generally originate from
mountains and end in a sea or lake. The whole
path that a river flows through is called its
course. The course of a river is divided into:
i. The upper course
2.2 Gradation
ii. The middle course and
Gradation is the process of levelling iii. The lower course
of the land by means of natural agents like i. The Upper Course
rivers, ground water, winds, glaciers, and
Erosion is the most dominant action
sea waves. These agents produce various
of river in the upper course. In this course,
gradational relief features in due course of
a river usually tumbles down the steep
time. Gradation takes place in two ways:
mountain slopes. The steep gradient
degradation and aggradation
increases the velocity and the river channel
Gradation is the levelling land surface by performs erosion with great force to widen
various natural agents. and deepen its valley. The land features
Aggradation is building up of landforms carved by a river in its upper course are V-
due to natural agents. shaped valleys, gorges, canyons, rapids,
pot holes, spurs, and waterfalls.
Degradation is eroding of land surface
ii. The Middle Course-
Agents of Gradation
The river enters the plain in its middle
Running water (River)
course. The volume of water increases
-(Fluvial Land forms)
with the confluence of many tributaries
The work of running and thus increases the load of the river.
water (rivers) is the most Thus, the predominant action of a river is
extensive among all the other transportation. Deposition also occurs due
agents of gradation. Rivers originate on
to the sudden decrease in velocity. The river
higher landforms like, mountains, hills and
in the middle course develops some typical
plateaus that receive water from various
landforms like flood plains, meanders, ox-
sources like the rain, glaciers, springs, lakes,
etc.The place where the river originates is bow lakes etc.,

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iii. The Lower course force, it erodes the rock material beneath and
The river, moving downstream across a creates a depression called a plunge pool.
broad, level plain is loaded with debris, Shallow fast flowing water in a stream is
brought down from its upper and middle called a rapid or river jumps
courses. Large deposits of sediments are
found at the level bed and the river, splits The highest waterfalls in the world is
into a number of channels called Angel falls (979 m) in Venezuela.
distributaries. The main work of the river
here is deposition and it develops typical
landforms like delta and estuary.
Tributary – Small streams that join the
main river. Eg. River Bhavani
Distributary – River channels that get
separated from the main river. E.g.,
River Kollidam.
Erosional Landforms of River Rapid

Gorges and Canyons:
When the river flows through a
mountainous region made up of hard rocks, V-shaped valley
it forms a valley with almost vertical sides A ‘V’- shaped valley is formed by the
called gorge. In India, deep gorges have been vertical erosion of the river where the valley
formed by Brahmaputra and Indus in the is deepened and widened.
Himalayas.
A deep gorge with steep sides that runs
for hundreds of kilometres is referred to
as canyon e.g. Grand Canyon of the river
Colorado in the U.S.A.
Canyon
Waterfall
Pot hole
When a river flows in a region where
Due to the river action, cylindrical
hard rocks lie over soft rocks horizontally,
holes are drilled vertically in the river
the soft rocks get eroded quickly and the
bed, with varying depth and diametre.
hard rocks projects outwards. Thus, the river
These are called pot holes.
falls vertically from a steep slope to form a
waterfall. When the water falls with great

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a flood plain. As the height of the river banks

gets increases due to continuous deposition
of a flooded river, levees are formed.
Estuary: Estuary is formed where the rives
meets the sea. Deposition of silt by the river is
not possible here in the estuaries like delta as
if the waves keep on eroding the deposits. Ex.
River Narmada and Tapti.
Pot holes
Delta
A triangular shaped low lying area formed by
Meander the river at its mouth is called delta.
As the river loaded with debris flows Deltas have fine deposits of sediments
slowly, it forms sweeping loops and bends. It enriched with minerals. Eg. Cauvery Delta,
is referred to as meanders. Tamil Nadu.
Facts
The Greek letter ( )pronounced delta
Ox bow lake closely resembles the triangular delta of
the river Nile. Sunderban Delta formed
Meanders in due course of time become by the river Ganga-Brahmaputra is the
almost a complete circle with narrow necks. largest delta in the world.
This in turn gets abandoned and forms a lake.
This is called an Ox-bow lake.
The world’s best known geyser is the Old
The world's largest oxbow lake is Lake Faithful geyser in the Yellowstone National
Chicot is Arkansas of USA. Lake Kanwar in Park in Wyoming, U.S.A
Bihar (India) is Asia’s largest fresh water ox
bow lake.
Karst Topography
Depositional Landforms of River As an agent of gradation, underground
water creates distinct landforms in lime-
Alluvial Fan stone regions called Karst Topography.
A fan shaped deposition made by the Ground water is an
river at the foothills is called an alluvial plain active agent in limestone
regions. Karst topography
Flood Plain
is formed due to the
Fine sediments are deposited on river dissolution of soluble
banks when a river floods. These sediments rocks such as limestone,
make the region rich and fertile. This is called dolomite and gypsum.

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Limestone topography of Western Lappies

Slovenia extends for a distance of 480 km in When the joints of limestone rocks are
length and 80 km in width which is termed corrugated by groundwater, long furrows are
as Karst in the Slavic language. The world’s formed and these are called LAPPIES.
largest karst area is the Nullarbar located on
the Great Australian Coast.
Karst regions are also found in Southern
France, Spain, Mexico, Jamaica, Western
Cuba, Central New Guinea, Sri Lanka and
Myanmar.
Karst Areas in India
Western Bihar - Guptadham caves
Uttarakhand - Robert cave and
Tapkeshwar temple
Madhya Pradesh - Pandav caves Pachmari Sinkhole
hills A funnel shaped depressions formed
Bastar district in due to dissolution of limestone rock is
Chattisgarh - Kutumsar called sinkholes. Their average depth ranges
Andhra Pradesh
between three and nine meters
(Visakhapatnam) - Borra caves
rosional Landforms of
E
Underground Water
Most of erosion takes place due to the
process of solution. When rain water mixes
with carbon-dioxide and enters into a
limestone region, it dissolves and destroys
much of the limestone. As a result, landforms
such as Terra rossa, Lappies, sinkholes,
swallow holes, dolines, uvalas, poljes, caves
and caverns are formed.
The World's deepest sinkhole
Terra Rossa (Italian term for Red soil) is China's xianozhai Tienkang
Deposition of red clay soil on the surface of at 2172 feet. There are as many
the Earth is due to the dissolution of limestone as 15000 Sinkholes in Illinois
content in rocks. The redness of the soil is due to
the presence of iron oxide.
Activity
Take a trough filled with sand. empty a
portion of sand in the middle and fill it with
sugar. Now level the sand over the sugar.
Pour water into the trough and observe
what happens. The sugar dissolves and
forms a depression. This is similar to the
formation of sinkhole.

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Caves and Caverns Sometimes, Stalactites and Stalagmites meet

together to form Columns or Pillars.
Caves and caverns are subterranean
features of karst topography. Caves are hollows Stalactite
that are formed by the dissolution of limestone
rocks when carbon di oxide in air turns into
carbonic acid after its reaction with water. They
vary in size and shape. Caverns are the caves Pillar
with irregular floors. Eg. Guptadham caves in
Western Bihar.
Stalagmite
All types of deposits in the caves and
caverns are collectively called speleothems
Glaciers:
which includes travertines, tufa, dripstones.
A Glacier is a large mass
Swallow Holes, Uvalas, Dolines, Poljis of ice that moves slowly
are other erossional Features of karst regions over the land, from its place
predominant in other parts of the world. of accumulation. It is also
known as ‘River of ice’. The
place of accumulation is
called snowfield. The height
above which there is a permanent snow
cover in the higher altitude or latitude is
called snowline. Higher the latitude, lower
the snowline from sea level.
cave
Hots
Snowline of Alps is 2700 metre where as the
Facts snowline of Greenland is just 600 metre.
Find out the reason.
Cave insects lose their senses of sight and
develop extraordinary long antenna to
compensate the loss of sight Activity
Fake Snow
epositional Landforms of
D
Materials needed:-Cup of Baking Soda,
Underground Water
Shaving Cream
It is interesting to know that a variety of
Method:-Pour one cup of baking soda,
depositional features are formed on the floor,
ceiling and walls of the caves and caverns of Spray the shaving cream
the Karst Topography. The snow will start forming almost
immediately..
Stalactite, Stalagmite and Column
When the water containing dissolved The gradual transformation of snow into
calcite gradually drips from the ceiling of the granular ice is called ‘firn’ or ‘ neve’ and finally
caves, water evaporates and the remaining it becomes solid glacial ice.
calcite hangs from the ceiling. Thus Stalactites
Erosional Landforms of Glacier
are formed. When the calcite deposits rises
upward like a pillar Stalagmites are formed. Glaciers are powerful erosive agents.
Some of the important erosional landforms are

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Cirque, Aretes, Matterhorn, U-shaped valley, Fjords are glacial valleys that are partly
Hanging valley, Fiords etc., Most of these glacial submerged in the sea.
features are predominantly seen in countries like Depositional Landforms of glacier
Switzerland, Norway etc., After getting eroded, fragments of rocks
Cirque and boulders along with dirt form glacial
The glacier erodes the steep side walls of the debris. Glacial debris gets deposited in the
mountain and forms a bowl-shaped armchair like low lying areas and form depositional features
depression, it is termed as Cirque like moraines, drumlins, eskers, kames and
Arete outwash plains.
Moraine
Aretes are narrow ridges formed when two
cirque walls joined together back to back, and 1. Materials deposited by Glaciers is called
forms narrow knife like ridges. Moraines.
2. Based on the location, they are classified into
Pyramidal Peak
Ground moraine, Terminal moraine and
The pyramidal peaks formed when Lateral moraine.
three or more cirques meet together (eg)
Matterhorns.
U-Shaped Valley
When the glacier moves down along a
river valley, the valley further gets eroded
deep and wide to form a ‘U’ shaped valley.
Hanging Valley
These are valleys eroded by tributary Drumlin(Basket of Egg
glacier and that hangs over the main valley. Topography)
Horn
Drumlins are deposits of glacial moraines
Arete
Hanging valley
that resemble giant inverted teaspoons or half
Cirques
cut eggs.
Esker
Long narrow ridges composed of
boulders gravel and sand deposited by
Glacial streams of melting water which run parallel
trough
to a glacier are called eskers.
Outwash Plain
Glaciated topography
An outwash plain consists of glacial
Fjord sediments deposited by the melting ice at the
terminus of a glacier. It appears as an extensive
accumulation of sand, gravel and silt.

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Activity get eroded leaving irregular crests. These are

called yardangs.
Discuss in a small groups about the effects
of global warming.
Wind
When air blows horizontally at or near
the earth’s surface is called wind. The erosional,
transportational and depositional action of Depositional Landforms of wind
wind is predominant in arid regions. This is Some of the depositional landforms are
called as Aeolian Process. sand dunes, barchans and loess.
Erosional Landforms of wind Sand Dune
Some of the erosional landforms of wind are In deserts, during sandstorms, wind
mushroom rocks, Inselbergs and yardangs. carries loads of sand. When the speed of
Mushroom Rock wind decreases, huge amount of sand gets
deposited. These mounds or hills of sand are
Rocks are made
called sand dunes. There are different types of
up of hard and
sand dunes.
soft layers. When
a rock’s bottom is Barchan
soft, the sand-laden Barch are isolated, crescent shaped
winds blow against sand dunes. They have gentle slopes on
it and wear it down. the windward side and steep slopes on the
By the constant leeward side.
wearing down action of the wind, the bottom
gets eroded away to form a mushroom like
structure. This is called a mushroom or
pedestal rock. Such rocks are found near
Jodhpur in Rajasthan.
Inselberg
Inselberg is
a German term
which means an
island mountain. Transverse Dunes
Certain hard rocks Transverse dunes are asymmetrical in shape.
like igneous rocks They are formed by alternate slow and fast winds
are more resistant that blow from the same direction.
to wind action. Such isolated residual hills
rising abruptly from their surroundings are
termed as inselbergs. Eg. Uluru or Ayers
Rock, Australia.
Yardang
In arid regions, certain rocks have hard Longitudinal Dunes(Seif dunes)
and soft layers arranged vertically. When Longitudinal dunes are long narrow
winds blow over these rocks, the soft layers ridges of sand, which extend in a direction

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parallel to the prevailing winds. These dunes 2. Sea Cave

are called Seifs in Sahara Prolonged wave attack on the base of a
cliff erodes rock materials, which result in the
formation of caves.
3. Sea Arch
When two caves approach one another
from either side of a headland and unite, they
form an arch. (Eg.) Neil Island, Andaman and
Nicobar.
Loess
The term loess refers to the deposits of
fine silt and porous sand over a vast region.
Extensive loess deposits are found in Northern
and Western China, the Pampas of Argentina,
in Ukraine and in the Mississippi Valley of the
United States. 4. Sea Stack
Further erosion by waves ultimately leads
to the total collapse of the arch. The seaward
portion of the headland will remain as a pillar
of rock known as stack. Eg the Old man of
Hoy in Scotland.
5. Wave Cut Platforms
Flat surface found at the foot of sea cliffs are
The thickest known deposit
called as wave cut platforms. Wave cut platform
of loess is, 335 metre found in
is also referred as wave cut benches terrace.
the loess plateau in China.
Depositional Landforms of Waves
Beach
Wave
A steady up (crest) and down (trough) Sand and gravel are moved and deposited
movement of surface water are called waves. by waves along the shore to form beaches.
Sea waves are the most powerful agents of This is the most dominant and constructive
gradation and their erosional, transportational work of the sea. (Eg.) Juhu beach along
and depositional processes are confined to a very Mumbai coast, Puri beach in Odisha and
narrow belt along coastal areas. Marina beach in Chennai.
Erosional Land Forms of Waves Bar
Some of the erosional landforms of sea A bar is an
waves are sea cliff, sea cave, arch, stack, elongated deposit
beach, bar and spit and wave cut platform. of sand, shingle
or mud found in
1. Sea Cliffs the sea, almost
Sea cliffs are steep rock faces formed when parallel to the
sea waves dash against them. The rocks get shoreline.
eroded to form steep vertical walls.

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Spit 4. Karst topography is formed due to the

A spit action of
is a ridge or a. Glacier b. Wind
e m b a n k m e nt c. Sea waves d. Ground water.
of sediment,
5. Which one of the following is not a
attached to the
depositional feature of a glacier?
land on one
end and terminating in open water on the a. cirque b. Moraines
other end. Spits are common at the mouth of c. Drumlins d. Eskers
estuaries. Eg. Kakinada spit
6. D
eposits of fine silt blown by wind is
called as
Recap a. Loess b. Barchans
Levelling of uneven landform is called c. Hamada d. Ripples
gradation.
7. Stacks are formed by
Weathering is the breaking down of the
a. Wave erosion
rocks.
Physical, chemical and biological are b. River erosion
the three types of weathering. c. Glacial erosion
Running water, glacier, underground d. Wind deposion
water, wind and waves are agents of
weathering. 8. erosion is responsible for
the formation of cirque
Soil is the weathered materials covering
the earth’s surface insitu. a. wind b. glacial
c. river d. underground water.
EXERCISE II. Match the following:
1. Distributaries – glacial action

2. Mushroom rock – action of sea wave
I. C
hoose the best
answer: 3. Eskers – L
ower course of
river
1. The disintegration or decomposition of
4. Stalactites – Aeolian process
rocks is generally called as
5. Cliff – karst topography
a. weathering b. erosion
c. transportation d. deposition III. C
onsider the given
2. The process of the levelling up of land by statements and choose the
means of natural agents. right option given below
a. aggradation b. degradation 1. (i). ‘I’ Shaped valley is an erosional
c. gradation d. none feature of the river
(ii)‘U’ Shaped valley is an erosional
3. is seen in the lower course of
feature of the glacier
the river.
a. Rapids b. Alluvial fan
c. Delta d. Gorges

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(iii) ‘V’ Shaped valley is an erosional 8. D

efine: a) Moraine b) Drumlin c) Esker.
feature of the glacier 9. Mention the various features formed by
a. i, ii & iii are right wind erosion.
b. i & ii are right 10. What is a wave cut platform?
c. i & iii are right V. Give Reasons:

1. Chemical weathering is predominant in
d. only I is right
hot and humid zones.
2.
Statement I: Running water is an 2. Silt deposits are less at estuaries than
important agent of gradation deltas.
Statement II: The work of the river 3. W
ind can possibly erode the rocks from
depends on the slop of land on which all sides.
if flows
VI. Distinguish between:
a. Statement I is false II is true
1. Physical and chemical weathering.
b. Statement I and II are false
2. Delta and Estuary
c. Statement I is true II is false
3. Stalactite and stalagmite.
d. Statement I and II are true
4. Longitudinal and Transverse sand dunes.
3. Statement: Limestone regions have 5. Inselbergs and yardangs
less underground water.
6. Spit and bar.
Reason: Water does not percolate
through limestone VII. Answer in Paragraph:
a.
The statement is right reason is 1. Write a note on weathering classify and
wrong. explain.
2. Explain the erosional landforms formed
b. The statement is wrong Reason is
right. by underground water.
3. What is a glacier? Explain its types.
c.
The statement and reason are
wrong. 4. Describe the depositional work of winds.
d.
The statement and reason are VIII. Map Skill:
right. On the given outline map of the world,
IV. Answer in brief: mark the following.
1. Define weathering. 1. Any two deltas
2.
What do you mean by biological 2. A Karst region
weathering? 3. Any two hot and cold deserts
3. Mention the three courses of a river IX HOTS
with any two land forms associated to
1. I s wind the only gradational agent in
each course.
the desert?
4. What are ox-bow lakes?
2. Underground water is more common
5. H
ow does a sea cave differ from a sea arch? in limestone areas than surface run off.
6. L ist out any four karst topographical Why?
areas found in India. 3. The river channels in the lower course
7. What do you mean by a hanging valley? are wider than the upper course.

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X. Give geographical terms for

the following: INTERNET RESOURCES
a. Chemical alternation of carbonate 1. www.usgs.gov.in
rocks on lime stone region.
2. www.nasa.gov.in
b. Flat surfaces near cliffs.
c. Erosion + Transportation = Deposition 3. https://www.isro.gov.in
d. The bottom line of a snow field. 4. https://www.india.gov.in
ICT CORNER
Karst Topography
Through this activity you will
explore Karst formation.
Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Karst Topography’ page. Allow flash player to play, if it asks.
• Click ‘Next’ button in the bottom of the page to proceed to the next page and explore
the animation.
• Select ‘Dissolution’ option from the left and explore.
• Use the arrow keys to move forward and backward to the animation.
Website URL:
http://folk.uio.no/hanakrem/svalex/E-learning/Karst/

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UNIT
Atmosphere
3
Learning Objectives
To understand the composition and structure of atmosphere

To differentiate weather and climate
To correlate the factors influencing weather and climate
To recognize the classification of Clouds, wind and rainfall
Introduction Fact
Earth is a unique planet where life is In 1772 CE Daniel Rutherford discovered
found. Can you imagine life on the earth Nitrogen in atmosphere. In 1774 Joseph
without air? No. The air is essential for the priestly discovered oxygen in atmosphere
survival of all forms of life. The blanket of
air that surrounds the Earth is called the
atmosphere. It is held close to the earth by Oxygen is most important for living
gravitational attraction. organisms. CO2 absorbs heat and keeps the
atmosphere warm by insulation and radiation.
Composition of the Nitrogen acts as a diluent and is chemically
3.1
Atmosphere inactive. Ozone helps in protecting the earth
Atmosphere is a mixture of gases, from harmful ultra violet radiation. The solid
water vapour and dust particles in different particles in the atmosphere acts as nuclei
proportions. Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen on which water vapour condense to form
(21%) are permanent gases of the atmosphere. precipitation.
They constitute 99% of the total composition
and their percentages always remain the Structure of the
3.2
same without any change. The remaining one Atmosphere
percentage is occupied by Argon (0.93%), The atmosphere is thick near the earth
Carbon-di-oxide, (0.03%), Neon (0.0018%), surface and thins out until it eventually merges
Helium (0.0005%), Ozone (0.00006%) and with space. The five atmospheric layers are:
Hydrogen (0.00005%). Krypton, Xenon Troposphere, stratosphere, Mesosphere,
and Methane are also present in trace. Thermosphere and Exosphere.
Water vapour (0 - 0.4%) is also found in the
atmosphere, which plays an important role in
Troposphere
predicting weather phenomenon. The other
solid particles present in the atmosphere The lowest layer of the atmosphere is the
includes dust particles, salt particles, pollen troposphere. The Greek word ‘tropos’ means
grains, smoke, soot, volcanic ashes etc.,. ‘turn’ or change. The layer extends up to 8 kms
3. Atmosphere 180

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at the poles and up to 18 kms at the Equator. The Exosphere

temperature decreases with increasing height.
The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is
Almost all weather phenomenon take place in
called exosphere. This layer is extremely rarefied
this layer. Hence it is called weather making
with gases and gradually merges with the outer
layer. The upper limit of the troposphere is
space. This zone is characterized by aurora
called as tropopause.
Australis and aurora borealis.
Stratosphere
Auroras are cosmic glowing
Stratosphere lies above the troposphere. lights produced by a stream of
It extends to a height of about 50km above electrons discharged from the
earth surface. Since this layer is a concentration Sun's surface due to magnetic
of ozone molecules, it is also referred as storms that are seen as unique
ozonosphere. The temperature increases multicoloured fireworks hanging in the
with increase in height in this layer. Large jet polar sky during midnight
planes normally fly here. The upper limit of the
stratosphere is called as stratopause. 3.3 Weather and Climate
Weather and climate are the terms that are
Mesosphere related to the atmospheric conditions. Weather
denotes the way the atmosphere behaves every
Mesosphere extends between 50km
day and climate reveals the average of weather
and 80km. The temperature decreases with
conditions over relatively long periods of time.
increasing height. Most of the meteors nearing
The difference between the two may be clearly
the earth, get burned here. The upper most limit
understood with the following table.
of the mesosphere is the mesopause.
Hots
Thermosphere
Why is Troposphere called as weather
Thermosphere exists above the mesosphere. making layer?
It extends to about 400 km. The composition of
gases in the lower thermosphere is more or less
There are many factors
uniform, hence it is called “Homosphere”. The
that influence weather and
upper portion of the thermosphere has uneven
climate.
composition of gases and hence it is referred as
● Distance from the equator
“Heterosphere”. Here the temperature increases
with increasing height. Ionosphere is a layer of ● Altitude
the thermosphere that contains Ions and free ● Nearness to the sea
electrons. Radio waves transmitted from earth ● Nature of the prevailing winds
are reflected back to earth from this layer.
● Mountain barrier
Fact ● Cloud cover
Magnetosphere lies beyond the exosphere. ● Ocean currents
It is the earth's magnetic belt, where proton ● Natural vegetation
and electrons, coming out from the sun are
trapped by the earth. The magnetic field Distance from the Equator
extends to around 64,000 km above the The sun’s rays fall vertically on the
Earth. equator. The rays are inclined on the regions
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away from the equator and near the poles

Activity
due to the spherical shape of the earth. The
vertical rays heat up the earth more than Connect the following places with their
the inclined rays. Thus, the places near the latitudes and the temperature observed
equator are warmer than the places which are
far away from the equator.
Weather Climate
Partly 1. Weather is the study of 1. Climate is the study of Warm
sunny atmospheric conditions the average weather Climate
for short duration over condition observed over
small areas. a long period of time for
a larger area.
Windy 2. The weather changes 2. Climate is more or less Monsoon

very often ; hour to hour permanent and remains
and day to day the same always.
Rainy 3. A place can experience 3. A place can experience Wet climate

different types of weather almost the same type of
conditions in a day. Eg. A climate
day with hot morning can
have a rainy noon.
Chilly 4. Weather data is collected 4. Climate is average of Extreme
every day in the the weather data. Climate
observatories
Stormy 5. Study of weather is 5. Study of climate is cyclone

called Meteorology called Climatology
Altitude: Altitude refers to the height

City Latitude Temperature above mean sea level. The temperature
[In August] decreases at the rate of 6.5°C per km of
height. This is called Normal lapse rate. So,
Kanyakumari –
places at the higher altitude have a lower
Tamil Nadu
temperature.
Delhi-India
Activity
Moscow –
Russia Connect the following places with Altitude
and the temperature
3. Atmosphere 182

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moderating influence of the sea, such places

City Altitude Tempera-
experience a continental type of climate.
(height) ture [In
May]
Fact
Madurai-
Tamilnadu During the day, the land masses get heated
more rapidly than the oceans. Heated air
Uthagamandalam –
ascends and this causes low pressure on
Tamilnadu
the adjoining ocean. Therefore, the wind
Simla -Himachal blows from ocean to land in the afternoon.
Pradesh This is called sea breeze. Sea breeze helps
in reducing the temperature of the coastal
Nearness to the sea: region especially during the summer season.
During the night, the land cools
more rapidly than the ocean. Cold air sinks
and forms high pressure. The wind blows
from land to sea during the night, this is
Low called land breeze.
pressure
Sea Breeze Nature of the Prevailing Winds

High
The wind changes the climate of a place
Hot
pressure based on, from where they blow. When wind
blows from a warm region, it makes the place
Cold
warm and cold, when blows from a colder
Low specific heat capacity region. The on-shore winds cause rainfall
(Temperature increases faster)
making the place cool whereas the off-shore
winds bring dry weather.
Mountains barriers
The location of the mountains influence
High the climate of a place. The mountain chains
pressure
act as natural barrier for the wind. Sometimes
they prevent the entry of cold winds into the
country or the escape of monsoon winds, thus
Land Breeze
having a great influence over the climate.
Low
pressure
Cold The windward is the side of
Hot a mountain which faces the
prevailing wind. It receives
high specific heat capacity
(Temperature decreases faster) heavy rainfall.
The leeward side of the mountain is
The climate of a place, varies according the side sheltered from the wind. It receives
to its nearness to the sea. Places near the coast very less rainfall.
experience equable climate due to the influence
of the winds from the sea. Places located inland,
far from the sea, does not experience the
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Anemometer Wind vane
Cloud Cover Types of Winds

Clouds reflect a large amount of radiation Winds are generally classified into the
from the sun. This prevents the entry of heat following four major types:
to the earth’s surface. So, in areas generally of
cloudless sky like the deserts, temperature is ● Planetary winds ● Periodic winds
very high. On the other hand under cloudy sky, ● Variable wind ● Local wind
the temperature is low. Planetary winds:
Ocean currents The winds which constantly blow in
The warm ocean currents raise the the same direction throughout the year are
temperature of the nearby coastal areas, while called the Planetary winds. They are also
the cold current lower the temperature of a called as permanent winds or the prevailing
place. winds. These winds include Trade winds,
Westerlies and Polar Easterlies
Natural vegetation
The trees release water vapour into the Trade Winds
air and makes it cool. Thus forest areas have Trade winds blow from the subtropical
lower range of temperature throughout the high pressure belt to the Equatorial low pressure
year in contrast to non-forested areas. belt in both the hemispheres. They blow with
great regularity, force and in a constant direction
3.4 Winds throughout the year. These winds were very helpful
to traders who depended on the winds while sailing
The horizontal movement of air along the in the seas. And so, they are named as Trade winds.
surface of the earth is called the "Wind" while
the vertical movement of air is a called an “Air Activity
Current”. The winds always blow from a high
Find the correlation between the Trade
pressure area to a low pressure area. Wind is
Winds and the location of prominent
mostly named after the direction from which it
deserts like Sahara, Atacama etc.
blows. For example, the wind blowing from the
east is known as the easterly wind or easterlies.
An “anemometer” records wind speed Westerlies
while a “wind vane” measures the direction
Westerlies are the permanent winds that
of the wind. The unit of measurement is
blow from the tropical high pressure belt to
kilometre per hour or knots
the sub polar low pressure belt in both the
hemispheres. They blow from South West to
North East in the northern hemisphere and
North West to South East in the southern
3. Atmosphere 184

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hemisphere. The velocity of westerlies the surrounding high pressure area converge
become so vigorous and fast to be called towards the centre in a spiral form. Due to the
Roaring Forties at 400, Furious Fifties at 500 rotation of the earth, the cyclonic winds in the
and Screaming Sixties at 600 latitudes. northern hemisphere move in anti clock wise
Polar Easterlies: direction, where as they move in clockwise
direction in the southern hemisphere.
Polar easterlies are cold and dry polar
winds that blow from the polar high pressure Cyclones can be classified into
belt to the sub polar low pressure belt. Tropical cyclones
These are weak winds blowing from North Temperate cyclones
East direction in the Northern Hemisphere Extra tropical cyclones
and South East direction in the Southern Tropical cyclones:
Hemisphere.
Tropical cyclones are known as ‘cyclones’
Fact in Indian ocean, ‘typhoons’ in the western
pacific ocean, ‘hurricanes’ in the Atlantic and
The rotation of eastern Pacific ocean, ‘baguios’ in Phillipines
the Earth causes and ‘willy willy’ in Australia, Taifu in japan.
deflection of winds Tropical cyclones often cause heavy loss of life
from their original and property on the coasts and become weak
path, called the after reaching the landmasses.
“Coriolis effect”.
Winds are deflected
to the right in the G.G.Coriolis
northen hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere
which is known as “Ferrel's law”. This was
profounded by William Ferrel. He used
“Coriolis force” named after G.G Coriolis
(1792-1843) for proving Ferrel’s Law
Periodic winds
The periodic winds are the seasonal Fact
winds that change their direction periodically. Super Cyclone
These winds are caused by the differential
heating of land and ocean. A violent cyclone that hit Odisha, on Friday,
29 October 1999, was one of the most
Winds which reverse their direction with devastating and strongest storm to hit the
the change of seasons are called monsoons. Indian coast. Winds of up to 260 kph raged
Tropical Monsoon winds of Indian for over 36 hours. The winds caused a seven-
subcontinent is a best example. metre tidal wave that swept more than 20
km inland and brought massive destruction
Variable wind
and death to a number of coastal districts
Cyclones in the state of Odisha. It is estimated that
The term cyclone is a Greek word more than 10 million people in 12 coastal
meaning “coil of a snake". Cyclones are belt districts were affected by the cyclone.
centres of low pressure where, winds from More than 10,000 people lost their lives.
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Deliberations for naming Anticyclone and Cyclone

cyclones in the Indian ocean
region began in 2000 and
a formula was agreed upon
in 2004. Eight countries in
the region Bangladesh, India, Maldives,
Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Srilanka, and
Thailand contributed a set of names which
our assigned sequentially whenever a Anticyclones:
cyclonic storm develops.
Anticyclones are the opposite of
cyclones. Here an area of high pressure
Temperate cyclones: region is found in the centre surrounded
Temperate cyclones are formed along a by low pressure on all sides. The wind from
front where hot and cold air masses meet in the high pressure region move outwards to
mid-latitudes between 35° and 65°N and S. the low pressure regions in a spiral form.
Temperate cyclones do not become weak like Anticyclones are often accompanied by
the tropical cyclones on reaching the land. cold and heat waves.
Temperate cyclone commonly occurs over the
North Atlantic Ocean, North West Europe, Local Winds:
Mediterranean basin. Mediterranean basin’s Local winds are the winds that blow only
temperate cyclones extend up to Russia and in a particular locality for a short period of
India in winter. In India it is as called western time, The effect of these local winds are
disturbances. experienced only in that particular area.
A front is the boundary separating warm Such as land and sea breeze, mountain
and cold air masses. One type of airmass is and valley breeze. They are mostly seasonal
usually denser than the other, with different and have local names like....
temperatures and humidity. This meeting ● Foehn (Alps-Europe)
of airmass causes rain, snowfall, hail storm,
● Sirocco (North coast of Africa)
thunder storm, lightining cold days, hot
days, and windy days. ● Chinook (Rockies-North America)
● Loo (Thar Desert- India)
Extra tropical cyclones: ● Mistral (Mediterranean sea in France)
Extra tropical cyclones occur in the
latitudes between 30° and 60° in both the ● Bora (Mediterranean sea in Italy)
hemispheres. They are also called as mid- 3.5 Clouds
latitude cyclones. They collect energy from
According to their height, clouds are
temperature differences which are found
classified into the following types
in higher latitudes. Extra tropical cyclones
produce mild showers to heavy gales, ● High clouds (6-20km Height)
thunderstorms, blizzards, and tornadoes. ● Middle clouds (2.5km-6km Height)
Hots ● Low clouds (ground surface to 25 km height)
Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are always These major types of clouds are further
affected by cyclones. Why? divided into different types on the basis of
shape and structure.
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High clouds Low clouds

Cirrus: Detached clouds in the form of Strato-cumulus:- Grey or whitish layer
white delicate fibrous silky filaments of non-fibrous low clouds found in
formed at the high sky (8000 meters to rounded patches at an height of 2500
12000 meters) are called Cirrus clouds. to 3000 metres, associated with fair or
These clouds have Ice crystals and are clear weather
dry and do not give rainfall. Stratus:- Dense, low lying fog-like clouds
Cirro-cumulus:Whitepatched,sheetorlayer associated with rain or snow
like clouds composed of ice crystals. Cumulus:- Dome-shaped with a flat
Cirro-stratus: Smooth milky transparent base often resembling a cauliflower,
whitish clouds composed of tiny ice associated with fair weather
crystals. Cumulo-nimbus:- Fluffy thick towering
thunderstorm cloud capable of
producing heavy rain, snow, hailstorm
or tornadoes
Precipitation
Falling down of condensed water vapour
in different forms is called Precipitation.
When the dew point is reached in the cloud
water droplets become saturated and start
to fall. Hence, they fall on the earth as
Precipitation.
The climatic conditions/ factors influencing
the forms of precipitation mainly are:
During sunset cirrus clouds look ● Temperature.
colourful hence they are called as ● Altitude
“Mare's Tails”. ● Cloud type.
● Atmospheric conditions.
● Precipitation process.
Middle clouds The main forms of precipitation include
Alto-stratus: Thin sheets of grey or blue drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, hail etc.
coloured clouds in uniform appearance. Drizzle
consisting of frozen water droplets
Alto-cumulus: clouds fitted closely Common types of clouds in the
h troposphere
together in parallel bands, called as

'Sheep clouds' or wool pack clouds. Cirrocumulus Cirrus
(mackeral sky) above 18,000 feet
above 18,000 feet Cumulonimbus
Nimbo stratus: These are clouds of dark

from near the ground
to above 5o,000 feet
Altocumulus Altocumulus
colour very close to the ground surface

6,000 to 20,000 feet 20,000 to 60,000 feet
associated with rain, snow or sleet.

Stratocumulus
The only sphere which below 6,000 feet Stratus Cumulus

below 6,000 feet below 6,000 feet
contains all clouds in the

atmosphere is troposphere
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Falling of numerous uniform minute 3.6 Rainfall

droplets of water with diameter of less than
0.5 mm is called drizzle from low clouds. Rainfall is the most predominant type of
Sometimes drizzles are combined with fog Precipitation. Moisture laden air masses raise
and hence reduce visibility. upwards, forms clouds and bring rainfall. Based
on the mechanisms of raising the air, there are
Rain
three types of rainfall.
Rain is the most widespread and
1. Convectional rainfall
important form of precipitation in places
2. Frontal or cyclonic rainfall
having temperature above the freezing
3. Orographic rainfall.
point. It occurs only when there is abundant
moisture in the air. The diameter of a rain 1. Convectional rainfall (or)
drop is more than 5mm. 4'o' Clock rainfall
Sleet Earth surface is intensely heated through
solar radiation during the day time. When
Sleet refers to a precipitation, in the
the air near the earth surface is heated, it
form of pellets made up of transparent and
rises and expands. This heating results is the
translucent ice. This precipitation is a mixture
formation of convectional air currents. Thus
of snow and rain
the ascending moist air cools, condenses and
Snow results in convectional rainfall. Convectional
Snow is formed when condensation occurs rainfall occurs regularly in the equatorial
below freezing point. It is the precipitation of region in the evenings. It is also experienced
opaque and semi opaque ice crystals. When in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions
these ice crystals collide and stick together, it in the summer months and on warmer days.
becomes snowflakes.
Hails Convectional rainfall
Hails are chunks of ice (greater than 2cm

in diameter) falling from the sky, during a
rainstorm or thunderstorm. Hailstones are a Rainfall
form of solid precipitation where small pieces

of ice fall downwards. These are destructive Warm air rises and cools
and dreaded forms of solid precipitation Heating of air

near earth surface
because they destroy agricultural crops and

human lives.
Fact 2. Cyclonic rainfall (or) Frontal

Any thunderstorm which is associated
Cyclonic / Frontal rainfall
with fall of hail stones is known as
hailstorm. Hailstorm is one of the most
feared weather phenomenon because it
has the potential to destroy plant, trees,
crops, animals and human life.
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Cyclonic precipitation occurs during large quantities of water vapour. The amount of
cyclones when air masses are made to converge water vapour in the atmosphere is called absolute
and move upward so that adiabatic cooling humidity.
occurs. Cyclonic rainfall occurs in tropical as When the relative humidity of
well as temperate regions. When warm and the air is 100%, the air is said to be
cold air masses converge, condensation and saturated. Saturated air will not
precipitation takes place on the boundary absorb any more water vapour.
between warm and cold air masses called as
Frontal rainfall. The temperature at which air gets saturated is
called dew point.
3.Orographic Humidity of the atmosphere is measured by the
rainfall Windward side Leeward side wet and dry bulb thermometer also called the
(or) Relief Hygrometer
rainfall
Orographic Absolute humidity is expressed in terms of grams
rainfall, also of water vapour present per cubic metre of air.
called relief Relative humidity is expressed in percentage.
rainfall, is caused
OROGRAPHIC RAINFALL
when air is forced Recap

to rise against a high mountain. The mountain
Atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that
barriers lying across the direction of air flow,
surrounds the earth.
forces the moisture laden air to rise along the
The major gases in the atmosphere are
mountain slope. This results in the cooling of
Nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%)
the air, which leads to the formation of clouds
Five Layers of the atmosphere are
and rain.
Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
This rainfall is called Orographic rainfall.
thermosphere and exosphere
The side of the mountain facing the wind is
Atmosphere gets heated through
called the windward side and receives heavy
conduction.
rainfall. It is called the rainfed region. The
other side of the mountain that does not face Wind is the horizontal movement of air
the wind is called the leeward side and receives Wind blows from high pressure belt to
less rainfall becomes rain shadow region. low pressure belt.
The 4 types of winds are permanent
Mawsynram is the wettest place (planetary), periodic, local and variable
of India as it is located in the winds.
windward side of the Purvachal Cyclone is an area of low pressure
hills, whereas Shillong lies surrounded by high pressure
on the leeward side and thus Anticyclone is an area of high pressure
receives less rainfall. This is the same, in the area surrounded by low pressure.
case of Mumbai and Pune.
Clouds: A visible mass of Condensed
water vapour floating in the air
3.7 Humidity
All precipitation occurs from clouds
Humidity is an important aspect of the According to height clouds are
atmosphere because it affects both weather and classified into High clouds, Middle
climate. The amount of water vapour present clouds and low-clouds
in the atmosphere is referred to as humidity. The main forms of precipitation are
Humidity of the atmosphere is high when it has drizzle, rain, snow, sleet, hail etc.
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c. mist d. sleet.
EXERCISE 10.________ is called the eye of the storm/
cyclone.
I. Choose The Best a. Pressure b. wind
Answers: c. cyclones d. snow.
1.
_______is the most 11. The vertical movement of air is
important gas for the survival of living called
organisms.
a. Wind b. storm
a. Helium b. carbon-di-oxide
c. Air current d. drift.
c. oxygen d. methane
2. T he lowest layer of the atmosphere II. Match the following:
is 1. Meteorology — wind speed
a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere 2. Climatology — direction of wind
c. Exosphere d. Mesosphere 3. Anemometer — cirrus
4. Wind Vane — study of climate
3. reflects radio waves. 5. Mare's Tail — study of weather
a. Exosphere b. Ionosphere 6. Leeward side — Australia
c. Mesosphere d. Stratosphere 7. Willy willy — rain shadow region
4. The process of change of state of water
III. Answer the following Briefly:
from gaseous to liquid state is called
1. Define atmosphere
a. Precipitation b. evaporation
c. transpiration d. condensation. 2. M
ention the factors that affect the climate?
5. The is the chief energy source 3. Write short note on Lapse rate.
of the Earth. 4. What are the processes responsible for
a. Sun b. Moon heating the atmosphere?
c. Stars d. Clouds. 5. Mention the Planetary wind system of
6.
A ll types of clouds are found in the earth.
the 6. Write short note on:
a. Troposphere b. Ionosphere a. Trade winds.
c. Mesosphere d. Exosphere b. Roaring Forties
7. How are clouds formed?
7. clouds are called 'Sheep
clouds' 8. What are the different types of rainfall?
a. Alto-cumulus b. Alto-Stratus 9. Write short notes on:

c. Nimbo - stratus d. Cirro-stratus. a. drizzle b. rain
c. sleet d. snow
8. The Monsoons are e. heat
a. Prevailing winds 10. How are Cyclones classified?
b. Periodic winds
IV. Give reason:
c. local winds
1. C
yclones cause huge loss of life and
d. none of the above.
property.
9.
Dew in the form of ice crystals is
2. Cloudy days are warmer than cloudless
called ______
days.
a. frost b. fog
3. Fog is dangerous for traffic.
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4. C onvectional rainfall is also called 4'0 VII. Activity:

clock rain. 1. Preparing chart of clouds at various
5. P
olar Easterlies are cold and dry. Why it is atmospheric layers.
so? 2. C ollecting Proverbs clouds and rain
V. Distinguish between the related Proverbs
following: 3. Poem on 'clouds', 'rain'
4. Report writing observe the clouds for a
1. Weather and climate
week. Write your report about the shape
2. L
and breeze and sea breeze and colours ofclouds.
3. W
indward side and Leeward side. 5. Working models a) Rain Gauge b)Wind
4. T
ropical cyclone and Temperate cyclones. vane
VI. Paragraph Questions: 6. Preparing bar diagram
1. Write a paragraph about the structure of Collect the data of temperature of

the atmosphere. Kanyakumari, Delhi, Allahabad, and
Itanagar for a day.Also collect the data of
2. Explain the different types of Permanent
rainfall received by Jaisalmer (Rajasthan),
winds.
Mawsynram (Meghalaya), Nagapattinam,
3. How are clouds classified? Explain them. Coimbatore for a day.
4. H
ow are cyclones formed? How are they 7. Become a budding Meterologist:
classified? Record the local weather condition of your
5. E xplain the different forms of place for a week.
precipitation
ICT CORNER Melting point
Through this activity you will observe

the land forms formed by glaciers.
Steps
1. Use the URL to download the ‘Glaciers’ flash file.
2. S elect the ‘Glacier type’ from bottom and change them using arrows to see
the different land forms affected by it.
3. S elect ‘Anatomy of Glaciers’ from top of the page and animate the activity to
observe the glacier formation.
4. Select ‘Glacier Erosion’ and press ‘Move Glacier’ button to observe erosion
made by glaciers.
Website URL:
https://ees.as.uky.edu/sites/default/files/elearning/module13swf.swf
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UNIT
Hydrosphere
4
Learning Objectives
To understand the importance of water
To know about fresh water
To know about the relief features of the ocean floor
To recognize the movements of ocean water
To understand marine resources and the need for conservation
Introduction as glaciers, ice caps, groundwater, rivers, lakes,

and also as the water vapour in air.
We know that, our planet Earth consists
of four spheres. They are the Lithosphere, 4.2 Hydrological Cycle
Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Biosphere. The Earth’s water is
In the earlier chapters, we have studied about not static. It is always in
the Lithosphere and Atmosphere. We shall motion. This continuous
now learn the other two spheres namely the movement of water on,
Hydrosphere and the Biosphere. above and below the
earth’s surface is called
4.1 Hydrosphere the Hydrological Cycle.
One of the most indispensable natural The three major processes involved in the
resources on earth is water. The Earth is also water cycle are evaporation, condensation
called the Blue planet, as it holds water in and precipitation. Water changes its form
abundance and thus stands unique among all constantly i.e. Ice, water and water vapour.
other planets. Hydrosphere consists of water in This process happens in the blink of an eye
various forms found on the earth. Over 97% of or even over millions of years.
the water on the Earth’s surface is confined to Water resources of the Earth can be broadly
oceans. Less than 3% of water is held on land divided into fresh water and salt water.
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4.3 Fresh Water

Hots
Rain water is considered to be the purest
form of water, as it contains very less proportion 71% of the earth is covered by water, but
of salts when compared to the oceans and very little can be used by humans. Why?
seas. Hence it is called fresh water. A major The oceans are salty. Why?
part of fresh water is found in the frozen state Oceans and seas are considered as resource
in the form of ice caps and glaciers. Around bowl of the earth because of the immense
1% of it is found in the liquid state as rivers, availability of food, minerals etc., Present
streams, lakes, ponds etc. Surface water may distribution of the world’s oceans and major
also penetrate through porous rocks and gets seas are illustrated in the map.
collected beneath the Earth’s surface. This is
called groundwater. Sylvia Earle is a famous
American oceanographer .
Fact She was named as the first,
Finland is known as the land of thousand ‘Hero for the Planet’ by Time
lakes. There are 1,87,888 lakes in Finland. magazine for her efforts
towards marine life protections.
Jacques-Yves Cousteau (1910-1997) was
Water table is a level below the
a famous French Ocean explorer, who
ground, where water is found
conducted extensive under-sea investigations .
collected beneath the Earth’s
surface. He belonged to the information service of
Aquifers are porous rock the French Navy, and was sent on missions
strata filled with water, found below the to Shanghai and Japan (1935–1938) and in
earth’s surface. the USSR (1939).
Honours
4.4 Oceans Cross of War 1939–1945 (1945)
The continents and oceans are however, U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom (1985)
not evenly distributed in the northern and
the southern hemispheres. The northern 4.4.1
Relief Of The Ocean Floor
hemisphere holds 61% of land whereas the
southern hemisphere holds 81% of water. It The ocean basins are
is because of this pattern of land and water characterised by the following
distribution, the northern hemisphere is major relief features:
called as the land hemisphere and the (A) Continental shelf
southern hemisphere is called as the water (B) Continental slope
hemisphere. (C) Continental rise
(D) Deep sea plain or
Abyssal plain
(E) Oceanic deep
(F) Oceanic ridge
(A) Continental Shelf
A shallow and gently sloping platform extending
out from the adjoining continental land mass into
the sea is called Continental Shelf. It is almost a
uniform zone of sea bed with a gentle gradient.
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Geo Connect
Hypsometric Curve
s)
ONGC: Oil and
ain
(pl
ter
iors
e lf
Natural Gas
in sh
tal tal Deep
8
6 u nta
ins
n tin
en
n tin
en trenches Corporation is
Mo Co Co
4
Ocean floor
India’s largest
2
oil and gas
Elevation (km)
−2
0 exploration
−4
−6
and production
−8 company. Its latest estimate is that about 20
−10
million tons of oil reserves are found west
0 20 40 60 80 100
of Mumbai High off shore.
% of Earth’s surface
A Hypsometric Curve is a graphic

representation which shows the height (B) Continental Slope
of a certain place found on land and the A steep slope which descends from the edge of
height of ocean features at sea. the continental shelf to the deep ocean-bed is
'Hypso' means height in Greek. called continental slope. It forms a boundary
between the Continental Crust and the oceanic
The continental shelf is of great significance for crust. This zone is free from deposits as they
the following reasons: are steep. The most important characteristic
• They are shallower, thus enables sunlight to of continental slope is the presence of deep
penetrate through the water. This encourages canyons and trenches. Due to the low
abundant growth of grass, sea weeds and penetration of sunlight, the slope has nearly
plankton. Hence these zones become the freezing temperature. Hence aquatic life has
richest fishing grounds in the world. Eg. very slow rate of metabolism.
The Grand Banks of Newfoundland. (C) Continental Rise
• The continental shelves have extensive At the base of the continental slope is a gently sloping
deposits of minerals and mineral fuels. layer of sediments which merge into the deep-
Hence, this zone becomes accessible for sea floor. This underwater feature found between
oil drilling and mining activities. E.g. continental slope and abyssal plains is called the
Mumbai High in Arabian Sea. continental rise. It consists of submarine fans
which are similar to the alluvial fans found on land.
Major Relief Features of the Ocean
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(D) Deep Sea Plains or Abyssal Plains basaltic rock formed when two tectonic plates
The deep sea plains or abyssal moves apart. The mid-ocean ridge is probably
plains are underwater plains the most extensive single feature of the earth’s
found on the deep ocean floor. topography. Two of the most well known mid-
These plains extend from ocean ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the
continental rise to the mid East Pacific Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is
oceanic ridges. The gradient the largest unbroken oceanic ridge.
of the slope is very gentle and
it appears as a uniform flat and featureless plain. Fathoms  A nautical
These plains are usually covered by the thick layer measurement of the depth of
of sediments composed of clay, silt and sand, water in the ocean.
brought by the rivers. These are often characterized Isobath  An imaginary line
by features like abyssal hills, sea mounts, guyots, on a map joining the points of equal depths.
coral, atoll etc. Isohaline  An imaginary line on a map
joining the points of equal salinity in oceans.
Abyssal plains in the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans tend to
be extensive than the Pacific
Ocean because, majority
of the world’s largest rivers
empty their sediments into either Atlantic
or Indian Ocean. E.g. Amazon, Ganga and
Brahmaputra rivers.
(E) Oceanic Deeps

Trenches are the deepest part of the oceans and
occupy about 7% of the total relief of the ocean
floor. The ocean temperature in the trench is
slightly cooler than the freezing temperature.
As they are sediment free, most trenches are
V-shaped with steep sides. Epicentre of the
great earthquakes are all found in the trenches.
Dragon Hole is the deepest

Mid Atlantic Ridge
known underwater sink hole in
the world. The local fishermen 4.3.2 Movement of the Ocean
call it the ‘eye’ of the South Water
China Sea.
The ocean water is dynamic. Temperature,
salinity, density, external forces of the sun,
moon and the winds keep the ocean waters in
movement, both horizontally and vertically.
Waves and currents are in horizontal motion
while tides have vertical motion.
(A) Waves
(F) Oceanic Ridge Of all the movements of the oceans, sea waves
Oceanic ridge is a continuous submarine are considered to be the strongest. Sea waves are
mountain chain. They are made of young ripples on water caused when winds blow over
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the sea. The height of these waves depends on

Potential tidal
the speed of wind, its duration and the direction
energy zones
from which they blow. Sometimes waves are also
of India are
caused by tremors felt on the ocean floor. Such
the Gulf of
waves are quite destructive and called Tsunami.
Khambhat, Gulf
The energy of the falling wave of Kutch and Sundarbans.
water is used to turn hydro
turbines to generate power. MARITIME BORDERS
Wave energy power plants have Maritime boundary of most
been installed at Vizhinjam in the Countries is fixed to be
Kerala coast and Andaman and Nicobar 12 nautical miles from the
islands of India. baseline. This was fixed by the
U.N. Convention on the Law of
(B) Tides
the sea 2013 where as Jordan and Palau have
The periodic rise and fall of sea water due
3 nautical miles as their maritime boundary
to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon
and Benin, Republic of Congo, EI Salvador,
on earth are called tides. They are classified
Peru and Somalia have 200 nautical miles.
broadly into Spring tides and Neap tides.
(C) Oceans Currents
When the Sun, Moon and Earth are aligned
in the same line, the collective gravitation pull of The movement of oceanic water on the
the sun and moon on earth’s water strengthens to surface and at the depths in a definite direction
form a high tide known as spring tide. Such tides is called ocean current. Ocean currents are in
always occur on full moon and new moon days. clockwise motion in the northern hemisphere
and in the anti-clockwise motion in the southern
hemisphere.
TYPES OF TIDES
The factors that generate ocean currents are:
SPRING TIDE
• Earth’s rotation
• Prevailing winds and
Sun
• Differences in temperature and salinity of
full moon new moon
ocean water.
solar tide lunar tide
On the basis of temperature, ocean currents
NEAP TIDE first-quarter moon are classified as warm currents and cold
lunar tide
currents. The movement of ocean currents
from the high latitudes (temperate and
solar tide
Sun
polar zones) towards low latitudes (tropical
zones) is called cold current. Eg. Labrador in
Atlantic Ocean and Peruvian cold current in
third-quarter moon
South Pacific Ocean.
NIO (National Institute
of Oceanography) was
When the sun and the moon are at right
established in 1st January
angles, their gravitational forces work against
1966. The headquarters of
each other, causing a low tide called neap tide. NIO is located at Dona Paula,
A neap tide occurs between two spring tides i.e., Goa. It Conducts research and observations
twice a month, when the first and last quarter to understand oceanic features, Ocean
moon appears. engineering, marine Archaeology etc.
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4.5 Marine Resources Hots

The biotic and abiotic
What will happen if the seas and oceans
resources found in the oceanic contain only fresh water?
water and at the bottoms
are called marine resources. Marine Resources
The ocean’s resources play
a vital role in sustaining the Energy resources Mineral Resources Biological Resources
needs of society. A diverse Eg: Energy fuels, Tidal

energy, wave Energy etc.
Eg: Petroleum, Naturalgas,
Metallic Minerals, sand,
Eg: Fishes, plankton, sea
grass, Coral etc.
gravel etc.
array of marine organisms is used for food,
medicine, cosmetics, and a wealth of industrial
4.4.1 C
onservation Of Marine
applications. The world’s demand for energy,
minerals and water have become increasingly Resources
dependent on non-living marine resources. Oceans are the life blood of planet earth
and mankind. The humankind depends on the
marine resources for its survival. They are also
essential for the economic prosperity, social well-
being and quality of life. Oceans have extensive
deposits of oil reserves. Besides a major fishing
ground, it helps in generating non-conventional
energy, development of many ports and harbours
for trade activities. Coastal tourism also attracts
people around the world, thereby contributing
to the economy of many countries.
DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR OCEAN CURRENTS AND EFFECTS
Ocean Name of the Current Effects

Leads to foggy conditions along the coast
South Atlantic Ocean Benguela Current [Cold] of Namibia. Helped in the development of
Namibian & Kalahari deserts
Canaries [Cold] Influences the extension of Sahara Desert
Its confluence with the Labrador current
produces heavy fog along the coast of
Gulf Stream [Warm] Newfoundland, obstacles the navigation.
Hence, Newfoundland is one of the major
North Atlantic Ocean fishing grounds of the world.
It keeps the ports at higher latitudes
North Atlantic Drift
ice-free throughout the year. Eg. Port of Rorvik
[Warm]
(Norway), Murmansk and Severodvinsk (Russia)
Its confluence with Gulf Stream creates fog
Labrador [Cold]
and hinders navigation.
It is one of the causes for the formation of
Peruvian / Humboldt Atacama desert. Change in the nature of
South Pacific Ocean
Current [Cold] Peruvian current, is also associated to the
formation of “ELNINO”.
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It plays a vital role in carrying large amount of

Kuroshio Current
heat to the adjacent land areas and forms
[Warm]
cloud cover that cause rainfall.
Its confluence with the Kuroshio current
produces heavy fogs around Hokkaido, which
Oyashio / Kurile Current
become potential hazards for navigation.
[Cold]
North Pacific Ocean Hence, Hokkaido acts as the major fishing
ground of the world.
Keeps the seaports of Alaska open
Alaska Current [Warm]
throughout the year.
California Current Leads to foggy conditions along the coast

of California. It is one of the reason for the
[Cold] formation of Arizona & Sonata deserts.
Leads to foggy conditions along the western
West Australian Current
Indian Ocean coast of Australia. It helped in the genesis of
[Cold]
west Australian desert.
Major Ocean Currents of the World

We
st
t
Greenla n d C
rren
C.
eg C .
ska C
N
Ala n ian
Lab dor C urre
io Cu
enl ASIA
d
..
urrent
Gre
W E
ra
st
rw
Oyash
.
No
S
Ea
North Pacific NORTH C. EUROPE ific

North Pac
nt
Current n ti c
AMERICA North A t l a Current
m
rea
Ca urre
St
Ku
r y C.
C
lifo nt
ro s h i o C .
Gulf
rnia
na
Nort a
h Equatorial C . C
t
r ren
Cu North E
torial quato
North Equa AFRICA North Equatorial Current
Curren rial
t
Equatorial Counter Current
Equatorial Counter Current Equatoria
ue C
SOUTH uth l
So C. South Equatorial Current
z a m biq
South Equatorial Current AMERICA

t
r r e r a li a n
n
nt
Hu rrent
rre
Mo
C
Cu
rre
s
.
lha AUSTRALIA
Cu
mboldt
Cu
Cu ust
nt
ela
ian
Agu
zil
tA
stral
es
gu
Br a
n
Be W
East Au
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Map not to scale Map not to scale ANTARCTICA
Warm current
Cold current
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The Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier reef is the world's largest coral
reef system composed of 2,900 individual reefs and
900 islands stretching for about 2,000 kilometres.
It covers an area of about 3,50,000 km. The reef is
located in the Coral sea, off the coast of Queensland,Australia. The
Great Barrier Reef can be seen from the outer space. This sprawling
coral reef system is one of the most biologically diverse places on the
planet.Coral reefs are built by billions of tiny organisms, known as
Coral polyps.CNN labelled it as one of the seven natural wonders of the world.
Recap
Hydrosphere, the third sphere of Earth, EXERCISE
is a collection of all forms of water on
the earth. I Choose the
Hydrological cycle is the continuous correct answer
movement of water on Earth. 1. T he temperature of
Water is available on Earth as fresh and the ocean waters generally_______
salt water. Over 97% of the water on the at greater depth.
Earth’s surface is confined to oceans. a) increases b) decreases
The five major oceans of the world are c)remains constant d) none of the above
the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the 2. O cean currents are produced due to
Southern and the Arctic ocean. _________
The major relief of the ocean floor are a) due to rotation of earth
continental shelf, continental slope,
b) due to variation in temperature
continental rise, abyssal plains, ocean
deeps and ocean ridges. c) due to earth’s movement
d) all the above
Marine resources are nothing but the
biotic and abiotic resources found in the 3. Consider the following statements.
oceans. 1. M ost of the fishing grounds occur in
Oceans are the lifelines of Earth and areas where the continental shelf is
mankind. Hence, they need to be wide.
conserved. 2. Fishing is well developed in warm
tropical waters.
The Gangetic Dolphin was 3. Mixing of warm and cold currents
declared the National Aquatic facilitates plant nutrients for fish.
Animal in 2010. This has become 4. Inland fishing became significant in
an endangered species. Are the India.
Dolphins really at
risk? If so, list out the a) 1 and 2 are correct.
reasons. b) 1 and 3 are correct.
c) 2,3 and 4 are correct.
d) 1,2 and 3 are correct
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4.
T he oceanic ridge comes into 2. Assertion(A): Flat topped seamounts
existence due to are known as Guyots.
a) convergence of tectonic plates Reason(R): All guyot features are of
b) divergence of tectonic plates volcanic origin.
c) lateral movements of plates 3. Assertion(A): Submarine canyons
d) stearing of plates. are deep gorges on the ocean floor.
5. Which of the following indicates the Reason(R): They are mainly restricted
correct sequence of the topography to continental shelf, slope and rise
beneath the surface of the sea? 4. A
ssertion (A): Atolls are more
a) C ontinental shelf-Continental slope- common in the Atlantic ocean.
Sea plain-Sea trench. Reason(R): The marine population at
b) Continental slope-Continental shelf- the depth is less.
Sea plain-Sea trench. III. Match the following:
c) Sea plain-Continental slope-
1. Mariana - Decreases salinity in
Continental shelf-Sea trench.
trench the oceans
d) C ontinental slope-Sea plain-
Continental shelf-Sea trench. 2. Great Barrier - Along the coast of
6.
Which of the following is not Reef Japan
correctly matched?
3. Spring tides - Deepest point in the
a) Gulf Stream - Pacific Ocean Pacific
b) Labrador - North Atlantic 4. Heavy rains - Australia
current Ocean
5. Kuroshio - Second order landform
c) Canary - Mediterranean
current
current sea
6. Continental - On full and new moon
d) Mozambique - Indian Ocean.
slope days
current
II. Assertion(A), Reason (R) IV. Answer the following in brief:

type Questions.
1.
What do you mean by the term
Directions Hydrosphere?
a) both A and R are correct and R
explains A. 2. What is hydrological cycle?
b) both A and R are correct but R does 3. Mention the various relief features of
not explain A. ocean floor
c) A is correct but R is false.
d) A is false but R is correct 4. What are the factors that generate
1. Assertion (A): Oceans are always the ocean currents?
shown in blue in maps.
5. Write a brief note on sea waves.
Reason(R): It indicates the natural
colour of the oceans.
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V. Give reasons for the following: VII. Answer in a paragraph:

1.
T he northern hemisphere and 1. Write a note on continental shelf
the southern hemisphere are and continental slope.
called land and water hemispheres 2. What do you mean by ocean
respectively. currents? Explain its types.
2. Continental shelf provides good 3. Explain the influences of the
fishing ground. marine resources on mankind.
VI. Distinguish the following:
1. Spring tide and Neap tide.
2. Abyssal plains and Ocean deeps.
ICT CORNER
Geography - Hydrosphere
Let us know the names of the earth's

spheres by using memory cards
Steps
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: You see the Earth’s Spheres cards.
Step 3: Click the cards and choose correct Spheres and Examples
Website URL :
https://matchthememory.com/Earthspheres
https://www.purposegames.com/game/the-hydrosphere-game
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UNIT
Biosphere
5
Learning Objectives
To understand the scope and meaning of biosphere

To understand the meaning of ecosystem, its components,
functions and biodiversity
To know the major biomes of the world
To know the need for the conservation of biomes
Introduction 5.1 Ecosystem

Biosphere, the fourth sphere of the Earth, An ecosystem is a community, where
is a life supporting layer that exists on the earth’s all living organisms live and interact with
surface. This layer on earth encompasses the one another and also with their non-living
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere. It environment such as land, soil, air, water etc.
includes flora and fauna that thrive on or near the Ecosystems range in size from the smallest
earth’s surface. The vertical range of the biosphere units (Eg: bark of a tree) that can sustain life
is approximately 20 km, which is measured from to the global ecosystem or ecosphere. (Eg:
the ocean floor to the troposphere. However, most Cropland, Pond ecosystem, Forest ecosystem,
plants and animals live in a very narrow section Desert ecosystem etc.). Biosphere harbours all
for about 1 km above and below the Mean Sea ecosystems on the earth and sustains life forms
Level (MSL). Biosphere is made up of different including mankind.
ecosystems and biomes. All living things, large or
small, are grouped into species.The area in which
an animal, plant or micro organism lives is called
its habitat. A wide variety of plants and animals
live in a particular habitat known as biodiversity.
VERTICAL RANGE OF BIOSPHERE ON EARTH
8000 Tallest mountains
6000
4000
Area where most
2000
living things live
sea level
2000 Average ocean Activity
floor depth
4000
Narrate the forest ecosystem in your
Depth(in meters) own words.
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Decomposers are some organisms that

•
� Th
e branch of science that are incapable of preparing its own food.
deals about ecosystem is They live on dead and decaying plants and
called Ecology. animals. Hence they are called Saprotrophs.
Eg. fungus, mushrooms etc.
� A
person who studies
ecology is referred to as an
Activity
Ecologist.
Find the etymology of Herbivores,
5.1.1 Components of Ecosystem
carnivores, omnivores and scavengers
An ecosystem consists using dictionary.
of three basic components,
namely C) Energy Components
A) Abiotic components All organisms in the biosphere use energy
B) Biotic components and to work and convert one form of energy into
C) Energy component another. The Sun is the ultimate source of energy
for the biosphere as a whole. The solar energy gets
A) Abiotic Components transformed into other forms of energy through
Abiotic components include the non-living, the various components in the ecosystem. The
inorganic, physical and chemical factors in the producers, consumers and the decomposers
environment. Eg. Land, Air ,Water, Calcium, contribute a lot to the energy flow in an ecosystem.
Iron etc.
5.1.2 Functions of an ecosystem
B) Biotic Components
Biotic components include plants, animals and
micro organisms. Biotic components can be
classified into three categories :
Producers are self nourishing components
•
of the ecosystem. Hence they are called
Autotrophs. They are found both on land
and water. Eg. Plants, Algae, Bacteria etc.
C onsumers are those that depend on
•
producers, directly or indirectly. Hence they
are called Heterotrophs.
The common category of consumers are:
• Primary consumers depend on producers
for their food. They are exclusively
herbivores. Eg. zebra, goat etc. The living organisms form an interacting
set of flora and fauna which are organized into
Secondary consumers are small carnivores
• trophic levels, food chains and food webs. The
i.e., they consume herbivores. Eg. lion, functioning of an ecosystem depends on the
snake etc. pattern of the energy flow, as it helps in the
Tertiary consumers are top carnivores that
• distribution and circulation of the organic and
prey on both herbivores and carnivores. Eg. inorganic matter within an ecosystem. Energy
owl, crocodile etc. flow generally takes place in a hierarchical
order in an ecosystem through various
levels. These levels are called trophic levels.
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The chain of transformation of energy from 5.3.1 Terrestrial Biomes

one group of organisms to another, through Terrestrial biomes is a group of living
various trophic levels is called a food chain. organisms that live and interact with one
A system of interlocking and interdependent another on land. They are mainly determined
food chains is called a food web. by temperature and rainfall. Some of the major
5.2 Biodiversity terrestrial biomes of the world are
Biodiversity or biological diversity refers A. Tropical Forest Biomes

to a wide variety of living organisms (plants,
animals and other micro organisms) which live B. Tropical Savanna Biomes
in a habitat. It is highly influenced by topography, C. Desert Biomes
climate as well as human activities. It represents
the strength of the biological resources of a D. Temperate Grassland
place on earth. In biodiversity, each species, Biomes
no matter how big or small, has an important
role to play in the ecosystem. It maintains the E. Tundra Biomes
ecological balance and facilitates social benefits
CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMES
such as tourism, education, research etc. over
Natural: Terrestrial
an area.
5.2.1 Loss of biodiversity
The extinction of species (flora and fauna)
due to human and natural influences is called Grassland Forest
loss of biodiversity.
A healthy eco system provides clean water,
pure water, enriched soil, food, raw materials,
medicines etc. Hence stable biosphere has to be
conserved.
5.3 Biomes Desert
A biome is a geographically extensive

Natural: Aquatic
ecosystem where all flora and fauna are found
collectively. It is the total assemblage of plant
and animal life interacting within the biosphere.
Biomes are defined by abiotic factors like, relief,
climate, soils and vegetation. They are classified Marine: Oceans Freshwater
into two broad categories, terrestrial biomes
and aquatic biomes. A. Tropical Forest Biomes
The tropical forest biome is comprised
An ecological region of several sub-biomes, including evergreen
that has lost more than 70% rainforest, seasonal deciduous forest etc.
of its original habitat is
considered a hotspot. Tropical forests have the highest biodiversity
and primary productivity of any of the terrestrial
Hotspots in India are the Himalayas,
Western Ghats, Indo Burma Region and biomes. The Amazon basin, Congo basin and
Sundaland. Indonesian islands are the major regions of this
There are 34 areas around the world which biome. These regions have very dense forests
are qualified as biodiversity hotspots and so have great economic importance. Human
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settlements are found scattered here. They sustain North and South latitudes. The annual rainfall is
their livelihood through food gathering, fishing, less than 25 cm in these regions. Due to the lack
lumbering and shifting cultivation. Due to the of rainfall and arid conditions, these regions
humid nature of this biome, the people get do not possess any vegetation but have special
afflicted to tropical diseases like malaria, yellow vegetation type called Xerophytes. As the soil is
fever etc. The chief trees found here are rubber, sandy and saline, deserts remain agriculturally
bamboo, ebony, etc. Bats, pheasants, jaguars, unproductive. Drought resistant thorny scrubs
elephants, monkeys etc. are the important birds and bushes, palms are found here.
and animals found here.
The U.S. National Cancer

Institute has identified about
70% of the plants used for
treating cancer. Which are
found only in rain forests. Eg. Lapacho.
B. T ropical Savanna (Grasslands)

Biomes
Tribal people who live here practice
Tropical grasslands are generally found
food gathering and hunting. They move their
between tropical forests and deserts. Tropical
temporary settlements frequently in search of
Savanna biomes are found between 10o to 20o
pastures. Transportation becomes very difficult
Noth and South latitudes. These grasslands are
here and is carried on by camels. Reptiles
generally flat and are found in the Sahel, south
like snakes, lizards, scorpions etc., are most
of Sahara in East Africa and in Australia. This
commonly found here.
biome is generally hot and dry and experiences
moderate to low rainfall. So, the grass which
grow here are tall and sharp. Hence the chief
occupation of the people found here is herding.
The primitive people living here are nomadic.
The common animals found here are the

An oasis is a fertile fresh water source found in
lion, leopard, tiger, deer, zebra, giraffe etc. Flora deserts and semi-arid regions. Oases are fed by
such as Rhodes grass, red oats grass, lemon springs. Crops like date palms, figs, citrus fruits,
grass etc. are found in this biome. maize etc. are cultivated near these oases.
Of late, parts of the Savanna D. Temperate Grassland Biomes

grasslands are being converted Temperate Grasslands are usually found
into farmlands, which pose a in the interior of the continents and are
great threat to the wide range of characterized by large seasonal temperature
fauna. For Eg. The population variations, with warm summer and cold
of the big cats like cheetah, lion etc. are winter. The type of grassland in these regions
dwindling drastically. strongly depends upon precipitation. Higher
precipitation leads to tall and soft grass and
lower precipitation leads to short and soft
C. Desert Biomes
grass. These regions favour wheat cultivation.
Deserts are usually found on the western Extensive mechanised agriculture is practised
margins of the continents between 20° and 30° due to lack of farm labour. Pastoral industry
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becomes the main occupation, thereby 5.3.2 Aquatic Biomes

facilitating slaughtering of animals, packing of Aquatic biome is a group of living organisms
raw and processed meat, dairy products etc. The that live and interact with one another and its
common birds and animals are grass hopper, aquatic environment for nutrients and shelter.
wolf, bison, prairie dog etc. Like terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are
Temperate grasslands are called differently in influenced by a series of abiotic factors.It is
different parts of the world. broadly classified as fresh water biomes and
marine biomes.
Prairies -- North America
Steppes -- Eurasia A. Fresh water Biomes:
Pampas -- Argentina and Uruguay It comprises lakes, ponds, rivers,
Veld -- South Africa streams, wetlands etc. It is influenced by
Downs -- Australia various abiotic components such as the
Canterburg -- Newzealand volume of water, water flow, composition of
oxygen, temperature, etc. Humans rely on
Manchurian -- China
freshwater biomes for drinking water, crop
irrigation, sanitation and industry. Water lily,
E. Tundra Biomes lotus, duck weeds etc. are the common plants
These vast lowlands are found where the found here. Trout, salmon, turtles, crocodiles
ground remains frozen. Greenland, Arctic etc. are the animals found here.
and Antarctic regions and Northern parts of
Asia, Canada and Europe fall in this biome.
These regions are also called Barren lands.
This biome experiences long severe winter and
short cool summer. Due to the prevailing of low
temperature and short growing seasons, the
net primary productivity is very low in tundra.
People are nomadic. Hunting and fishing are
their major occupations. The population here
is extremely sparse and the harsh environment
makes them change their settlement frequently.
They live in igloos in winter and in tents during B. Marine Biomes:
summer. Arctic moss, Arctic willow, lichens etc. They are the largest aquatic biomes on
grow here. Fauna like the polar bear, wolverine, earth. They are continuous bodies of salt water
reindeer, snowy owl are found here. and provide a wide range of habitats for marine
plants and animals. Coral reefs are a second kind
of marine biomes within the ocean. Estuaries,
coastal areas where salt water and fresh water
mix, form a third unique marine biome. As
water provides maximum mobility to marine
organisms, nutrients are circulated more quickly
and efficiently here than the terrestrial biomes.
Apart from animals, plants such as kelp, algae,
phytoplankton etc. also grow in water. Aquatic
biomes are not only important for plants and
animals, but also for humans. Humans use aquatic
biomes for water, food and leisure activities.
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Some of the threats and issues to aquatic biomes

The functioning of the ecosystem depends
are overfishing, pollution and rise in sea level.
on the energy flow through various levels
called trophic levels.
The wide variety of living organisms
that are found on the planet is called
biodiversity.
The extinction of such biological diversity
due to human influences or nature is
called loss of bio diversity.
The geographically extensive ecosystem
where living organisms are collectively
found is termed as biome.
5.3.3 Conservation
Biomes are broadly classified as terrestrial
The biosphere extends from the deep ocean
and aquatic biomes.
trenches to lush rain forests. People play an
Biosphere has to be conserved, as it is
important role in maintaining the flow of energy
considered to be an asset to planet earth.
in the biosphere. At the same time, the primary
cause of today’s loss of biodiversity is habitat
alteration caused by human activities. The ever
increasing population results in over exploitation EXERCISE
of biological resources. This has an adverse
impact on flora and fauna on earth. There are I. Choose the correct
places on earth that are both biologically rich answer
and deeply threatened. Hence it is man’s duty 1. The coldest biome on Earth is
to conserve and care for the earth and make it a
a) Tundra b) Taiga
better place to live in.
c) Desert d) Oceans
A Biosphere Reserve is a 2. This is the smallest unit of biosphere.
special ecosystem or specialized a) Ecosystems b) Biome
environment with flora and
fauna that require protection c) Environment d) None of the above
and nurturing. There are 18 3. Nutrients are recycled in the atmosphere
Biosphere Reserves in India. with the help of certain micro organisms,
referred to as
Recap a) Producers
The biosphere is a thin layer on, above and b) Decomposers
beneath the earth where life exists. c) Consumers
The place on earth where living organisms d) None of the above
live and interact with one another and
4. To which climatic conditions are
with their physical environment is called
Xerophytic plants specifically adapted to?
an ecosystem.
The three major components of a) Saline and sandy
ecosystem are biotic components, abiotic b) Limited moisture availability
components and energy flow. c) Cold temperature
Biotic components are classified into d) Humid
producers, consumers and decomposers.
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5. Why is the usage of rainforest biomes for 6. is an aquatic biome that is

large scale agriculture unsustainable? found where fresh water and salt water
a) because it is too wet. mix.
b) because the temperature is too
IV. Answer the following in brief:
warm. 1. What is Biosphere?
c) because the soil is too thin. 2. What is an ecosystem?
d) because the soil is poor. 3. What does the term ‘biodiversity’ mean?
4. What is meant by loss of biodiversity?
II. A
ssertion type questions.
5. Mention the various terrestrial biomes.
Directions
V. Give reasons for the
a) oth assertion (A) and reason(R)
B following:
are true; R explains A
1. Producers are also called autotrophs.
b)
Both assertion(A) and reason(R)
2. Biosphere provides a stable ecosystem.
are true; R does not explain A
VI. Distinguish between the
c) A is true; R is false following:
d) Both A and R are false 1. Producers and Decomposers.
1. A: Heterotrophs do not produce their own 2. Terrestrial biomes and Aquatic biomes.
food. 3. Tropical vegetation and Desert
vegetation
R: They depend on autotrophs for their
4. Savannas and Tundra
nourishment.
VII. Answer the following in a
2. A: Hotspots are the regions characterised paragraph:
by numerous endemic plants and
1. Explain the various components of
animal species living in a vulnerable
ecosystem.
environment.
2. Write a paragraph on the functions of
R: To manage and focus on conservation an ecosystem.
work more effectively, researchers
3. Explain about the aquatic biomes on
identified hotspots.
Earth.
III. Fill In The Blanks VIII. F ind out the dates for the
following:
1.
An area where animals, plants and 1. World Wild Life Day . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
micro organisms live and interact with 2. International Day of Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
one another is known as.
3. World Water Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. are also called 4. Earth Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heterotrophs. 5. World Environment Day June 5th
3. is a system of interlocking 6. World Oceans Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

and independent food chains. IX. Map Study
Locate the following on the world outline map.
4. is an extensive large
1. Priairies
ecosystem.
2. Downs
5. The vegetative type commonly found 3. Tundra Biomes
in desert biomes is called . 4. Equatorial Biomes
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X. Picture Study
REFERENCE BOOKS
Narrate the given food web of Arctic
Tundra in your own words. 1. Environmental Geography by Savindra
Singh Edition: 1995, Prayag Pustak
Bhawan, Allahabad, India
Arctic Tundra Food Web
2. Physical Geography by Dr. Savindra Singh
Hawk
Polar Bear
Wolf
Edition: 2015, Pravalika Publications,
Allahabad, India.
3.
E ssential Environmental Studies S.P.
Misra and S.N.PandeySecond Edition,
Arctic Hare Ane books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Caribou
Lemming
4. Environmental Geography by Dr. Savindra
Singh Edition: 2015, Pravalika Publications,
Musk Ox
Allahabad, India.
Arctic
Wildflower
Grasses
Lichen
Sun INTERNET RESOURCES
1. www.usgs.gov
2. http://environment.nationalgeographic.
com
3. www.nasa.gov
4. www.britannica.com
5. http://earth.usc.ed
ICT CORNER
Geography -Biosphere
Let as know 'Biosphere' with the help of videos
Steps
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step 2: Register as a student or teacher with your email id.
Step 3: Select the option Video and see the Biosphere video.
Step 4: Select the option Quiz and choose the correct answer.
Website URL :
https://matchthememory.com/Earthspheres
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UNIT
Man and Environment
6
Learning objectives
To know the components of environment
To understand the various features of human-environment
interaction
To know various settlement patterns
To know the different economic activities of man
To understand the environmental effects of human behaviour
Introduction The Stockholm Conference,

Environment is a set of relationships 1972, declared man as both
between man and nature. Man has survived a creator and moulder of
through the ages, dwelling within his his environment. ‘The Earth
surrounding called the environment. The Summit’, formally known as the United Nations
word ‘environment’ is derived from the Conference on Environment and Development
French word ‘environ’ meaning encircled (UNCED) was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
or surrounded. Environment includes both Classification of Environment:
living (biotic) and non living (abiotic)
components. Environment is generally classified as
(a) Natural environment
6.1 Man and Environment (b) Human environment and
Early man depended entirely on nature
(c) Man made environment
for food, clothing and shelter. Man has
enjoyed a dominant position over the other Land
Bridge Road
living organisms around him because of his Air Parks
Water Man
erect posture, hands and intelligence. From Natural
Buildings
made
the paleolithic period to the neolithic period,
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT Industries
man has invented and developed the wheel, Creature Monuments
fire, tools and patterns of agriculture and Individual Political
housing to his comfort, which led him to Economic

HUMAN
improve the standard of living making himself Education
Family
technologically advanced. Thus, modern man Religion
modified the environment where he multiplied Community
in numbers to increase population and has

always extended his territories, leading to the
exploitation of natural resources.
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(a) Natural environment 6.2.1 Population Growth

‘It is easy to add but difficult to maintain’
Earlier, we have learnt about the
Population is a dynamic phenomenon where
natural components of environment such as
the number, distribution and composition
lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and
are constantly changing. Human population
biosphere. In this chapter, we will study about
increases as babies are born and decreases as
the human and man-made components in a
people die. For most of human history, births
detailed manner.
have only slightly exceeded deaths every year.
(b) Human Environment As a result, human population grow slowly.
About the time of Industrial Revolution, it
Human environment is defined as the began to increase rapidly.
interaction between man as an individual,
Natural increase of population is the
with his family, occupation and society. It is
difference between the birth rate and death
also related to various cultural aspects such as
rate. In fact population is always increasing but
education, religion, economics and politics.
only in very rare cases it may decrease through
(c) Man-made environment natural or man-made disasters such as famine,
Man-made environment has been landslides, earthquakes, tsunami, epidemics,
created by man himself for the purpose of extreme weather conditions and war.
fulfilling his needs and to make his life more Population change refers to an increase or
convenient and easy. For example, building, decrease in the population of an area influenced
transport, park, industrie, monument, by the number of births, deaths and migration.
etc. To bring an equilibrium between man The population of the world doubled from 500
and the environment, man has to study million in 1650 to 1000 million in1850.The
the distribution of population, availability projected population for 2025 and 2050 is
of resources, development in technology, about 8 billion and 9 billion respectively.
alternate means of fulfilling the increasing Population growth refers to an increase
demand created by the growing population in the number of people who reside in a
and other man-made features. particular area during a particular period.
Census
6.2 Population
Census is an official enumeration of population
Can you imagine
carried out periodically. It records information
a world without human
about the characteristics of population such
beings? Humanbeings are
as age, sex, literacy and occupation. Different
important to develop the
countries of the world conduct census every 5 to
economy and society. The
10 years as recommended by the United Nations.
Latin word 'populus' means
The first known census was undertaken nearly six
'people'. Population is the
thousand years ago by the Babylonians in 3800
total number of people living together in
BC (BCE). Denmark was the first country in the
a particular place at the given point of time.
modern world to conduct a census. In India, the
first census was carried out in the year 1872.
What is Demography? Censuses have been conducted regularly every
In ancient Greek, ‘demos’ means people tenth year since 1881. The Indian Census is the
and ‘graphis’ means study of measurement. most comprehensive source of demographic,
So, ‘Demography’ is the statistical study of social and economic data. Have you ever seen a
human population. census report? Check in your library.
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Population increases when there are other facilities encourage dense population in
more births and immigration. It decreases an area.
when there are more deaths and emigration.
Population growth, can be calculated as The World Population Day is
observed on 11th July every year. It
The black death is estimated seeks to raise awareness of global
to have killed 30 - 60 percent of population issues. The United
Europe's total population during Nations Development Programme started
the 14th century. The dominant celebrating this event from the year 1989.
explanation for black death is attributed to
the outbreak of plague. 6.2.3 Density of Population
6.2.2 Distribution of Population Density of population refers to the number
of people living per square kilometre. An area
Population distribution refers to the way is said to be sparsely populated when it has a
in which people are spread out across the large area with less number of people. Similarly,
earth’s surface. smaller the area with a large number of people,
The world population is not uniformly it is said to be densely populated.
distributed, owing to the following factors.
Total Population
a). Physical Factors Population Density =
Total land area
Physical factors include temperature,
rainfall, soil, relief, water, natural vegetation, The world’s population density is
distribution of minerals and availability of divided into three main groups.
energy resources.
• sq.km)
Areas of high density (above 50 people per
- East Asia, South Asia, North West
b). Historical Factors
Regions with historical importance Europe & Eastern North America.
(river valley civilizations), war and constant • Areas of moderate density (10 to 50 people
per sq.km) - The sub tropical regions like
invasions fall under historical factors
responsible for population distribution. Angola, Congo, Nigeria and Zambia in
Africa.
c). Economic Factors
Educational institutions, employment • Areas of low density (less than 10 people
per sq.km) - Central Africa, Western
opportunities, manufacturing industries,
Australia, Northern Russia, Canada, etc…
luxurious amenities, trade and commerce and
Activity
The population data of the five most densely populated districts of Tamil
Nadu is given below. (Findout the population density and their rank)
Area (square Population (2011 Population
District Rank
km) census) Density
Chennai 178.2 46,46,732
Kanchipuram 7857 39,98,252
Vellore 6077 39,36,331
Thiruvallur 3424 37,28,104
Salem 5205 34,82,056

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stable and permanent. The most important

Over population and Under and unique feature of rural settlements is the
Population vast, open spaces with green, pollution-free
Over population is a condition when a country environment.
has more people than its resources to sustain. Patterns of Rural Settlements:
Under Population is a condition where there
are too few people to develop the economic Rectangular pattern:
potential of a nation fully.
Rectangular
‘India has an official population pattern of settlements
policy implemented in 1952. are found in plain
India was the first country to areas or valleys. The
announce such a policy. The roads are rectangular
main objective of this policy was to slow and cut each other at
down the rate of population growth, through right angles.
promotion of various birth control measures.
Linear pattern:
6.3 Human Settlements In a linear
A settlement can be described as any pattern, the houses
temporary or permanent unit area where people are located along a
live, work and lead an organized life. It may be road, railway line
a city, town, village or other agglomeration of and along the edge
buildings. During the early days, man preferred of the river valley or
tree branches, caves, pits or even rock cuts as his along a levee.
shelter. As days passed by, man slowly learnt the
Circular or semicircular pattern:
art of domesticating animals and cultivating food
crops. The evolution of farming took place along The pattern of
four major river basins i.e. the Nile, Indus, Hwang settlement that is
Ho, Euphrates - Tigris. Man built huts and mud found around the
houses. Slowly settlements came into existence. lakes, ponds and
A settlement generally consisted of a cluster of sea coasts are called
houses, places of worship and a place of burial. circular or semi
Later, small settlements developed into villages. circular pattern.
Several villages together formed a town. Bigger
towns developed into cities. Settlements were Star like pattern:
formed in different shapes, sizes and locations. Star shaped
6.3.1 Classification of Settlements settlements develop
On the basis of occupation, settlements may in places where
be classified as rural and urban settlements. metalled and
unmetalled road
6.3.1 (A) Rural Settlements converged. In the star
Any settlement where most of the shaped settlements, houses are spread out along
people are engaged in primary activities the sides of roads in all directions.
like agriculture, forestry, mining and fishery
is known as a rural settlement. Most of the
world's settlements are rural, they are mostly

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Triangular pattern: Classification of Urban Settlements

Urban centres are classified as towns, cites,
Tr i a n g u l a r metropolitan cities, mega cities, conurbation,
patterns of rural etc., depending on the size and services available
settlement generally and functions rendered to it.
develop at the
confluence of rivers. Conurbation
Less
common
Increase in the size

of settlement,
population
-Shaped, Y-Shaped, Cross-Shaped
T or and services
City
Cruciform settlements: Large Town
T-shaped settlements develop at tri- Small Town
junctions of the roads (T), while Y-shaped Village

settlements emerge as the places where two roads
Hamlet
converge with the
third one. Cruciform
More
Isolated Place common
settlements develop
on the cross-roads Town: A town is generally larger than
which extend in all a village, but smaller than a city. It has a
four directions. population of less than 1 lakh. E.g.: Arakkonam
near Chennai
Nebular pattern:
City: Cities are much larger than towns and
The arrangement have a greater number of economic functions.
of roads is almost The population in cities are estimated to be
circular which ends more than 1 lakh. E.g.: Coimbatore
at the central location Metropolitan cities: Cities accommodating
or nucleus of the population between 10 lakhs and 50 lakhs are
settlement around metropolitan cities. E.g.: Madurai
the house of the main Megacities: Cities with more than 50 lakh
landlord of the village or around a mosque, population are called Megacities. E.g.: Greater
temple or church. Chennai
Conurbation: A conurbation is a region
6.3.1 (B) Urban Settlements comprising of a number of cities, large towns
Urban is the term related to cities and and other urban areas. E.g.: Delhi conurbation
towns where people are primarily engaged in •Damascus is widely believed
non-agricultural activities, such as secondary, to be the oldest, continuously
tertiary and quaternary activities. The common inhabited city in the world,
characteristic feature of an urban unit is that dating back to at least 11, 000
they are compact, congested and liable to a years.
large number of population. They comprise • Tokyo is the world's largest city with the
of mostly man-made structures that fulfill the greater Tokyo area, housing about 38
requirements of a society's administrative, million inhabitants.
cultural, residential and religious functions. The • According to the Quality of Living Rankings
factors responsible for urbanization are better by Consultancy Mercer, in 2016, the city
employment opportunities, suitable conditions offering the best quality of life was Vienna,
for business, education, transport, etc. with Zurich falling second. (Sources: United
Nations, UNESCO, Mercer).

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Some of the environmental issues are:

6.4 Economic Activities
¾¾ Deforestation
Economic activities are those efforts or
actions that involve production, distribution ¾¾ Pollution such as air,
and consumption of commodities and water, noise, etc
services at all levels within a region. ¾¾ Urbanisation
¾¾ Fracking
Types of Economic Activities
¾¾ Waste disposal
Primary Activities:
Primary Activities pertain to the extraction Deforestation
of raw materials from the earth's surface. For Deforestation is the cutting down of trees
example: food gathering, hunting, lumbering, permanently by the people to clear forests in
fishing, cattle rearing, mining and agriculture. order to make the land available for other
uses.
Secondary Activities:
Effects of Deforestation:
Secondary Activities transform raw
materials into finished goods. For example: Deforestation results in many effects
Iron and Steel industries, automobile like floods and droughts, loss of soil fertility,
manufacturing etc. air pollution, extinction of species, global
warming, spread of deserts, depletion of water
Tertiary Activities: resource, melting of ice caps and glaciers, rise
Activities which by themselves do not in sea level and depletion of ozone layer.
produce goods, but support the process of The United Nations Conference on
production are called tertiary activities. Environment and Development (UNCED) by
For example: Transport, communication, name Earth Summit Conference held at Rio
banking, storage and trade. de Janeiro, Brazil, on June 1992 concluded
Quaternary Activities: that all member countries should reduce
their emission of carbon dioxide, methane
The activities related to Research and and other green house gases thought to be
Development, as well as knowledge are called responsible for global warming.
Quaternary activities. For e.g. Services like
consultation, education and banking Conservation of forests
(i) Conservation of forests can be done
Quinary Activities:
through the regulation of cutting of trees.
The activities that focus on the creation,
rearrangement and interpretation of new and (ii) Control over forest fire: Through
existing ideas are called quinary activities. It regular monitoring and controlling the
includes the highest levels of decision making movement of the people forest fire can be
in a society or economy. E.g.: Senior business prevented.
executives, scientists and policy makers in the (iii) Proper use of forest products: We
Government. depend on forests for our survival from the
air we breathe, to the wood we use. Besides
6.5 Environmental Issues providing habitats for animals and livelihoods
Environment is the basic life support for humans, forest products are one of the
system that provides air, water, food and land most essential things in our day to day life.
to all living organisms. But human beings Therefore we must use forest products properly
degrade the environment through rapid
industrialization.

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• The economic sustainability is successfully

6.6 Sustainable Development
implemented through strong Public
In 1987, the Brundtland Commission Distrubution System.
cited the definition of sustainability.
• Economic sustainability ensures that our
"Sustainable development is development economic growth maintains a healthy
that meets the needs of the present without balance with our ecosystem.
compromising the ability of future generation
Environmental Sustainability
to meet their own needs".
Environmental sustainability is the ability
For sustainable development to be
of the environment to support a defined
achieved, it is crucial to harmonize three core
level of environmental quality and natural
elements: economic growth, social aspects
resource extraction rates forever to mankind.
and environmental protection. These elements
Unnecessary disturbances to the environment
are interconnected and are crucial for the well-
should be avoided whenever possible to sustain
being of individuals and societies. To achieve
our environment.
true sustainability, we need to balance the
economic ,social and environmental factors of Students' Activity
sustainability in equal harmony.
(Teacher should get a record of the students)
*P
lay outside!
Sustainability
This simple activity goes a long way in
Economic Growth
teaching sustainability. Sharing in and
appreciating a love of the outdoors will
inspire children to care for earth.
*R
ead books about the earth.
Social Aspects Environmental
Protection
B ooks are great for young children to
begin to learn about the earth.
*M
ake your own paper.
Social Sustainability
Kids can use recycled paper scraps to
make new paper!
The ability of a social system such as a country,
family or organization to function at a defined level Why is sustainability important?
of social well being and harmony is called social
sustainability. Problems like war, endemic poverty, The excessive usage of natural and manmade
widespread injustice and low education rates are resources deplete its availability for the future
symptoms of a system in socially unsustainable. generation. We need to look after our planet,
The balancing capacity of a government in our resources and our people to ensure that we
maintaining peaceful existence towards other can hand over our planet to our children to live
countries and at the same time providing the in true sustainability. Hence conservation and
requirements of its citizens without affecting the awareness are the two important terms that can
environment creates social sustainability. bring sustainability to our living. When we use the
word sustainability to mean maintain, it means
Economic Sustainability to maintain it forever. This is because our actions
have a lasting effect on the environment and we
The people on earth consume far more
should protect it for our future generations.
than what is their fair share.

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How to help the value of sustainability grow Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
among students? and quinary are the different types of
• Lifestyle economic activities.
Your lifestyle is your choice and you can Problems such as climatic changes,
change it. For example, when you go to the poverty, war and uneven distribution
grocery store, make sure you always carry a of resources leads to an unbalanced
cloth bag. This way the shopkeeper does not ecosystem. Therefore, to sustain
have to give you many plastic bags. mankind, it is a must to learn about
• Fixing sustainable development.
If your watch or a toy or a camera is
broken or not working, try getting it fixed
before you buy yourself a new one. EXERCISE
• Recycle
Try and be conscious about the things I Choose the
around you. When you consume something, correct answer
see if you can re-use it later. 1. All external
• Needs vs Wants influences and factors that affect the
Before you buy something, ask yourself growth and development of living
the question- do I NEED this or do I WANT it? organisms is _____________.
Remember sustainability begins with you. So a) Environment b) Ecosystem
act locally and think globally.
c) Biotic factors d) Abiotic factors
Recap 2. The 'World Population Day' is
observed on _____________ every
The place, things and nature that year.
surround any living organism is called a) August 11th b) September 11th
environment.
c) July 11th d) January 11th
The interaction between man as an 3. The statistical study of human
individual with his family, occupation population is ___________.
and society is called human
a) Demography b) Morphology
environment.
c) Etymology d) Seismography
Population is a dynamic phenomenon
4. The extraction of valuable minerals
where the number, distribution and
composition are constantly changing.
and other geological minerals from
the mines, is ___________.
Population change refers to an increase
a) Fishing b) Lumbering
or a decrease in the population of an
area influenced by births, deaths and c) Mining d) Agriculture
migration. 5. The Secondary sector of the economy
produces ____________from raw
The density of population is measured
materials.
by dividing the total population by its
total area. a) Semi finished goods
b) Finished goods
On the basis of occupation, settlements
are classified as rural and urban. c) Economic goods
d) raw materials

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II. Match the following: 2. What is 'black death'?
1. Loudspeaker - noice pollution 3. D

efine.
Rio de
2. - T- shaped settlement i) Population growth
Janeiro, Brazil
Cruciform ii) Census
3. - Earth Summit, 1992
settlement
i i i) Sustainable Development.
III. C
onsider the given statements
and choose the right option V. Give reasons for the following:
given below
1. The economy of the quaternary sector
1. Assertion(A): Ozone layer in the is called knowledge economy.
stratosphere is considered as a
protective shield. 2. Population growth has to be brought
under control.
Reason(R): It prevents the UV radiation
3. Sustainable development growth has
from reaching the earth’s surface.
been set to protect the planet.
a) A and R are correct and A explains R
VI. Distinguish the following:
b) A and R are correct, but A does not
explain R 1. Primary activities and Secondary
activities
c) A is incorrect but R is correct
VII. Answer in a paragraph:
d) Both A and R are incorrect
1. Explain the factors affecting the
2. Assertion(A): In tertiary activities, distribution of population.
instead of producing goods by
themselves, they are in the process of 2. Describe the patterns of rural
production. settlement with neat diagrams.
Reason(R): People in Tertiary activities

VIII. Map skill:
are purely eco friendly.
On the outline map of the world mark the
a) Both A and R are incorrect following.
b) A and R are correct but A does not 1. England - A country affected by 'black
explain R death'.
c) A is correct and R is incorrect 2. Denmark - First country where the

modern census was conducted.
d) A and R are correct and A explains R
3. River Hwang Ho.
IV. Answer the following in brief:
IX. HOTS:
1. What do you mean by the term 'density
of population'? 1. S
tudy your area and write down about its
settlement pattern.

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REFERENCE BOOKS INTERNET RESOURCES
1. Savindra Singh, (1991), Environmental https://www.google.co.in/search?

Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, h t t p s : / / w w w . c u r b e d .
Allahabad – 211002 com/2017/8/9/16059384/vertical-
2. Majid Husain, (2015), Environment forest-italy-climate-change
and Ecology Access Publishing India h ttps://www.un.org/development/
Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. desa/publications/world-population-
3. Sharma. J.P. (2011), Environmental prospects-the-2017-revision.html
Studies, an Imprint o Laxmi
Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
ICT CORNER
MAN AND ENVIRONMENT
Through this activity, you will know about the

population growth from the ancient age to the present.
Procedure
Step 2: Click the ‘Change Projection’ to explore the map and data from the globe
Step 3: Click the’ Reset Map’ button to reset the map to starting position.
Step 4: Click the ‘ Play’ button in timeline to show the gradual growth of population.
URL:
https://worldpopulationhistory.org/ (or) scan the QR Code
*Pictures are indicatives only.

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UNIT
Mapping Skills
7
Learning objectives
To introduce maps
To read maps using its components
To learn the methods of surveying and other techniques of acquiring
map data like aerial photography and satellite remote sensing
To gain knowledge of the latest techniques of mapping, namely
GIS and GNSS
7.1.1 Maps and Cartography

Introduction
Maps are drawings of an area as seen from
With maps on hand, one can see the world in above. A map is defined as the miniature
one sweep. A map is worth a thousand words. image of the 3 dimensional earth’s surface on a
Mapping skills are the basics to understand a paper/cloth or any flat surface. Maps can show
map and to interpret the area depicted. Maps are a whole or part of the world. Maps are drawn
introduced with its components such as scale, to a scale and direction. Maps have legends to
signs and symbols. Surveying is the process of explain the meaning of symbols and colours
recording the measurement of a land area. Its used on it. The art of map - making is called
outcomes are the data sources of maps. This Cartography.
lesson deals with the latest techniques of mapping
- remote sensing, GPS, GIS, global navigation 7.1.2 Components of a map
system and web maps of the 21st century. A map should include the
following components namely,
7.1 Map as a Tool the title, scale, direction, grid
A map is the basic tool of a geographer. system, projection, legend,
It illustrates the earth’s surface clearly and conventional signs and
effectively through a combination of drawings, symbols.
words and symbols. Thus, maps form an (A) Title
integral part of teaching geography. A map is It indicates the purpose or theme of the
a location guide. map. Example: India – Physical, World –
A cartographer is one who Political, Tamil Nadu – Transport.
measures, analyzes and
(B) Scale
interprets geographical
information to create maps Scale makes it possible to reduce the
and charts for political, cultural and size of the whole earth to show it on a piece
educational purposes. of paper. A scale is a ratio between the actual
7. Mapping Skills 220

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distance on the map to the actual distance (C) Direction

on the ground. Scales can be represented Maps are drawn normally with north
in three methods. They are the Statement, orientation. North direction in a map is always
Representative Fraction (R.F) and Linear or towards the North Pole of the earth. If you position
Graphical scale methods. yourself looking at the North Pole, on your right
Statement scale will be the east; your left will be the west; at your
back will be south. These four main directions are
The statement scale describes the
called the cardinal directions. Direction is usually
relationship of map distance to ground
indicated on a map by a North-South line, with
distance in words, such as one centimetre to
the North direction represented by an arrow head.
ten kilometres. It is expressed as 1cm = 10 km.
The Representative Fraction (R.F) Activity
It describes the proportion or ratio of the Imagine you are standing in India facing
map distance to ground distance. It is usually north, find in which direction are the
abbreviated as R.F. It is stated as 1/100000 (or) following located using the map given
1:100000. This means that one unit on the map below
represents 100,000 of the same unit on the Saudi Arabia _______________
ground. This unit may be an inch or a centimetre
or any other linear measurement unit. Thus, Myanmar _______________
China _______________
Representative Fraction
Indian ocean _______________
Distance on the map
(R.F.) = Distance on the ground Kazakhstan _______________
Sumatra _______________
For example: To find the RF when the scale Afghanistan _______________
is 1 cm to 1km. Here, 1 cm =1 km
1 cm
According to the formula, R.F=
1 km
Convert the km to cm. Therefore, 1km =100000 cm.
So, RF. is 1:100000.
Find the R.F. when the scale is 1
centimetre to 2 kilometre.
Linear (or) Graphical scale Mnemonic device or memory technique

In a map, a linear scale is represented to recall cardinal directions is the sentence
by a straight line divided into equal parts "Never Eat Soggy Wheaties." (North, East,
(Primary and secondary) to show what these South and West)
markings represent on the actual ground.
This scale helps in the direct measurement of
distance on the map. (D) Grid System
Linear scale model The location of a place can be simply
defined by its latitude and longitude. In normal
0 1KM (Graphic Scale) practice, latitude is stated first and then comes
1/50,000
1:50,000
(fraconal scale)
(rao)
the longitude. The latitude and longitude of
1 unit on the map represents 50,000 units in the real world.
a place can be expressed in units of degree,
minutes and seconds.
221 7. Mapping Skills

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The mainland of India

extends from 8o4'N to
37o6'N latitude and from
68o7' E to 97o25' E longitude.
Here, (o) is degree and (') is minutes.
Activity
Use grids to enlarge Australia.
The three methods in widest use are as follows:

Projection on the surface of a cylinder
Projection on to the surface of a cone
Projection directly onto a flat plane, called
planar or zenithal or azimuthal projection
Cylindrical
Mercator
Cylindrical
Mercator
Cylindrical
Mercator conic conic
Perspecve
Conical
Perspecve conic
Conical
Orthographic Perspecve
Conical
(E) Projection
PlanarPlanar
A map projection is a way of showing

Orthographic
Projecon Concepts
Orthographic
the spherical shaped earth on a flat piece of

Perspecve Examples
Planar
paper. Where does the word 'projection' come Projecon Concepts

from? Imagine a clear globe with latitude ProjeconExamples
Perspecve Concepts
and longitude lines and the outlines of the (F) Legend Perspecve Examples
landmasses on it. Suppose there was a light The legend of a map helps to understand
bulb inside the globe. If you wrapped a piece of the map details which are placed at the left or
paper around the globe and turned on the light right corner at the bottom of the map.
bulb, the outlines of the grid and landmasses (G) Conventional signs and
would be projected onto the paper. Map symbols
projection is defined as the transformation of
Conventional signs and symbols are
spherical network of latitudes and longitudes standard symbols used on a map and explained
on a plane surface. Projections are drawn to in the legend to convey a definite meaning.
maintain the shape, area and directions. The topographic map contains a variety of
information about physical and cultural features.

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These are shown by using signs and symbols in 5. Black: construction features - roads, tracks,
various colours so that the clarity of the map is railways, buildings, bridges, cemeteries,
maintained. communication towers, dam walls,
There are three types of map symbols excavations and mine dumps, telelphone
lines, power lines, windpumps, boundaries
1. Point Symbols - buildings, dipping tanks,
trigonometrical beacons 6. Red: construction features - national, arterial
and main roads, lighthouses and marine lights
2. Line Symbols - railways, roads, power
lines, telephone lines 7. Pink: international boundaries
3. Area Symbols - Cultivated lands, ponds,

orchards and vineyards
Convenonal Signs and Symbols
Fort Metalled Road
T h e
Church Cart track
actual
Pagoda Pack-track
shape of
the Earth Graveyard Foot-path with bridge
is termed Geoid, which is Chhatri Aerodrome

an oblate spheroid. Mosque Light-house
The “azimuthal” Temple Electric power Line
polar projection is depicted on the United
PO Post Office Perennial Stream
Nations flag.
PS Police Staon Dry Stream
North America was prominent on the
initial 1945 UN flag (which had the longitude RH Rest House Canal
line 90 degrees west pointing upwards). CH Circuit House Dry River
The following year, the map on the flag was Dam with masonry
IB Inspecon Bunglow work
reoriented to be more neutral by having the RS Railway staon Dam with earth work
International Date Line (180 degrees east, Permenant Hut
Broad Gauge Railway
lying in the middle of the Pacific Ocean)
Level Crossing Temporary Hut
pointing upwards. The map ends at 60 degrees
South latitude, meaning Antarctica does not Metalled Road Tower Anquies
appear.
7.1.3. Survey
The following colour codes are used with Surveying is done to measure the angle,
map symbols direction, area, height and distance of an object or
1. Brown: land or earth features - contour lines, place on the surface of the earth using instruments.
eroded areas, prominent rock outcrops, sand Surveying techniques are used to obtain the
areas and dunes, secondary or gravel roads field data and to prepare maps. A knowledge of
2. Light Blue: water features - canals, surveying helps one in map-making, particularly
coastlines, dams, lakes, marshes, swamps in the preparation of physical maps.
and levees, ponds, rivers and water towers.
Geographers mainly use Chain,
3. Dark Blue: national waterways Prismatic compass, Plane table, Dumpy
4. Green: vegetation features - cultivated level, Abney level, Clinometre, Theodolite,
fields, golf courses, nature and game Total Station and GNSS to measure the
reserve boundaries, orchards and distance, angle, altitude and position of the
vineyards, recreation grounds, woodland area of survey.

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of things/places from a distance, using a

Modern survey tools used by
variety of tools and methods.
geographers for map making.
We operate
three remote
sensing organs
in our body.
a) Eyes -sense of sight
b) Nose - sense of smell
c) Ear – Sense of hearing
Remote sensing has a long history,

dating back from the use of cameras carried
by balloons and pigeons in the 18th and 19th
centuries. During the 20th century, airborne
photographs and satellite remote sensing
developed swiftly.
7.2.1. Aerial photography
Aerial photography refers to the technique
of obtaining information about places or objects
or phenomena with the help of photographs
taken using cameras mounted on low flying
birds, balloons, helicopters, aeroplanes and
Early History of Surveying: In Egypt, drones. The aerial photographs are captured
surveyors were called 'rope stretchers' continuously with a time gap of 10-30 seconds
because they used ropes to measure distances. at a fixed height. Each photo will have a slight
The Egyptian 'Rope Stretchers' overlap of the area in the preceding photo. By
making a mosaic of all the photos excluding the
overlapping areas, a stereoscopic (3D) image of
the study area can be produced.
Felix Nadar
was a French
photographer,
journalist,
novelist and balloonist. In
1858, he became the first
7.2 Remote Sensing as a person to take aerial
Source of Map Data photographs. He took his
Remote Sensing refers to the observation first photograph in 1853
and measurement of earthly objects without and pioneered the use of artificial lighting in
touching them. photography, working in the catacombs of
Paris. Around 1863, Nadar built a huge (6000
‘Remote’ means far away and ‘Sensing’
m³) balloon named Le Géant ('The Giant').
means observing or collecting information.
Remote sensing means acquiring information

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Airborne photography
1 2 3 4 5 6
Components
60% overlap of Remote Sensing
between photos � Energy source
(forward overlap)
2 6 � Transmission path
1 3 4 5
20-40% overlap Target

9 7 between flight lines
12 11 10 8 Sensor
(lateral overlap)

Aerial photography using drone in the techno world
7.2.2 Satellite Remote Sensing 7.2.3 Global Navigation Satellite

Satellite remote sensing is the science of System (GNSS)
collecting data about an object or area from Have you ever booked
artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. The a cab using a smart phone
term ‘satellite imagery’ refers to digitally app? Did you see the map
transmitted images of the satellites. showing the route of your
travel and movement of
your vehicle on mobile
phones? How is it possible
to calculate the time duration of your travel?
Satellite remote sensing Aerial Photography
High cost of satellite systems. Takes at least 10 Surveying can be planned and executed in
years to plan, construct, test and launch. a shorter time economically.
Satellites collect large amount of data of Takes more time to capture an area.
the entire area in a short span. Aircraft needs to fly back and forth.
It allows global coverage and does not
It covers a small area and needs permission
require permission.
from authorities.
Satellites circle the Earth; they can repeat
Revisits or repeatability involves extra
and revisit easily.
cost.
Weather does not affect the functioning
of satellites. Adversely affected by bad weather
All information is digital; it can be It is an analogue record, so no further
easily integrated with software for image improvement is possible after obtaining
improvement. photographs.

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In the 21st century, GNSS has become a The main purpose of GPS is to help
part of our lives to promote the safety and in providing accurate transport data
convenience of transport. Global Navigation (distance, route and direction). It helps
Satellite System (GNSS) is a satellite system in military searches and rescue in wars. It
connected with a small electronic receiver can work as a reliable tourist guide.
or tracker to locate, monitor and track a GPS helps during accident and rescue
user's vehicle wherever in the world. It can efforts, speeding the delivery of emergency
also set up instant alerts when a driver of a services and disaster relief.
vehicle speeds or deviates from a particular
Weather forecasting, earthquake
area. GNSS applications are used in tracking
monitoring and environmental protection
or mapping vehicles, ships and aircraft. A
can be done effectively by using GPS.
group of satellites (Space Segment) working
with a network of ground stations (Control b. G
eographic Information System
Segment) provide location data. The receiver (GIS)
(User Segment) converts satellite signals into
Geographic Information System is a
location, speed and time data.
computer-based tool for managing a large
Examples of GNSS amount of data collected for a given geographic
Europe-Galileo region through remote sensing, GPS and
USA-NAVSTAR Global Positioning other sources. The Geographic Information
System (GPS) System is a combination of computer hardware,
Russia-Global'naya Navigatsionnaya software, geographic data and the personnel.
Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS) G - Geographic - A particular area
China- BeiDou Navigation Satellite System I - Information - facts in order
India’s-IRNSS (NAVIC) system S - System - arrangement
a. Global Positioning System (GPS)
GIS was first recognised in the late 1950s by
Without the Global Positioning System Waldo Tobler and Roger Tomlinson (Canada).
(GPS) on our vehicles and mobile phones, we Prime examples of importing GIS for public welfare
would feel lost. GPS is the U.S. implementation are Google Maps, Yahoo Maps and Google Earth.
of the world's first and currently the most used
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) The key ingredient is location. We must
created by the U. S. Department Of Defense have a coordinate, an address or a distance
(DOD). It became fully operational in 1995. from a known point that helps us to link the
NAVSTAR (Navigation Satellite Timing and information to a location on a map. Each
Ranging) is a network of 24 U.S. satellites in type of data of an area is stored as a separate
six different orbits in space flying 20,350 km 'layer' of the map. In GIS, layers may be used
above the surface of the Earth; each one circles some times and removed according to need.
the planet twice a day to provide continuous, Examples are hospitals, schools, water bodies,
worldwide coverage. GPS receivers now come parks and ATMs. The computers can create
in all shapes and sizes, Most are the size of a maps showing any combination of data.
cellular phone. Some are handheld, others are
installed in ships, planes, trucks and cars. 7.3 Bhuvan
Advantages of GPS Bhuvan (Sanskrit for Earth) is a free internet
GPS technology has tremendous applications based computer application launched by the
in everything from mobile phones, watches, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
bulldozers, shipping containers and ATMs.

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on August 12th 2009. It enables visualization of

Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) images taken over EXERCISE
a year ago, by ISRO’s seven satellites, including
CartoSat-1 and CartoSat-2. Using Bhuvan
I. C
hoose the
connected to Internet, one can explore places
of interest, scenes of events in the news or parts correct answer
around the world they may never visit in person, 1. ___________ indicates the purpose or
by either entering the names of places or co- theme of the map.
ordinates (latitudes and longitudes). Bhuvan has
a) Title
tremendous uses for scientists, academicians,
policy makers and the general public. b) Scale
c) Direction
d) Legend
Recap 2. Standard symbols that are used in maps
to convey a definite meaning are called
Surveying is the process of recording
___________.
the measurements of a land area.
a) conventional signs and symbols
Anaximander was the first ancient Greek
to draw a map of the known world. b) coordinates
Maps can show the whole or a part of c) grid references
the world. d) directions
The art and science of map making is 3. GPS consists of a constellation of
called Cartography. ___________ satellites.
A map should include certain
a) 7
components namely, the title, scale,
direction, grid reference, projection, b) 24
legend, conventional signs and
symbols. c) 32
Grids are sets of lines for defining a d) 64

location on a map.
II. Match the following
Remote sensing means acquiring
1. The art and science
information of things / places from a of mapping
distance. – a) USA
Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS) helps to locate, monitor and track 2. Actual shape of the
earth – b) Geoid
a user’s vehicle anywhere in the world.
GIS is a combination of computer
hardware, software, geographic data 3. NAVSTAR
and the personnel. – e) Cartography

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III. C
onsider the given statements V. Give Reasons
and choose the right option 1. Satellite imageries stimulate map
given below making.
1. Assertion (A): The points at which the 2. Map is the basic tool of a geographer.
vertical and horizontal lines of the grid 3. Grid references are essential to find the
intersect are called coordinates. exact location of places on a map.
Reason (R): The lines that run
horizontally and vertically are called VI. D
istinguish Between The
Northings and Eastings respectively. Following
(a) B oth (A) and (R) are true ; (R) 1. Globe and Map
explains (A) 2. Aerial photographs and satellite
(b) B oth (A) and (R) are true ; (R) does imageries
not explain (A) 3. GIS and GPS
(c) ( A) is correct ; (R) is false
(d) (A) is false ; (R) is true VII. Answer in Paragraph
2. Assertion (A) The legend of a map 1. What do you mean by the term 'scale of
does not help us to understand the the map'? Explain its classification.
information in a map. 2. Write a note on directions with relevant
Reason (R) It is usually placed at the diagram.
left or right corner at the bottom of the 3. Explain the major uses of GPS? Explain
map. about any one.
(a) ( A) is false ; (R) is true
VIII. MAP EXCERCISE:
(b) B oth (A) and (R) are true ; (R) does
1. With the help of an atlas, mark the
not explain (A)
following on the outline map of Tamil
(c) ( A) is correct ; (R) is false Nadu.
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true ; (R) explains a) The latitude and longitude of
(A) Chennai.
IV. Answer in brief b) Mark the city located at 100 N, 780 E.
1. What is a map? c) Locate the city approximately on
2. What are the components of a map? 110N and 760E.
3. The distance between two cities A and B d) Find the latitude and longitude of
is 5 km. It is represented by a line of 5 Kanyakumari and mark it.
cm on the map. Calculate the distance
IX. HOTS
and give the answer in RF.
1. Can you imagine a world without
4. Mention a few surveying instruments. satellites?
5. Define remote sensing. 2. Imagine you are a cartographer. Draw
6. What are the components of remote the map of your area.
sensing?

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REFERENCE BOOKS 5. Misra, R.P and Ramesh, A, (1969)

‘Fundamentals of cartography’
1. R.L. Singh, (1992) Elements of Practical Prasaranga University of Mysore,
Geography, Kalyani Publishers, New Mysore.
Delhi. 6. LO, C.P and Albert, K.W, Young (2002)
2. Pijushkanti Saha and the Partha Basu ‘Concepts and Techniques of Geographic
(2013), ‘Advanced Practical Geography – Information Systems’ Prentice – Hall of
a Laboratory Manual’, Books and Allied India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
(P) Ltd., Kolkatta.
3. Anji Reddy, M, (2015) Fourth Edition, INTERNET RESOURCES
Text Book of Remote Sensing and
Geographical information systems, BSP www.usgs.gov.in
Books Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad. www.nasa.gov.in
4. Panda, B.C, (2009), ‘Remote sensing www.surveyofindia.gov.in
principles and Applications’, Viva books, https://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in
New Delhi.
https://www.isro.gov.in
ICT CORNER
MAPPING SKILL
Through this activity, you will know

about the distance between any two
landmarks in the maps.
Procedure
Step 2: Click ‘Polyline’ button. Draw a poly line between any two
favourable places.
Step 3: After finishing, the Poly line shows the measurement of distance
as miles and kilometres.
Step 4: Click ‘+’ and ‘-’button to zoom in and zoom out.
URL:
https://mapmaker.nationalgeographic.org/ (or) scan the QR Code

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UNIT Disaster Management:

Responding to Disasters
8
Learning objectives
To know the phases of disaster management

To understand how to respond to disaster such as Tsunami, earthquake,
riot and fire
To describe the measures to manage riots disaster
Introduction
Case Study - Tsunami
Shortly before 8 am on 26 December Humans have passed down stories through
2004, the cicadas fell silent and the ground the ages that helped cultures to cope when
shook in dismay. The Moken, an isolated disaster inevitably struck. These stories were
tribe on the Andaman Islands in the Indian fodder for anthropologists and social scientists,
Ocean, knew that the Laboon, the ‘wave but in the past decade, geologists have begun to
that eats people’, had stirred from his ocean pay more attention to how indigenous people
lair. The Moken also knew what was next: a understood and prepared for disaster. These
towering wall of water washing over their stories, which couched myth in metaphor,
island, cleansing it of all that was evil and could ultimately help scientists prepare for
impure. To heed the Laboon’s warning signs, cataclysms to come. In this lesson, you will
elders told their children, run to high ground. learn about how to respond to certain disasters
‘If the water recedes after an earthquake, run to become resilient.
immediately to high ground’ A disaster is “a catastrophe that causes great
The tiny Andaman and Nicobar damage or loss of life and property”.
Islands were directly in the path of the
tsunami generated by the magnitude 9.1 of 8.1 Disaster Response
earthquake off the coast of Sumatra. Final
total put the islands’ death toll at 1,879 alone Disaster response entails restoring physical
with another 5,600 people missing. The facilities, rehabilitation of affected population,
islanders who had heard the stories about restoration of lost livelihoods and reconstruction
the Laboon or similar mythological figures efforts to restore the infrastructure lost
survived the tsunami essentially unscathed. or damaged. The Response Phase focuses
Most of the casualties that occurred in the primarily on emergency relief: saving lives,
southern Nicobar Islands were outsiders, providing first aid, restoring damaged systems
leaving them with no indigenous tsunami (communications and transportation), meeting
warning system to guide them to higher the basic life requirements of those impacted by
ground. disaster (food, water and shelter) and providing
mental health and spiritual support and care.
8. Disaster Management: Responding to Disasters 230

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Who are the first responders? inside the earth where an earthquake originates
is focus. The point on the earth’s surface above
No matter how large or small, local
the called a focus is called an epicentre. The
communities are expected to provide
damage caused by the earthquake is the highest
immediate disaster response. On a daily basis,
near the epicentre. The earthquake is measured
police officers, firefighters, and emergency
by an instrument called a Seismograph. It is
medical technicians are a community’s first
recorded in Richter scale. Let us now see how the
responders, whether during fire, flood or acts of
communities can better respond to earthquakes.
terrorism. Mental health professionals and the
community’s hospitals may also be activated in 1. Japan is in a very active seismic area and it
those early minutes and hours after disaster. has the densest seismic network
in the world.
Disaster management includes Prevention,
Mitigation, Preparedness, Response and 2. Which country actually
Recovery. Disaster management involves all has the most number of
levels of government. Non-governmental and earthquakes? Indonesia is in a very active
community based organizations play a vital role seismic zone also, but because it is larger than
in the process. Modern disaster management goes Japan, it has more earthquakes.
beyond post-disaster assistance. It now includes 3. Which country has the most earthquakes
pre-disaster planning and preparedness activities, per unit area? This would probably be Tonga,
organizational planning, training, information Fiji or Indonesia, since they are all in extremely
management, public relations and many other active seismic areas along subduction zones.
fields. Crisis management is important, but is only
a part of the responsibility of a disaster manager. What to do during an earthquake?
Be aware that some earthquakes are
actually foreshocks and a larger earthquake
might occur later. Minimize your movements
to a few steps that reach a safe place nearby and
stay indoors until the shaking has stopped and
you are sure exiting is safe.
If indoors
1. DROP to the ground; take COVER by
getting under a sturdy table or other
piece of furniture and HOLD ON until
Disaster Management Cycle the shaking stops. If there is no table or
desk near you, cover your face and head
The traditional approach to disaster with your arms and crouch in an inside
management has a number of phased corner of the building.
sequences of action or a continuum. These
2. Protect yourself by staying under the
can be represented as a disaster management
lintel of an inner door, in the corner of a
cycle. We mainly focus on the way how the
community should respond to disasters. room, under a table or even under a bed.
3. Stay away from glass windows, outside
8.1.1 Earthquake doors and walls and anything that could
An earthquake is a sudden vibration of the fall (such as lighting fixtures or furniture).
part of the earth caused by plate movements. 4. Stay inside until the shaking stops and go
It occurs along the plate boundaries. The place outside.
231 8. Disaster Management: Responding to Disasters

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If outdoors 2. P lan evacuation routes from your home,

1. M
ove awayfrom buildings, trees, school, workplace, or any other place you
streetlights and utility wires. could be, where tsunamis poses a risk.
2. If you are in open space, stay there until 3. Use a weather radio or stay tuned to a
the shaking stops. The greatest danger local radio or television station to keep
exists directly outside buildings at exits informed of local watches and warnings.
and alongside exterior walls. Most 4. Discuss tsunamis with your family.
earthquake-related casualties result due Everyone should be aware of what to
to collapsing walls, flying glass and falling do when tsunami strikes. Discussing
objects. tsunamis ahead of time will help
If in a moving vehicle reduce fear and save precious time in
1. Stop as quickly as safety permits. Avoid an emergency. Review flood safety and
stopping near or under buildings, trees, precautionary measures with your family.
overpasses and utility wires. What to do after a Tsunami?
2. Proceed cautiously once the earthquake 1. You should continue using a weather
has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges or radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard
ramps that might have been damaged by emergency frequency station or a local
the earthquake. radio or television station for updated
emergency information.
Activity
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first
Mock drill: Earthquake. aid if necessary, before helping injured or
It is important that we know what trapped persons.
to do if an earthquake occurs. In case we 3. If someone needs to be rescued, call
are inside the class when it occurs, instruct professionals with the right equipment to
loudly “earth quake position – drop, cover, help.
and hold on”. Drop down on your knee.
Cover your head, neck and face. Go under 4. Help people who require special assistance,
a table to protect your head and neck. like Infants, elderly people, those without
transportation, large families who may
8.1.2 Tsunami need additional help in an emergency
A tsunami can kill or situation, people with disabilities, and the
injure people and damage people who care for them.
or destroy buildings and 5. Stay out of a building if water remains
infrastructure as waves come around it. Tsunami water, like floodwater,
forth and recede. A tsunami can undermine foundations, causing
is a series of enormous ocean buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls
waves caused by earthquakes, to collapse.
underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions or 6. Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or
asteroids. Tsunamis can travel 700-800 km per hear a blowing or hissing noise, open a
hour, with waves 10-30 meter high. It causes window and get everyone outside quickly.
flooding and disrupts transportation, power,
communications, and water supply. 8.1.3 Riot
How to respond to Tsunami? Though riot may seem dramatic, an
1.
You should find out if your home, angry mob can be just as dangerous and
school, workplace or other frequently unpredictable as just about any natural
visited locations are in tsunami hazard disaster. Thousands of people are killed
areas along the sea-shore. in riots all over the world each year, and

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these riots erupt from a number of racial, 8.1.4 Fire

religious, economic, political, or social causes Wildfires occur when vegetated areas are
that cannot be predetermined. As per Pew set alight and are particularly common during
Research Center analysis of 198 countries on hot and dry periods. They can occur in forests,
April 11, 2015. Syria tops in riot in the world grasslands, bush and deserts, and with blowing
followed by Nigeria, Iraq and India. wind, can spread rapidly.
If you've found yourself in the middle
Fires can lead to the destruction of
of a riot, you may not be able to run away
buildings, wooden bridges and poles, power,
immediately, but you can take some measures
transmission and telecommunication lines,
to protect yourself from harm. If you want to
warehouses containing oil products and other
know how to survive a riot, just follow these
fuel. It causes injury to people and animals.
steps.
The most common causes of fires are
Surviving a Riot lightning strikes, sparks during arid conditions,
At Travel Destination: What to Do eruption of volcanoes and man-made fires
arising from deliberate arson or accidents.
1. K
eep abreast of the current news if you
are in a volatile area. A side-effect of wildfires which also
2. If you come across a demonstration, threatens inhabited areas is smoke. Fires create
don't become inquisitive, just leave the large quantities of smoke, which can be spread
area and find another route to your far by wind and poses a respiratory hazard.
intended destination. On an average, in India, every year, about
3. A
void any place where police or security 25,000 persons die due to fires and related
forces action is in progress. causes. Female accounts for about 66% of
those killed in fire accidents. It is estimated
If caught in a riot: that about 42 females and 21 males die every
1. If you find yourself caught up in a day in India due to fire.
demonstration, keep to the edge of
the crowd where it is safer. At the first Think why
opportunity, break away and seek refuge
Smoke kills more than fire.
in a nearby building or find a suitable
doorway or alley and stay there until the
crowd passes.
2. When leaving the fringe of the
demonstration, just walk away – don't
run as this will draw attention to you.
3. In the event that you are arrested by the
police/military, do not resist. Go along
peacefully and contact your law advisor
to help you resolve your predicament.
4. If you are caught up in the crowd, stay
clear of glass shop fronts, moreover,
move with the flow.
5. If shooting breaks out, drop to the
ground and cover your head and neck,
and lie as flat as you can.

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Fire Safety Do’s and Don’ts

1. Know your building’s evacuation plan. Exercise
2. Evacuate calmly and quickly, whenever
a fire alarm or carbon monoxide alarm I. C
hoose the correct
sounds. answer
3. Before opening a door, feel it with the 1. One among the
back of your hand. If the door is hot, do following is not the first responder in
not open it. case of a disaster.
4. If you encounter smoke during your a. police officers
evacuation, stay low to the floor. b. firefighters
5. Know the outside rally point for your c. insurance agents
building. d. emergency medical technicians
6. Know the locations of fire extinguishers,
2. ‘Drop, Cover, Hold’ is a mock drill a vowal
fire alarm pull stations and exits.
for
Activity a. Fire b. Earthquake
Mock Drill : c. Tsunami d. Riot
To escape a fire, stop, drop, and roll. In 3. When you happen to see a fire break out,
case your clothes burn, stop running, drop on you will make a call to
the floor and roll to stop the fire spreading. a. 114 b. 112
c. 115 d. 118
What you should do during a fire: 4. Which of the following statements is
untrue?
1. Stay calm.
a. ‘Stop, Drop, Roll’ is for fire.
2. Pull the nearest fire alarm or call 112. b. ‘Drop, Cover, Hold’ is for an earthquake.
c. ‘If sea water recedes back, run to higher
3. G
ive your name and location of the fire. places’ is for flood.
Do not hang up until the police dispatcher
d. ‘If gunshots are heard, drop to the ground
tells you to do so.
and cover the head with hand’ is for riot.
4. Leave the building immediately. 5. Which of the following statements
5. Inform others as you pass them to leave belongs to responding to earthquake?
the building immediately. a. Avoid, any place where police or
security forces action is in progress.
6. Walk—don’t run—to the nearest exit.
b. Know the height of your street above
7. N
ever use elevators—an elevator may sea level and the distance of your street
become a trap. from the coast.
c. Stay away from glass, windows, outside
doors and walls and anything that
HOTS could fall.
Why should you cut off all the branches d. Before opening a door, feel it with the
of trees below 3 metres of height standing back of your hand.
near your house?

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II. Answer in brief Activity

1. Who are the community’s first
responders to disaster? 1. Mock drill for fire
2. Though Japan has the densest seismic 2. Mock drill for earthquake
network, Indonesia has the most
number of earthquakes. Why?
REFERENCE BOOKS
3. How many males and females die per
day due to fire in India? 1. Disaster management Module, TNSCERT.
2. NDMA.
4. What should you do after a Tsunami?
3. Wikipedia
III. Answer in Paragraph
1. Write a short note on Tsunami.
INTERNET RESOURCES
2. What do you do if you are indoors
during an earthquake? http://www.ndmindia.nic.in/
3. How do you respond to Tsunami? Helpline Numbers
4. Write three sentences about what to do 011-23438252
during fire. 011-23438253
011-1070
GLOSSARY
Asthenosphere - Upper layer of the earth’s mantle below the lithosphere.
Air current -
Movement of air when it rises upward or sinks down.
Cataclysms - Large scale violent events in the natural world.
Condensation - Process of change of state of water from gaseous to liquid.
he gradual movement of the Earth’s continents on the surface
T
Continental drift -
of the planet.
Coriolis Force - Deflection of winds from their original path due to Earth's
rotation.
Doldrums - The equatorial low pressure belt, extending between 5°N and
5°S.
Eruption - The ejection of molten rock, steam, etc. from a volcano or
geyser.
Geology - The science that deals with the physical structure and
substances of the earth, their history and the processes which
act on them.
Hazard - Potential threat to life.
Hostility - Unfriendliness.
Inquisitive - Curious about learning things.
Internal
Radioactivity - Radiations emitted from radioactive metals inside the earth and
act as a driving force for the earth’s tectonics.

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Lair - A place where a wild animal lives in

Mitigation - Action of reducing severity
Normal
Lapse rate - Decrease of temperature at the rate of 6.5°C/km increase in
altitude.
Orogeny - Mountain building process due to lateral compression of the
crust.
Pacific ring of fire -
The Pacific Ring of fire is an arc around the Pacific Ocean where
many volcanoes are found.
Pangea - A super continent that existed during the late Palaeozoic and
early Mesozoic eras.
Panthalasa - Super ocean that surrounded Pangaea.
Predicament - Unpleasant situation
Rehabilitation - Act of restoring someone to health or normal life through
training and therapy
Riot - An occasion where a large number of people behave in a noisy,
violent and uncontrolled way
Unscathed - Without suffering any injury or damage
Wind vane - Also known as windcock. It is a device to find out the direction
of wind.

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STANDARD NINE
CIVICS
237
9th_Civics_Unit_1_EM.indd 237 4/4/2022 6:30:14 PM

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UNIT Forms of Government and

Democracy
1
Learning Objectives
Know the forms of government
Understand the meaning of democracy
Know the merits and demerits of democracy
Know the challenges to Indian democracy
Introduction 1.1.3 Autocracy
We are going to learn from this lesson how A system of government by one person
various forms of government have developed with absolute power.
globally. Today, many countries of the world Example: North Korea, Saudi Arabia
follow different types of governments, but the
modern world prefers democracy. 1.1.4 Oligarchy
A small group of people having control
1.1 Forms of Government of a country or organisation.
The governance of nations differs Example:
Former Soviet Union, China,
significantly based on who has power. There Venezuela, North Korea.
are different forms of government: aristocracy,
monarchy, autocracy, oligarchy, theocracy, 1.1.5 Theocracy
democracy and republic. A system of government in which
religious doctrines form the basis of
1.1.1 Aristocracy
A form of government in which power is
in the hands of a small previleged ruling class
(nobels).
Example: United Kingdom, Spain
1.1.2 Monarchy
A system of government in which one
person reigns supreme, usually a king or
queen(constitutional monarchy).
Example: Bhutan, Oman, Qatar
Forms of Government
1. Forms of Government and Democracy 238

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government headed by a priest who rules in representatives either directly or indirectly

the name of God or proclaims himself as a through fair and free elections, which are
God. usually held periodically.
Example: Vatican. The term ‘democracy’ is
derived from two Greek words:
1.1.6 Democracy
DEMOS meaning people and
A system of government in which eligible cratia meaning power. Thus,
members in the population vote to elect literally democracy means “the power of
their elected representatives, and the party the people”.
or individual who obtains the majority votes
forms the government. 1.2.2 Definition
Example: India, USA, France According to Mahatma

Gandhi, “True democracy
1.1.7 Republic cannot be worked by twenty
men sitting at the centre.
A state in which supreme power is held It has to be worked from
by the people and their elected representatives below by the people of every
and which has an elected or nominated village.”
President rather than a monarch.
Example: India, Australia
The term ‘republic’ was

first coined in 500 BCE in
Rome. It is derived from res
publica, a Latin word meaning
public matter.
India became a Republic on 26 January
1950. It is governed in accordance with the 1.2.3 alient Features of
S
Constitution adopted on 26 November 1949, Democracy
which came into force on 26 January 1950. 1. Elected representatives of people and
final decision-making power to the
1.2 What is Democracy? representatives.
2. Free and fair elections.
Democracy is a form of government
that allows people to choose their rulers.
Only leaders elected by people should Abraham Lincoln,
rule the country. one of the Presidents of
People have the freedom to express USA, defines democracy
views, freedom to organise and freedom as a government of the
to protest. people, by the people and
for the people.
1.2.1 Meaning of Democracy
Democracy is a system of government Abraham Lincoln
in which the supreme power is vested in the
people of a country and people elect their
239 1. Forms of Government and Democracy

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3. voting right is with equal value to very notable and unique feature of the village
those who have attained the age of 18 administration of the Cholas. The evolution
4. Fundamental rights and protection of towards a democracy is represented by the
individual freedom. following values: freedom, equality, fraternity,
accountability, transparency and trust.
1.2.4 Evolution of Democracy
Democracy began 2,500 years ago in 1.2.6 Types of Democracy
some of the city-states of ancient Greece. There are two types of democracies:
It is important to know that democratic 1. Direct democracy
institutions existed in India as early as the 2. Indirect (representative) democracy
Vedic period. Chanakya’s Arthashastra tells The types of democracy refers to the kind
us that in ancient India, an autonomous village of government or social structures which
community was the basic unit of the local allow people to participate equally.
government. during the later chola preiod
ancient Tamil Nadu, Kudavolai system was a Direct Democracy
When the people themselves directly
express their will on public affairs, the
type of government is called pure or direct
BCE democracy.
Example: Ancient Greek city-states,
Switzerland
ndirect Democracy /
I
Representative Democracy
When the people express their will
on public affairs, through their elected
representatives, the type of government is
called indirect or representative democracy.
1.2.5 Forms of Democratic government
Forms of Democratic government
Parliamentary form of government Presidential form of government

Example: India, England Example: USA, France
Electorate Electorate
Legislature Executive Legislature
Executive

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Example: The prevailing system of democracy India is the largest democratic

in India, USA and UK country in the world. Democracy in India
works on five basic principles. These are
1.2.7 Merits and Demerits of sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic,
Democracy republic.
Merits Every person who is a citizen of India
and who is not less than 18 years of age
1. Responsible and accountable
can exercise their right to vote in India,
government
based on universal adult suffrage. There
2. Equality and fraternity is no discrimination based on a person’s
3. Sense of responsibility among common caste, creed, religion, region, gender and
people education when it comes to providing the
4. Local self-government right to vote.
5. Development and prosperity for all
The Parliament House
6. Popular sovereignty in India was designed by
7. Sense of cooperation and fraternal feeling the British architects Edwin
Demerits Lutyens and Herbert Baker
in 1912-13 and construction
1. Indirect or representative nature of began in 1921 and ended in 1927
democracy
2. Lack of interest in democratic process 1.2.9 Elections in India
and hence lower turnout in elections India has a quasi-federal government,
3. Instability in governance due to with elected representatives at the federal,
fractured mandate state and local levels. The general elections
4. Delay in decision-making process. are conducted by the Election Commission
of India. At the national level, the President
1.2.8 Democracy in India of India, appoints the Prime Minister, who
India has a parliamentary form of enjoys majority in the Lok Sabha, the lower
democracy. The Indian Parliament comprises house of the Parliament of India.
the elected representatives of people and makes
the laws for the country. The participation of
people in the decision making and the consent Two Houses of
of citizens are the two important elements of the
Parliament
parliamentary form of government in India.
Lok Sabha / Lower Rajya Sabha /

House / House of Upper House /
People Council of States
All members of the Lok Sabha are directly

elected through general elections, which take
place once in every five years, in normal
circumstances. Two Anglo Indian members
can be nominated by the President of India to
the Lok Sabha.
Parliament of India

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Members of the Rajya Sabha, the Upper has not faced a serious challenge or a rival
House of the Indian Parliament, are elected so far. In the last hundred years, there has
by an electoral college consisting of elected been an expansion of democracy all over the
members of the legislative assemblies of the world. The various aspects of democracy and
states and the Union Territories of India. The its challenges are:
President of India nominates 12 members for
1. Illiteracy
their contributions to art, literature, science
2. Poverty
and social services.
3. Gender discrimination
1.2.10 The First Elections in 4. Regionalism
5. Casteism, communalism and religious
Democratic India
fundamentalism
General elections to the first Lok Sabha 6. Corruption
since independence were held in India 7. Criminalisation of politics
between 25 October 1951 and 21 February 8. Political violence
1952. The Indian National Congress
1.2.12 Conditions for the Success
of Democracy in India
Empowerment of the poor and illiterates to
enjoy the goodness of democracy.
Willingness among the elected people
not to misuse their powerful position and
public wealth.
Eradication of social evils and dangers
from which democracy suffers.
Elections in India An impartial and efficient press to form
public opinion.
Presence of strong public opinion.
emerged victorious by winning 364 of the
Feeling of tolerance and communal
489 seats. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first
harmony among the people.
democratically elected Prime Minister of the
Awareness among the people of the
country.
fundamental rights that they are entitled
to enjoy.
British India –General Conscious check and vigilance on the
elections, 1920 working of the elected representatives.
General elections were Powerful and responsible opposition.
held in British India in 1920 to
Indian democracy can be successful and
elect members to the Imperial Legislative
vibrant only when its citizens imbibe and
Council and the Provincial Councils. They
reflect in their behavior the basic democratic
were the first elections in the country’s
values like equality, freedom, social justice,
history.
accountability and respect for all. Their
mindset, thinking and behavior are expected
1.2.11 Major challenges to to be in tune with the essential conditions
Indian Democracy of democracy. They have to appreciate the
opportunities for their desired roles like
Democracy is the dominant form of participation, making the system accountable,
government in the contemporary world. It

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fulfilling obligations, and playing proactive 5. Abraham Lincoln was the President of
roles to actualize the goals of democracy. the ________.
(a) USA (b) UK
Recap (c) USSR (d) India
Government is a group of people who 6. Kudavolai system was followed by

govern a community or unit. (a) Cheras (b) Pandyas
Monarchy is a system of government (c) Cholas (d) Kalabhras
in which one person reigns supreme, 7. Direct Democracy in olden times existed
usually a king or queen.
(a) In the republics of ancient India
Types of democracy refer to kind of
(b) Among the USA
government or social structures which
allow people to participate equally, (c) In the city-state of ancient Greece
either directly or indirectly. (d) Among the UK
When the people themselves directly 8. From which language was the term
express their will on public affairs, the “Democracy” derived?
type of government is called pure or
(a) Greek (b) Latin
direct democracy.
(c) Persian (d) Arabic
Based on universal adult suffrage, every
Indian citizen, above 18 years of age, can 9. In democracy the final authority rests
exercise the right to vote in India. with
(a) The Parliament
(b) The People
EXERCISE (c) The council of Ministers
(d) The President
10. Which one of the country has
I. C
hoose the correct Presidential form of government
answer (a) India (b) Britain
1. A system of government in which one (c) Canada (d) USA
person reigns supreme, usually a king or 11. The largest democratic country in the
queen, is called________. world is
(a) autocracy (b) monarchy (a) Canada (b) India
(c) democracy (d) republic (c) USA (d) China
2. A system of government with absolute 12. Assertion (A): Direct democracy is
power. practised in Switzerland.
(a) Aristocracy (b) Theocracy Reason (R): People directly participates in
(c) Democracy (d) Autocracy decision making.
3. Former Soviet Union is an example for (a) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R)
_________. explains (A)
(a) aristocracy (b) theocracy (b) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R)
(c) oligarchy (d) republic does not explain (A)
4. Select the odd one (c) (A) is correct and (R) is false
(a) India (b) USA (d) (A) is false and (R) is true
(c) France (d) Vatican

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13. Assertion (A): India has parliamentary

5. _________ was the first Prime Minister
form of democracy.
of independent India.
Reason (R): Indian parliament comprises 6. The first general elections were held in
two houses. British India in the year __________.
(a) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R) 7. The Parliament House in India was
explains (A) designed by _________ and _________.
(b) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R)
does not explain (A) III. Match the following
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is false 1. Autocracy - 18
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true 2. Right to vote - Arthashastra
14. The meaning of Franchise is 3. Chanakya - Vatican
(a) Right to elect 4. Theocracy - North Korea
(b) Right to vote for the poor
IV. Give short answers
(c) Right to vote
(d) Right to vote for the rich 1. Give Abraham Lincoln’s definition for
democracy.
15. The grant of universal franchise creates 2. Mention the forms of democracy.
(a) Social equality 3. Distinguish between direct and indirect
(b) Economic equality democracy.
(c) Political equality
(d) Legal equality V. Answer in detail
16. Prime Minister of India is appointed by 1. What are the challenges to Indian
democracy? explain.
(a) Lok Sabha (b) Rajya Sabha
2. Explain the conditions necessary
(c) Speaker (d) President
for the success of democracy in India.
17. The President of India can nominate
3. What is your opinion about democracy
(a) 12 members to Lok Sabha in India?
(b) 2 members of Rajya Sabha
VI. Project and Activity
(c) 12 members to Rajya Sabha
(d) 14 members of Rajya Sabha 1. Discuss in the class what is universal
adult franchise? Why is it important?
18. The First general elections after
2. “Democracy is the power of majority
independence in India were held in which respects minority.” Discuss.
(a) 1948-49 (b) 1951-52 3. Conduct a mock election in your class.
(c) 1957-58 (d) 1947-48 4. A group discussion on the merits and
demerits of democracy of India in the
classroom.
1. The Constitution of India was finally
adopted on _________. VII. HOTS
2. The two types of democracy are _______ 1. Will you have the right to equality under
and ________. dictatorship? What would be the attitude
regarding public opinion in such a country?
3. An example for direct democracy is
2. How does democracy lead to a peaceful
_________.
and a harmonious life among the citizens?
4. India has a _______form of democracy. Explain.

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VIII. Life Skills

Select a group of countries. Research each country and tell what type of government it has:
Aristocracy, Monarchy, Autocracy, Oligarchy, Theocracy, Democracy, Republic. Then, provide
characteristics of this country that helped you determine the type of government.
Country name Type of government Characteristics of the country’s government
ICT CORNER
Child Help Line
Explore child helpline

1098
Steps:
•T ype the URL link given below in the browser OR scan the QR code. You can
also download the “child line” from the given URL.
•U
nder report a child click a child in distress.
•O
n the menu bar select vulnerability map.
•W
hen you click on download section you can get and download songs and
videos about helpline.
Child help line
http://www.childlineindia.org.in/1098/b1a-telehelpline.htm

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UNIT Election, Political Parties and

Pressure Groups
2
Learning Objectives
Know about the electoral system in India.

Know the different types of elections in India.
Understands the meaning of political party.
Know the functions of state party and national party.
Understand the pressure groups in India.
Introduction the preparation of electoral rolls, the

delimitation of constituencies and all
An election is a formal decision-making other matters necessary for securing
process by which a people chooses an their due constitution.
individual to hold public office by voting.
(iii) The state legislatures can also make
provisions with respect to all matters
2.1 Electoral System in India relating to elections to the state legislatures
including the preparation of electoral
The electoral system in India has been
rolls and all other matters necessary for
adapted from the system followed in the
securing their due constitution.
United Kingdom. India is a socialist,
secular, democratic republic and the largest Ku d avol ai
democracy in the world. The modern India was the system
the constitution of India came into force on of voting
26th January ,1950 fol lowed
during the
Articles 324 to 329 in part XV of the
Chola period in Tamil Nadu
Constitution make the following provisions with
regard to the electoral system in our country. Kudavolai
(i) Article 324 of the Indian Constitution 2.1.1 Election Process

provides for an independent Election
At the national level, the head of government,
Commission in order to ensure free
the Prime Minister, is elected by members
and fair elections in the country. At
of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the
present, the commission consists of a
Chief Election Commissioner and two Parliament in India.
Election Commissioners. We celebrate National Voters
Day on 25th January in India.
(ii) The Parliament may make provision
with respect to all matters relating to
elections to the Parliament including
2. Election, Political Parties and Pressure Groups 246

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In representative democracy like ours, elections 2.1.3 Types of Elections in India

are extremely important. Voting in elections are Elections are classified into two types: direct
the best way to make your ‘voice’ heard. and indirect elections.
2.1.2 Introduction of the NOTA
Direct Elections
Option
People directly vote for the candidates in
If the people in a democratic country are the fray and elect their representatives. The
not willing to elect any candidate, they can following are examples of direct elections in
vote for the option called NOTA (None Of which people over the age of 18 years participate
The Above). Rule 49-O in the Conduct of in the electoral process by casting their votes.
Elections Rules, 1961, of India describes this
(i) Lok Sabha elections, in which the
procedure.
Members of Parliament are elected.
(ii) Elections to the state Legislative
Assemblies, in which the Members of
Legislative Assemblies are elected.
(iii) Elections to the local governing
bodies, i.e such as village panchayat,
town panchayat, municipalities,
municipalcorporation are conducted by
the state election commission.
Voters Verified Paper Audit Trail Merits
(VVPAT)
(i) As the voters elect their
representatives directly,
Voters Verified Paper direct elections are
Audit Trail (VVPAT) is the considered to be a more
way forward to enhance democratic method of
credibility and transparency election.
of the election process. This
(ii) It educates people
system was first introduced in the 2014
regarding the government activities
General Election.
and helps in choosing the appropriate
NOTA was first introduced in candidates. Also, it encourages people
the General Elections held in to play an active role in politics.
2014. India is the 14th country (iii) It empowers people and makes the
in the world to introduce NOTA. rulers accountable for their actions.
Demerits
(i) Direct elections are very expensive.
(ii) Illiterate voters sometimes get misguided
by false propaganda and sometimes
campaigning based on caste, religious
Symbol used with NOTA option on and various other sectarian consideration
electronic voting machines in India spose serious challenges.
247 2. Election, Political Parties and Pressure Groups

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(iii) Since conducting direct elections is a

How is the President of
massive exercise, ensuring free and fair India elected?
elections at every polling station is a major
challenge to the Election Commission. The President of India is
elected by the members of an
(iv) There are instances of some political
electoral college consisting of
candidates influencing the voters
through payments in the form of cash, 1. The elected members of both Houses
goods or services. of Parliament
(v) Election campaigns sometimes results 2. The elected members of the Legislative
in violence, tension, law and order Assemblies of all the states and Union
problems and affects the day-to-day life territories in India
of people.
NOTE: The members nominated
Indirect Elections
to either House of Parliament or the
Voters elect their representatives, Legislative Assemblies of states are not
who, in turn, elect their representatives eligible to be included in the electoral
this method of election is followed for college.
the election of president of India.
Merits 2.2.2 Types of a Party System
(i) Indirect elections are less expensive. There are three types of party system in the
(ii) It is more suited to elections in large
world namely.
countries.
i. Single-party system in which one
Demerits ruling party exists and no opposition
(i) If the number of voters is very small, is permitted. China, Cuba, the former
there exists the possibility of corruption, USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist
bribery, horse trading and other unfair Republics) are the examples for the
activities. single-party system.
(ii) It is less democratic because people do ii. Two-party system in which only two
not have a direct opportunity to elect, major parties exist, for example, USA, UK.
but they instead do it through their iii. Multi-party system in which there are more
representatives. So, this may not reflect than two political parties, for example,
the true will of the people. India, Sri Lanka, France and Italy.
2.2 Political Parties 2.2.3 Types of Political Parties
Political parties are an essential part of Political parties in India are classified
democracy. Parties are the link between according to their area of influence into two
government and the people. main types:(1) national and (2) state parties.
2.2.1 Meaning of Political Party

A political party is an organisation formed Political parties
by a group of people with a certain ideology
and agenda to contest elections and hold National State
power in the government. A political party
has three components: a leader, active Ruling
Ruling Opposition Opposition
members and the followers.

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National Parties Parties form and run the governments.

A party which is recognised as a state Those parties that lose in the elections
party in at least four states is recognised as play the role of the Opposition to the
a national party. Every party in the country party or a group of coalition parties in
has to register with the Election Commission power, by voicing different views and
while the Commission treats all the parties criticising the government for its failures
equally. It offers some special facilities to or wrong policies.
state and national parties. These parties are Parties shape public opinion. They raise
given a unique symbol. Only the official and highlights issues of importance.
candidate of the party can use that election
Parties function as the useful link between
symbol. In 2017, there were seven recognised
people and the government machinery.
national parties.
2.2.4 Role of Opposition Parties
State Parties
in a Democracy
Other than the seven national parties,
most of the major parties of the country are In a democracy, there may be a two-party
classified by the Election Commission as system like in the USA or a multi-party system
‘state parties’. These are commonly referred like in India and France. The ruling party may
to as regional parties. A party is recognised have received the mandate of the majority
as a state party by the Election Commission people and the Opposition party represented the
of India based on certain percentage of votes remaining people. The Leader of the Opposition
secured or a certain number of seats won in party occupied a prominent place in all
the Assembly or Lok Sabha elections. democratic forms of the government. He enjoys
the rank of a Cabinet Minister. He opposes the
Recognition to the Parties wrong policies of the ruling party, which affects
For getting recognition as ‘national party’, a the general public. As the Chairman of the Public
party has to fulfill any one of the following criteria: Accounts Committee questions the functioning
of the government departments and examines
i. At least 6% votes in at least four states and
the public money used for the well-being of the
members to the Lok Sabha.
people. Similarly, he plays an important role
ii. In the election of Lok Sabha, at least 2% to select the Chairman and members of the
members from at least three states are Central Vigilance Commission, Chairperson
elected to Lok Sabha. and members of the Information Commission.
iii. Recognition as a state party at least four The Opposition Parties reflect genuine demands
states. and concern of the people to play a constructive
role in a democracy.
Functions of Political Parties
Parties contest elections. In most 2.3 Pressure Groups
democracies, elections are fought The term ‘pressure group’ originated in
mainly among the candidates put up the USA. A pressure group is a group of
by political parties. people who are organised actively for
Parties put forward their policies and promoting and defending their common
programmes before the electorate to interest. It is so called as it attempts to bring
consider and choose. a change in the public policy by exerting
pressure on the government.
Parties play a decisive role in making
laws for a country. Formally, laws are The pressure groups are also called ‘interest
debated and passed in the legislature. groups’ or vested groups. They are different from

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the political parties in that they neither contest yet powerful group to influence the policy
elections nor try to capture political power. decisions. Pressure groups carry out a range of
functions including representation, political
participation, education, policy formulation
and policy implementation.
Examples for Pressure Groups

1. Federation of Indian Chamber of
Commerce and Industry (FICCI)
2. All India Trade Union Congress
2.3.1 Pressure Groups in India (AITUC)
A large number of pressure groups exist in 3. All India Kisan Sabha
India. But, they are not developed to the same 4. Indian Medical Association (IMA)
extent as in the USA or the Western countries 5. All India Students Federation (AISF)
like Britain, France, Germany and so on. 6. All India Sikh Students Federation
7. Young Badaga Association
8. Tamil Sangam
9. Tamil Nadu Vivasayigal Sangam
10. Narmada Bachao Andolan
Political Participation
Pressure groups can be called the informal
The pressure groups in India can be broadly face of politics. They exert influence precisely by
classified into the following categories: mobilising popular support through activities
1. Business groups such as petitions, marches, demonstrations and
2. Trade unions other forms of political protest. Such forms of
3. Agrarian groups political participation have been particularly
4. Professional attractive to young people.
associations Education
5. Student organisations Many pressure groups devote significant
6. Religious organisations resources by carrying out research,
7. Tribal organisations maintaining websites, commenting on
8. Linguistic groups
government policy and using high-profile
academics, scientists and even celebrities to
9. Ideology-based groups get their views across, with an emphasis to
10. Environmental protection groups cultivate expert authority.
Functions of Pressure Groups in Policy Formulation
India Though the pressure groups themselves
Pressure groups are the interest groups that are not policy-makers, yet it does not
work to secure certain interest by influencing prevent many of them from participating in
the public policy. They are non-aligned with the policy-making process. Many pressure
any political party and work as an indirect groups are vital sources of information

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and render advice to the government and

therefore they are regularly consulted in the
process of policy formulation.
EXERCISE
2.4 Mobilisation and I. Choose the

People’s Participation correct answer
2.4.1 Mobilisation 1. India has adapted the electoral system
Mobilising people towards socially productive followed in the
activities that lead to the overall betterment (a) USA (b) United Kingdom
of people’s lives is essential. Sometimes (c) Canada (d) Russia
earthquakes, tsunami, floods and other such
2. The Election Commission of India is a / an
natural disasters on a massive scale occur and
people’s immediate mobilisation for evacuation (a) Independent body
and emergency relief becomes most essential. (b) Statutory body
2.4.2 Democratic Participation (c) Private body
Democracy can succeed only when smaller (d) Public corporation
local groups and, in fact, every citizen can 3. Which Article of the Constitution
take action that supports the tax and revenue provides for an Election Commission?
collection systems, observance of national norms (a) Article 280 (b) Article 315
in environmental protection, cleanliness, health
and hygiene, sanitary drives and immunisation (c) Article 324 (d) Article 325
programmes like pulse polio. 4. Which part of the constitution of India
However, we must keep in mind that says about the election commission?
there is no better form of government than (a) Part III (b) Part XV
Democratic government. To create a better (c) Part XX (d) Part XXII
society and nation, the people of India 5. Who accords recognition to various
along with the union and state governments political parties as national or regional
should come together to fight against the parties?
miseries of human life.
(a) The President
Recap (b) The Election Commission
The Prime Minister is elected by (c) The Parliament
members of the Lok Sabha. (d) The President in consultation with
There are two types of elections: direct the Election Commission
and indirect elections. 6. Assertion (A): Indian Constitution
A political party has three components: a provides for an independent Election
leader, active members and the followers. Commission
Political parties in India are classified
Reason (R): To ensure free and fair
into two types: (1) National Parties (2) elections in the country.
State Parties. (a) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R)
In 2017, there were seven recognised explains (A)
national parties. (b) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R)
The term ‘pressure group’ originated in does not explain (A)
the USA. (c) (A) is correct and (R) is false
A large number of pressure groups (d) (A) is false and (R) is true
exist in India.

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7. NOTA was introduced in the year IV. Give short answers

(a) 2012 (b) 2013 1. Explain the electoral system in
(c) 2014 (d) 2015 India.
8. The term pressure groups originated 2. Give the meaning of a political party.
in _____. 3. Distinguish between two-party
(a) USA (b) UK system and the multi-party system.
(c) USSR (d) India 4. What is a pressure group?
9. Assertion (A): A large number of V. Answer in detail

pressure groups exist in India.
1. Discuss merits and demerits of direct
Reason (R): Pressure Groups are not elections?
developed in India to the same extent
2. What are the functions of political
as in the USA
parties?
(a) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R)
explains (A) 3. What are the function of Pressure
groups in India?
(b) B oth (A) and (R) are true and (R)
does not explain (A) VI. Project and Activity
(c) (A) is correct and (R) is false 1. Compare the policies, programmes
(d) (A) is false and (R) is true and achievements of a national party
and a state party.
1. The Election Commission of India is
VII. HOTS
a body of _______ members. 1. “Elections are considered essential
2. National Voters day has been for any representative democracy”.
celebrated on _________. Why?
3. In India _______ party system is 2. What is the principle of universal
followed. adult franchise? What is its
4. In 2017, there were _________ importance?
recognised national parties. 3. Discuss merits and demerits of
5. Narmada Bachao Andolan is a democracy.
___________. 4. Discuss the multi-party system.
III. Match the following VIII. Life Skill
1. National - a. Trade 1. Conduct a mock poll in your classroom.
party unions
2. Single-party system - b. USA
3. Two-party system - c. China
4. Pressure groups - d. Seven

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UNIT
Human Rights
3
Learning Objectives
 To know about the international efforts for protecting human rights.
 To understand the basic human rights ensured in the Indian Constitution.
 To understand about the functions of institutions and issues involved in
human rights.
 To know about the types of human rights
Introduction non-white man in a

first class carriage and
The lesson travels through the history the person was ordered
of organisations for human rights. The rights to move to a van
ensured by the Universal Declaration of compartment at the end
Human Rights being highlighted. Fundamental of the train. The man who
rights are enshrined in the Indian Constitution had the first-class ticket
and fundamental duties incorporated in the refused to leave and
was thrown off the train
Constitution along with the introduction to
at Pietermaritzburg. Gandhi in South Africa
National and State Human Rights Commissions
Shivering in the winter
and their functions are explained. Extended
night in the waiting room of the station changed
rights like child rights, SC and ST rights, women
the course of his life. He took up the fight
rights, labour rights, etc., are also discussed. against racial oppression. The spirit for active
non-violence started from that moment.
On 7th June 1893, while a person was Mahatma Gandhi made the momentous
on his way to Pretoria, in South Africa a
decision to stay on in South Africa and fight
white man objected the person’s presence of a
253 3. Human Rights
9th_Civics_Unit_3_EM.indd 253 08-04-2022 10:54:34

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racial discrimination against the Indians. Out of

that struggle emerged his unique way of protest End of Apartheid
nonviolent Satyagraha.
As a human being, Gandhi had all the
rights to travel in the first class compartment.
But he was discriminated because of his skin
colour. Discrimination is not only based on
colour, it is on the basis of race, gender, place of
birth, caste, religion and so on.
Due to these discriminations, people are
prohibited from enjoying their basic human Mandela raises his fist soon after his release
rights. from jail after 27 years
Apartheid was the highest form of
discrimination that existed in South Africa.
Places of residence were determined by
racial classification.
It was the governing policy in the country
by the minority whites over the majority
non-whites. The people of South Africa
protested against racial discrimination.
Inscription at the railway station

Nelson Mandela raised his voice against
apartheid. When he organised defiant
3.1 What are Human Rights? campaigns against the government, he was
imprisoned. Amid growing domestic and
The U.N.O defines Human rights as “The international pressure and with the fear of
right inherent to all human beings, regardless a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk
of race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, language, released him in 1990.
religion or any other status. Every one is entitled The efforts taken by Mandela and de Klerk
to these rights without discrimination.” put an end to apartheid. In 1994, a multiracial
Human Rights day is celebrated every year general election was held, in which Mandela
on 10th December led the African National Congress to victory
and became President.
The history of human rights has roots
in all the great events of the world and it has
sustained the struggle for freedom and equality 3.2 Universal Declaration
everywhere. The United Nations Organisation of Human Rights (UDHR)
(U.N.O) was formed on 24th October 1945 after
the Second World War. It proposed to deal with
the consequences of war and to prevent such The Universal Declaration of Human
happenings in the future. Rights is a milestone document in the history
of human rights. It was drafted by the
October 24 is UNO day
representatives with different legal and cultural
The Universal Declaration of Human back grounds from all regions of the world.
Rights(UDHR) has played a crucial role in pro- The Declaration was proclaimed by the United
moting human rights. Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10th
3. Human Rights 254

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December 1948 (General Assembly resolution Political rights exercised in the formation
217A) as a common standard of achievement and administration of a government. They are
of all people and all nations. The first time it given to the citizens by law. These rights give
sets out the fundamental human rights to be power to the citizens to participate either di-
universally protected and the UDHR has been rectly or indirectly in the administration.
translated into many languages.
3.3 Fundamental Rights in
There are 30 articles in the Universal India
Declaration of Human Rights and it guarantees
freedom of expression as well as civil, political, Fundamental rights are required for the
social, economic and cultural rights. These all round development of a human being. They
rights apply to all people, irrespective of their make the life of people meaningful by giving
race, gender and nationality, as all people are them rights like speech and to live in an area of
born free and equal. their choice.
The fundamental rights are :
3.2.1: Social, Economic and • Right to Equality
Cultural Rights: • Right to Freedom
Social ,economic and cultural rights are • Right against Exploitation
integral part of the human rights law that was • Right to Freedom of Conscience and
developed due to the aftermath of World War Religion
II. • Cultural and Educational Rights for
Social rights are necessary for full minorities
participation in the society. Economic rights • Right to Constitutional Remedies
guarantee every person to have conditions
under which they are able to meet their needs. 3.3.1 Right to Equality:
They are a part of a range of legal principles It refers to equality before law and equal
through which economic equality and freedom protection of law. Prohibition or discrimination
are preserved in a State. on the grounds of religion, caste, races, gender
Cultural rights are human rights that aim or place of birth is offensive and one can seek
at assuring the enjoyment of culture and its justice from court.
components in conditions of equality, human
dignity and non-discrimination.
3.2.2 Civil and Political Rights:

Civil and political rights protect an in-
dividual’s freedom from infringement by the
government, social organizations and private
individuals. These rights ensure one’s ability to
participate in the civil and political life of the
society and state.
The term ‘Civil rights’ refers to the basic Share your views about this picture
rights afforded by laws of the government, to
every person regardless of race, nationality,
3.3.2. Right to Freedom
colour , gender, age, religion etc.,
Six different types of freedom are mentioned
in the Constitution. They are:
255 3. Human Rights

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a. Freedom of speech and expression. 3.3.4 Right to Freedom of

b. Freedom to assemble peacefully without Conscience and Religion:
arms.
This right gives the citizens freedom to
c. Freedom to form associations and unions. follow and practice a religion of their choice.
d. Freedom to reside and settle in any part of
India.
e. Freedom to move freely throughout the
territory of India.
f. Freedom to practice any profession and
carry on any occupation, trade or business.
All citizens have the freedom of conscience

3.3.3 Right against Exploitation: or ideas. The citizens also have the freedom
It is against the law to employ children to follow their own ways for practicing any
below 14 years of age in mines, factories or religion.
other occupations. Neither contractor nor an 3.3.5 Cultural and Educational
employer can force a worker to do a job against Rights:
the their will.
The Constitution gives us the right to
preserve, protect and promote culture. We
have the right to open schools, associations
and societies to preserve and promote our
tradition and culture. Similarly a group of
people may open a school for imparting
religious education to children. The
government also promotes such activities
Differences Between Human Rights and Fundamental Rights

Human Rights Fundamental Rights
• The rights that a human being deserves to • The elemental rights of the citizens of a country,
survive with respect and freedoms. which are listed in the constitution and enforce-
able under the law is known as fundamental
rights.
• Human rights include those rights which
• Fundamental rights includes only those rights
are basic to a real life and are absolute, i.e.
which are basic to a normal life.
it cannot be taken away.
• Human rights are recognised at international • Fundamental rights are guaranteed under the
level. constitution of the country.
Human rights as declared by the UN, suggest minimum standards of rights to be adopted by
Government and these serve more or less like Directive Principles.
3. Human Rights 256

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by giving grants. However, such institutions 2. To follow and cherish the noble ideals which
cannot deny admission to anyone based on inspired our National Struggle for freedom.
their caste, colour, creed or even religion. 3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity
and integrity of India.
WRIT is a written order from the court or
4. To defend the country and render national
other legal authority ordering to do an act or
service when called upon to do so.
not to do it.
5. To promote harmony and spirit of common
brotherhood amongst all the people of India,
3.3.6 Right to Constitutional transcending religious, linguistic, regional or
Remedies sectional diversities, to renounce practices
derogatory to the dignity of women.
Fundamental Rights are guaranteed by the
6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of
Constitution. By this right, a person can adopt
our composite culture.
Constitutional means and approach a court 7. To protect and improve the natural environment
if he is denied the Fundamental Rights. The including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and
court then issues orders which are called ‘Writs’ have compassion on living creatures.
to the government to restore the rights to the 8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism
citizen. The Constitutional Remedies put to and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
right anything which may be wrong in terms of 9. To safeguard public property and to abjure
the Constitution. This right therefore protects from violence.
and safeguards all other rights. 10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres
of individual and collective activity, so that
PreethikaYashini won her right of the nation constantly rises to higher levels of
employment by approaching the endeavour and achievements.
court according to the Right to 11. To provide opportunities for education by
Constitutional remedies. the parent and guardian to their child or
ward upto the age of 14 years.
Maintenance and welfare of
parents and Senior Citizens Act,
2007 is a
legislation
passed in
2007 by the Government
3.4 Fundamental Duties of India. This Act is a legal
obligation for children
These are in the form of duties and and heirs to provide maintenance to senior
responsibilities of citizens. ‘The original citizens and parents.
Constitution which came into force with
effect from 26th January, 1950 did not contain 3.5
National Human
Fundamental Duties.
Rights Commission
These were incorporated in the Constitution
by the 42nd Amendment Act in 1976. The
Constitution states eleven Fundamental Duties as
given below:
1. Respect for the Constitution and its ideals
and institutions, the National Flag and the
National Anthem.
257 3. Human Rights

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The National Human Rights Commission the SHRC add strength to its functioning in a
is an autonomous body constituted on 12th state. The office is the Human Rights is located
October 1993 under the protection of Human in Chennai.
rights Act,1993. It consists of a chairman and Functions of SHRC
few other members. 3 from judiciary and 4 from
other department NHRC is responsible for the • The SHRC shall enquire into violation
of human rights in respect of matters
protection and promotion of human rights in
specified in the state and concurrent lists.
India defined by the Act as rights relating to life,
• Its objectives and duties are the same as
liberty, equality and dignity of the individual
NHRC, but confined only to the state. It
guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in
has a chairman and two members.
the international covenants the office is located
• It has the power of a civil court and can
in New Delhi . take cognizance of cases if received or in
Functions of NHRC suo motu.
• To inquire into the violation of human • It can also recommend compensation to
rights or negligence in the prevention of victims.
such violation by a public servant
3.6.1 Child Rights
• To intervene in court proceedings relating
to human rights Apart from the fundamental rights
• To undertake and promote research in the escribed by the Constitution, we have to
d
field of human rights ensure certain other rights.
• To engage in human rights education among A child is a person who has not completed
various sections of society the age of 18 years i.e. a minor as per UNO.
• To encourage the effects of NGOs and This principle is exhibited in Articles 25 of the
institutions working in the field of human Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Based
rights. on these principles, the declaration of the Rights
of the child was accepted and adopted in the UN
3.6 State Human Rights General Assembly on 20th November, 1989.
Commission(SHRC) • Right to life
• Right to family environment
• Right to Education
• Right to benefit from Social security
• Right against sexual exploitation
• Right against sale or trafficking
• Right against other forms of exploitation
like Child labour.
Right to life
Every state in India has a State Human A child has the right to survive even before
Rights Commission established in accordance its birth. The right to survival also includes the
with the power conferred on the state under right to be born, the right to basic needs of food,
section 21of the Protection of Human Rights Act, shelter and clothing and a dignified living.
1993. The protection and promotion of human Right to Family Environment
rights constitute the principal concern of the A child has the right to live a normal child-
Commission. Moreover, the procedures hood in a family environment. Children who
adopted by the Commission to conduct its have been left destitute, abandoned or orphaned
proceedings, the suo motu actions taken on also have the right to live. These children can be
complaints regardless of the sources received given for adoption to caring families.
and the transparency of the proceedings of
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Right to benefit from Social security The Right of children To free and compulsory
Children should get financial support from Education (RTE) Act, 2009, means that
the country when their parents or guardians are every child has a right to formal Elementary
unable to provide them with a good standard of Education. This right of children provides free
living by themselves, due to any illness, disabil- and compulsory education till the completion
ity or old age. of elementary education in a neighbourhood
Right to Education school. The child need not pay any kind of
Right to Education Act is an Act of the Par- fee for completing elementary education.
liament of India enacted in 2009 for free and
compulsory education for children from 6 to 14 Right against sale or trafficking of children
years of age as under Article 21A of the Consti- Children should be treated as individuals
tution. with fundamental human rights. Children are
Malala - Nobel vulnerable. There are root causes such as pover-
Peace prize ty, gender discrimination, broken families etc.,
laureate says behind the sale or trafficking of children.
"I loved school.
But everything
c h a n g e d
when the
fundamentalist
took control of our town in Swat Valley.
They said girls could no longer go to school.
I spoke out publicly on behalf of girls and our
right to learn. And this made me a target.
In October 2012, on my way home from
school, a masked gunman boarded my school
bus and asked, “Who is Malala?” He shot me
on the left side of my head. I woke up 10 days
later in a hospital in Birmingham, England.
After months of surgeries and rehabilitation,
I joined my family in our new home in the
U.K. I determined to continue my fight until
every girl could go to school.
Every day I fight to ensure all girls receive 12 The Kavalan SOS App is
years of free, safe, quality education. With launched by the Government
more than 130 million girls out of school of Tamil Nadu for public use
today, there is more work to be done. I hope during emergencies. Anyone
you will join my fight for education and in a critical situation, not only women, can
equality. Together, we can create a world easily and directly access the State Police
where all girls can learn and lead. Control Room using this App.
If you were Malala, what would you have
done? Children are subjected to sale or traffick-
Is Malala's fight necessary? ing for various reasons – economic exploitation,
Are girl children treated and given education sexual exploitation, sexual abuse, drug traffick-
equally? ing and child labour.
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Have you heard about child trafficking? Right against other forms of exploitation like
Conduct a debate on this topic in your class. Child labour
Children are often employed in several
Right against sexual exploitation industries. These children are deprived of their
The state should protect children from childhood, health and education. This will lead
sexual exploitation and abuse, when they are to a life of poverty and want. These children are
forced or persuaded to take part in sexual made to work in glass, match-box, lock-making
activities physically or mentally. factories, rag-picking, carpet – making industry,
POCSO Act - Protection beedi - rolling, mining, stone quarrying, brick
of Children from kilns and tea gardens etc.
Sexual Offences Act Work is mostly gender – specific, with girls
The Protection of performing more home – based work, while
Children from Sexual boys are employed as waged labour. Since these
Offences Act, 2012 children work in agricultural fields, restaurants,
regards the best interest motor repair workshops and home – based
of the child as being of paramount importance
industries, elimination of child labour remains
at every stage.
a challenge.
Salient features of POCSO Act
• The Act defines a child as any person below Kailash Satyarthi is a Nobel
eighteen years of age, to ensure the healthy, Peace Prize recipient and the
physical, emotional, intellectual and social founder of Bachpan Bachao
development of the child. Andolan, and many other
• When the abuse is committed by a person child rights organisations.
in a position of trust or authority vis-à-vis More than 86,000 children in India have
the child, like a family member, neighbours been liberated by him and his team members
or any other acquaintances. from child labour, slavery and trafficking. An
• The statement of the child is to be recorded 80,000 km long Global March against Child
exactly as the child narrates. Labour was led by Kailash in 1998 which
• A child not to be called repeatedly to testify. turned the world’s attention towards the issue
An ordinance providing the death of Child labour. He received Nobel prize for
penalty for rapists of girls below 12 years of peace in the year 2014.
age and other stringent penal provisions for
rape has been promulgated in April 2018. The
Criminal Law Amendment Ordinance, 2018,
amended the Indian Penal Code . Another
salient feature of this amendment is that the
fine imposed shall be just and reasonable to
meet the medical expenses and rehabilitation
of the victim.
The findings of an international survey re-
1098 veals that children with disabilities are 3.4% more
Childline is India's first 24 hours free sexually abused than normal children.
emergency phone service for children in Child Rights in the Indian Constitution
need of assistance. Special care is given for
Article 24 – No child below the age of 14
vulnerable children like those affected by
must be employed in hazardous employment.
child labour, child marriage and children
Article 45 – Free and compulsory education for
affected by any abuse.
all children until they attain the age of 14 years.
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Children are the foundation of any Reservations

nation. When girls get married early, they lose The state of Tamil Nadu provides
many privileges like childhood happiness, 69% of reservation to the Scheduled
availing education and a healthy life. The society Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Most Backward
in turn gets affected by child marriage. Thus Classes / Denotified Communities and
child marriage should be avoided at any cost. Backward Classes in public employment and
in educational institutions. Backward class
3.6.2 Women Rights Muslims are granted separate reservation.
The National Commission for Women
The following table gives us a very clear
(NCW) is constituted in India to review the
picture of the percentage of reservation for
Constitutional and legal safeguards for women,
various communities by the Government of
recommends remedial measures and advises
Tamil Nadu.
the government on all matters of policy affect-
ing the welfare and development of women in Communities Reservation in (%)
the country. Backward Classes 26.5
In modern India, women have held high Backward Class
3.5
offices including that of the President, Prime Muslims
Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Leader Most Backward
of the Opposition, Union Ministers, Chief Classes/Denotified 20
Ministers and Governors. Communities
Scheduled Castes 18
In Tamil Nadu, ancestral property
Scheduled Tribes 1
rights were given to women through Hindu
Succession (Tamil Nadu Amendment) Act Total 69
1989. Under each reserved category and in
The Central Government amended General category 30% is reserved for women
the Hindu Succession Act in 2005. By this and 4% is reserved for differently abled persons.
amendment, women are now given equal shares Special reservation to Arunthathiyars has been
in inheritance of the undivided property. granted by preferential allotment of seats with
Women's rights under the Constitution in the seats reserved for Scheduled castes. For
of India mainly include equality, dignity, and persons studied in Tamil medium 20% seats are
freedom from discrimination; additionally, offered under each category on priority basis.
India has various statutes governing the rights In Tamil Nadu Transgenders has been
of women. on 1924 at Vaikkam ub kerala classified under Most Backward Classes.
Periyar E.V. Ramasamy agitate for temple entry
for dalits . in 1925 he started the self respect 3.6.3 Right to Information Act
movement. (RTI)
Women Labourers' Welfare and Ambedkar The Right to Information Act is a

Dr B.R. Ambedkar framed many laws for revolutionary act that aims to promote
women workers in India such as the 'Mines transparency in the government institutions in
Maternity Benefit Act', 'Women Labour India. This act was enacted in October 2005.
Welfare Fund', 'Women and Child Labour A common man can demand any
Protection Act', 'Maternity Benefit for government organization to provide
Women Labour', and 'Restoration of Ban on information. The information must be provided
Employment of Women on Underground
within thirty days. If not, a fee will be collected
Work in Coal Mines'.
as penalty from the concerned official.
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RTI Activists
Activity
List out various jobs in the format given below
and fill in the amount of wages for male and
female employees.
S. No Job / Wages Wages of
Occupation of male female
employee employee
1.
Aruna Roy Nikhil Dey 2.
It is one of the most powerful laws of the 3.
country. This act is people friendly; even an 4.
illiterate person can ask any Public Information
5.
Officer to write it down for him. All government
agencies like Municipal Corporations,
Government departments, Government Contribution of Dr.B.R. Ambedkar
Schools, Road Authorities, etc., come under this Dr.B.R. Ambedkar's contribution to labourers.
Act. • Reduction in Factory Working Hours
Through RTI one can get even copies (8 hours a day)
of government documents such as records,
• C o m p u l s o r y
reports, papers, etc., Personal information of
Recognition of
individuals and organisations related to the
country’s defence and intelligence, such as BSF, Trade Unions
CRPF, Intelligence Bureau are exempted from • Employment
the RTI. Exchange in India
• Sign the Application form with your full • Employees State Insurance (ESI)
name and address along with the date and • Minimum Wages for labourers
send it through a registered post to the office • Coal and Mica Mines Provident Fund
of the concerned authority.
• If a reply is not received within 30 days, It is a great victory for
an appeal can be filed with the Appellate female workers who stand all the
Authority. time more or less 12-14 hours
3.6.4 Labour Rights per day while they are working
The Constitution ensures right to equality, in shops and commercial malls
equality of opportunity in public employment, Female workers who are working in
right to form associations and unions, right to shops and commercial malls are not allowed
livelihood, prohibits trafficking, forced labour
to sit or even lean on the wall. They were
and child labour. Article 39(d) ensures equal
allowed only 5 minutes of break two times
wages to male and female workers for equal
work. a day to take rest.
“The rights of every man are diminished There was a strong voice against
when the rights of one man are threatened” said this inhuman practice among women
John F. Kennedy. Civilized nations of the world workers for a long time. Considering this,
insist on equality. Nations pay more attention the Government of Kerala has decided
on human rights to ensure equality. This helps to redress by amending the Shops and
in maintaining peace, harmony and develop- Commercial Establishment Act in July 2018.
ment of the country.
3. Human Rights 262

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Recap
 Discrimination is the partial treatment of people.
 UNO's definition of human rights.
 History of human rights has its roots from the aftermath of second world war.
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
 Indian Constitution ensures six fundamental rights and eleven duties of a citizen.
 Formation and functions of National and State Human Rights Commissions.
 Extended rights such as child rights, SC and ST rights, women rights, Right to Information Act
(RTI) and labor laws.
EXERCISE
c) i, ii and iii are true
I Choose the d) ii, iii and iv are true
correct answer 6. Consider the following statements.
1. ‘Apartheid’ was followed by ______________ Assertions (A): Rights and duties are the
a) South Sudan b) South Africa two sides of the same coin.
c) Nigeria d) Egypt Reason (R): We have a right to freedom
of religions. We have to promote harmony
2. ________________ right exercises in and the spirit of the people of other
the formation and administration of a religions.
government.
a) both A and R are correct and R explains A
a) Social b) Economic b) both A and R are correct but R does not
c) Political d) Cultural explain A
3. A 10 year old boy is working in a shop. c) A is correct but R is false
Which right can you use to recover him? d) A is false but R is correct
a) Right to equality 7. According to the UNO a child is a person who
b) Right to freedom has not completed the age of ____________
c) Right against child labour exploitation years.
d) Right to freedom of Religion a) 12 b) 14 c) 16 d) 18
4. What is the time limit to get the information 8. Kailash Satyarthi and Malala have been
from RTI Act 2005? awarded Nobel Prize for _____________.
a) 20 days b) 25 days a) Literature b) Peace
c) 30 days d) 35 days c) Physics d) Economics
5. Which of the following statements are true? II Fill in the blanks
i) The State Human Rights commission
was established in 1993. 1.The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
ii) It has the power of a civil court. Contains ______________ articles.
iii) It’s power extend beyond the state. 2.The fundamental Duties were incorporated
iv) It can also recommend compensation to in the Constitution by ______________
victims. Amendment Act.
a) i and ii are true
b) i and iii are true
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3. The National Human Rights commission V Answer in detail

was established on ______________. 1. Write a paragraph about UDHR.
4. Indian state to implement women ancestral 2. What are fundamental duties? How would
property Act in 1989 was ______________. you follow these in your school premises?
III Match the following 3. How does the National Human Rights
Commission protect our rights?
1 Right to Vote Cultural Rights 4. What are the benefits for workers provided
Right against by labour law?
2 Right to form union
exploitation 5. How do you enjoy the fundamental rights in
your life?
Right to preserve
3 Political Rights VI Project and Activity
tradition
1. How do you protect yourself from child
The Hindu abuse / sexual exploitation and trafficking.
4 Right to freedom
Succession Act
2. Write an article titled “My country, My
5 Child labour 2005 Rights”.
IV Give short answers

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. What is Human Right?
1. The constitution of India
2. What are the fundamental rights?
Edition: 2009, Tamil Nadu Text Book
3. What are the Child Rights defined by the
S ociety, India
UNO?
4. Write a short note on the Right to INTERNET RESOURCES
Constitutional Remedies.
1. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/
5. Define: POCSO
country-chapters /india
6. Why do children need special attention?
2. https://amnesty.org.in › About Section
7. What are the contributions to labourers Pages
by B.R. Ambetkar?
8. ‘All are equal before law’. But we have
enacted a separate law for women – Justify
9. Write about the Right against exploitation.
10. Differentiate: Fundamental Rights and
Human Rights.
3. Human Rights 264

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UNIT
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
4
Learning Objectives
To know about the types of constitutions

To understand the forms of government
To learn the merits and demerits of the different forms of government
To understand the differences between the Unitary and Federal, Presidential
and Parliamentary forms of governments
Introduction
Government is the main agency of legislative, executive and judicial powers based
the state. It comprises of several members on the constitution and the laws. There are three
belonging to political and administrative wings. organs in government, namely – Legislature,
It serves as the instrument for delegation and Executive and Judiciary. These organs carry
execution of the state policies for the welfare out the activities of the state. Governments are
of the people. It formulates, expresses and classified into unitary, federal, parliamentary
realises the will of the state. It exercises certain and presidential forms.
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Legislature Which is the oldest form of

government?
Monarchy is the oldest form of
Organs of
Government Executive government in the United Kingdom. In
a monarchy, a king or queen is Head of
State. The British monarchy is known as
Judiciary a constitutional monarchy. This means,
while The Sovereign is Head of State,
the ability to make and pass legislation
4.1 Meaning resides with an elected Parliament.
'Government' refers to the executive
functions of the state. It denotes a body having
authority to make and enforce laws applicable
to the civil, corporate, religious, academic or
other groups.
4.2 TYPES OF
CONSTITUTION
Written Constitution /
Un Written Constitution
Types Of
Constitution
Flexible / Rigid
4.2.1 Unitary Form of In a Unitary form of government, all

Government the authority and power is vested in a single
centre, whereas in a federal form of government
A unitary system of government or unitary
authority and power is distributed between
state, is a sovereign state governed as a single
centre and the constituent units. Even in a
entity. The central government is supreme
Unitary form of Government, there might be
and the administrative divisions exercise
a lot of decentralisation of authority, but we
only powers that the central government has
cannot claim it as a federal system.
delegated to them.
Merits of unitary form of government
England, France, Japan and Sri Lanka are
examples of Unitary Form of governments. • Suitable for small countries.
• There is no conflict of authority and
The term Government is derived from responsibility.
Old French 'governor', derived from Latin
'gubernare' to direct, rule, guide, govern".
4. Forms of Government 266

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• A unitary government will make prompt In a federal model, the national government
decisions and take speedy action. is known as the Federal government or the
• A unitary government is less expensive. Central government or the Union government
• Amendments to the constitution are easy. and the regional government is known as the
state government or the provincial government.
• There is unity, uniformity of law, policy and
administration. Merits of federal form of government
De-merits of unitary form of government • Reconciliation of local autonomy with
• It is not suitable for big countries. national unity
• The central government will have to tackle • Division of power between centre and states
so many complex problems that lead to leads to administrative efficiency
administrative delay • It gives rise to big states
• The central government will not concentrate • Distribution of powers check the despotism
on local problems, local interest and of central government
initiative.
• More suitable for bigger countries
• The concentration of powers may pave way
• It is good for economic and cultural
for the despotism of the central government.
progress
Unitary features of the indian constitution
De-merits of federal form of government
• Strong Centre
• Federal government is weaker when
• Central Government’s control over state
compared to the unitary government.
territory
• Federal government is more expensive
• Single Constitution
• Flexibility of the Constitution • Provincial tendencies are very common
• Unequal representation of states • Lack of uniformity in Administration
• Emergency Provisions • Threat to national unity
• Single Citizenship • Distribution of powers between centre and
• Single Integrated Judiciary states lead to conflicts
• All India Services • Double Citizenship
• Appointment of Governor by the central • Rigid constitution cannot be a mended
government easily for changing needs
• The state governments sometimes place
4.2.2 Federal form of hindrances in the foreign policy
government Federal features of the Indian constitution
The classification of governments into • Dual Government
unitary and federal is based on the nature of • Written Constitution
relations between the national and the regional
• Division of Powers
governments.
• Supremacy of the Constitution
A federal government is one in which
The Constitution is the supreme law of the
powers are divided between the national
land. The laws enacted by the Centre and the
government and the regional governments by
states must confirm to its provisions.
the Constitution itself and both operate in their
respective jurisdictions independently. U.S.A, • Rigid Constitution
Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Russia, Brazil, • Independent Judiciary
Argentina have federal form of governments. • Bicameralism

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Difference between Unitary form and Federal form of Government

Unitary Form of Government Federal Form of Government
Only one Level of Government or Sub units Two Levels of Government
Mostly Single Citizenship Dual Citizenship
Sub Units cannot operate independently Federal Units are answerable to Central Government
No Division of Power Division of Power
Centralisation of Power Decentralisation of Power
4.2.3 Parliamentary form of • Prevents Dictatorship

government • Wide Representation
Modern democratic governments are Demerits of the parliamentary form of
classified into parliamentary and presidential government
on the basis of the nature of relations between • Unstable Government
the executive and the legislative organs of the • No Continuity of Policies
government.
• Dictatorship of the Cabinet
The parliamentary system of government
is the one in which the executive is responsible • Against Separation of Powers
to the legislature for its policies and acts.
4.2.4 The presidential form of
The parliamentary government is also
known as cabinet government or responsible government
government or Westminster model of The Presidential Form Of Government
government and is prevalent in Britain, Japan, is also known as non-parliamentary or fixed
Canada and India among others. executive system of government, basically built
on the principle of separation of power and is
Country Name of Parliament prevalent in the USA, Brazil, Russia and Sri Lanka
Israel Knesset among others.
Germany Bundestag Features of presidential form of government
Denmark Folketing The President as the head of State, he
Norway Storting occupies a ceremonial position.
U.S.A Congress The President is elected by an electoral
Japan Diet college for a fixed tenure of four years.
Britain Parliament The President governs with the help of a
Features of parliamentary form of government cabinet or a smaller body called ‘Kitchen Cabinet’.
• Nominal and Real Executives The legislative, executive and judicial powers
• Majority Party Rule of the government are separated and vested in
• Collective Responsibility three independent organs of the government.
• Dual Membership Merits of the presidential system of government
• Leadership of the Prime Minister
• Democratic
Merits of the parliamentary form of
government • Effective Control by the President
• Harmony between Legislature and Executive • Facilitate decision-making
• Responsible Government • State government

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Demerits of the presidential system of government

• Can degenerate into Dictatorship
• Strain relationship between executive and legislature
• Lack of Harmony between the Legislature and Executive Exercise
Difference between the Parliamentary Form of Government

and Presidential Form of Government
Presidential Form of Government Parliamentary Form of Government
President is directly elected by the People Prime Minister is from the majority party
President is Supreme Central Legislature is supreme
Separation of Powers Absence of Separation Powers Centralisation
Independent branches Independent branches with Overlapping functions
President - Head of the State President - Head of the State
President - Head of the Government Prime Minister - Head of the Government
Individual Leadership Collective leadership
President is not accountable to Congress Collective and Individual Responsibility
The relationship between the Centre and the State in India

India is a union of States where the power is shared between the centre and the states, as per the
procedures mentioned in the Constitution of India. Though the powers are shared between the Central
and State Governments, the final decision is by the Central government in all matters. The relationship
between the centre and the states are
1. Legislative relations (Articles 245-255)
2. Administrative relations (Articles 256-263)
3. Financial relations(Articles 268-293)
Both the Central and State governments have the power to make laws, but the matters differ.
The centre can make laws applicable to the whole nation on certain matters called as the union list. The
States have the powers to make laws in some matters only, applicable to their own state, called as the
State list. The concurrent list includes the subjects on which both Central and State government have
the power to make laws.
Union List: Union list has 100 subjects. These include Foreign affairs, Defence, Armed forces, Posts and
Telegraphs, inter-state trade and commerce and so on.
State List: The state list consists of 61 subjects, which include Public order in the state, police, prisons,
Local Governments, agriculture and so on.
Concurrent List: The Concurrent list has 52 subjects which include Criminal and Civil procedures,
marriage and divorce, economic and special planning, newspapers, books and printing presses, population
control and so on.

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3. In the parliamentary form of g overnment

Gross National Happiness
______________ is the leader of the
(GNH): majority party.
Gross National Happiness is a developing
philosophy as well as an 'index' which is used to II. Fill in the blanks
measure the collective happiness in any specific Country Name of the Parliament
nation. The concept was first mentioned in the
1. USA ____________________
constitution of Bhutan, which was enacted on
18 July 2008. 2. Norway ____________________
The term 'Gross National Happiness' 3. ___________ Folketing
was coined by the fourth king of Bhutan, Jigme
III. Distinguish Between
Singye Wangchuck, in the 1970s. The GNH’s
central tenets are: “Sustainable and equitable 1. Unitary and federal forms of government.
socio-economic development; environmental 2.
Parliamentary and presidential forms of
conservation; preservation and promotion of g overnment.
culture; and good governance”.
IV. Give short note on
GNH is distinguishable by valuing 1. Unitary form of government
collective happiness as the goal of governance
and by emphasising harmony with nature V. Answer the following
and traditional values. 1. List out the types of constitution.
2. What are the merits of a federal
government?
Recap
3. Write down the differences between unitary
Government refers to the executive
form of government and federal form of
function of the state.
government.
Legislature, Executive, Judiciary are
the three organs of government. VI. Answer in detail
The four important forms of 1. Write about the merits of unitary form of
Governments are Unitary, Federal, government.
Parliamentary and Presidential forms. 2.
Write about the presidential form of
India practises a Parliamentary form government and what is the difference

of Government. between presidential and parliamentary

Governance is the process of decision forms of government.
making and the process by which they
are implemented. REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Vijayaragavan, Political Thought, New

Exercise Delhi,STERLING PUBLICATIONS
2. D.D.Basu, Introduction to the Constitution
I. Fill in the blanks of Indian, New Delhi, LEXISNEXIS
3. R.C.Agarwal, Political Theory, New Delhi,
1.
_______, _______ are a S.CHAND
few examples for unitary
4. The Oxford Hand Book of The Indian
form of government.
Constitution
2.
The Parliamentary government is also 5. Anup Chand Kapur, Principles of Political
known as ______________. Science, New Delhi, S.CHAND

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UNIT
Local Self Government
5
Learning Objectives
 To study and understand the development of local self government before
and after Indian independence
 To learn about the rural and urban local governments
 To learn about the nature and working of Panchayat Raj system in India
 To understand the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992
 To know about the historical origin and development in local self governments
in Tamil Nadu
5.1 Meaning of Local Self of local affairs by such local bodies which have
been elected by the local people. These local
Government bodies provide services to the local community
Local Self-Governments are institutions as well as act as an instrument of democratic
that look after the administration of an area or self-government.
a small community such as a village, a town or
5.2 Historical Background
a city. Local Self-Government operates at the
lowest level of society. It works at the grassroot The idea of local self government is a very
level, close to the people, touching their everyday old concept in India. It was at its peak under the
life. Local Self-Government is the management later Cholas or the Imperial Cholas of Tanjore.
271 5. Local Self Government

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There are historical records of references

He tried to
to local self government under Mauryan
remove obstacles
administration. Local self government existed
in the sphere
throughout the country with its own diverse
of Local Self
characteristics of ancient India. During the
medieval period, local self governments had government by
somewhat declined due to the onslaught of his resolution
feudalism. It was revived during the British of 1882. He
period in the last quarter of the 19th century, led a series of
with Western orientation of training in enactments Lord Ripon
democracy with Lord Ripon’s Resolution in in which larger powers of the local self-
1882. Lord Ripon was known as the ‘Father of government were given to the rural and
Local Government for laying the foundations urban bodies and the elected people received
of local self governments in modern times. wider rights.
Under the Government of India Act, 1935
provincial autonomy was introduced. This
5.3 Local Self Governments
Act came into force in 1937. In the provinces
since Independence
where the Congress formed its Government,
rural development received special attention. The conceptualisation of the system of local
It was an essential part of Gandhi’s programme self-government in India took place through
that Panchayat Raj institutions would be built the formation and effort of four important
from villages to the highest level. committees from the year 1957 to 1986. The
Community Development Programme (1952)
After Independence, the Gandhian ideal
and National Extension Service (1953) became
of Grama Swaraj (Village Republic) greatly
a basis for 'The Great Charter on Panchayat
influenced the constitution makers. India
Raj' in 1957. The panchayatraj system was
being the land of villages, the creation of village
inagurated on October 2, in nugaur district
panchayats became a social movement.
of Rajasthan by the then Prime Minister
Restoration of panchayats has become an
Jawaharlal Nehru.
article of faith during our freedom struggle.
alient Features of the 73rd and
S
74th Constitution Amendment
Lord Ripon Acts (1992)
¾¾ Panchayats and Municipalities will be
Lord Ripon was the one who gave
'institutions of self-government'.
Indians the first taste of freedom by
introducing the Local Self Government in ¾¾ Grama Sabhas (Villages) and Ward
Committees (Municipalities) comprising .
1882.
¾¾ Three-tier system of panchayats at village,
Ripon took some steps towards
taluk and district levels.
liberalizing the administration in India. He
formulated the local self government and ¾¾ Seats at all levels filled by direct elections.
made it clear that he was advocating for the ¾¾ Seats reserved for chairpersons of
decentralization of administration. the Panchayats at all levels also shall
5. Local Self Government 272

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be reserved in proportion to their directly elected by the people. (Those who

population. have attained the age above 18 to contest
¾¾ One-third of the total number of seats in the election one must have attained the age
reserved for women. of 21 years) and their term of office is five
years. District Collector act as the Inspector
¾¾ Uniform five year term.
of Village Panchayat. Village Panchayats
Committees and Recommendations are constituted in each and every village
Balwant Rai Mehta Commitee (1957) wherever the population is above 500.
Three-tier Panchayati Raj system – gram
panchayat at village level (direct election),
panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila
Functions of the Village Panchayat
Parishad at the district level (indirect election).
• Supply of drinking water
Ashok Mehta Commitee (1977-1978) • Maintenance of street lights
Two-tier system and political parties should
participate at all levels in the elections.
• Maintenance of roads
• Maintenance of village libraries
G V K Rao Commitee (1985) • Maintenance of small bridges
Appointed by the Planning Commission, the
commitee concluded that the developmental • Granting permission to the housing plots
procedures were gradually being taken away from
the local self-government institutions, resulting in • Maintenance of drainage
a system comparable to ‘grass without roots’.
• Construction of group houses
L M Singhvi Commitee (1986)
• Cleaning of streets
73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment • Maintenance of burial grounds
Acts, 1992.
• Maintenance of common lavatory facilities
Voluntary Functions.
Salient Features of the Tamil According to the Tamil Nadu Local
Nadu Panchayat Raj Act, 1994 Government Act passed in 1994, the following
The New Panchayati Raj System came functions to be performed as voluntary
into being in Tamil Nadu after the enactment functions by the local governments.
of a new law for local body institutions in • Maintenance of street lights in the villages
the year 1994. The salient features of the new • Maintenance of markets and fairs
Act are as follows: (a) A three-tier system
• Implantation of trees
(b) Gram Sabha (c) Establishment of Election
• Maintenance of play grounds
Commission (d) Constitution of Finance
Commission (e) Reservation of seats for • Maintenance of parking vehicles, slaughter
SC/ST’s proportionate to their population. houses and cattle sheds
(f) One third reservation of seats for women • Control over places of exhibition
and (g) Constitution of District Planning
Revenue
Committees.
Village Panchayat was the only local
5.4 Village Panchayat government which was empowered to levy
taxes in the three-tier system of Village
Local governments which are function
Panchayat.
in villages are called Village Panchayats.
The President and ward members are

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Historical Origin and Development of Local Self Government in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu has a long history of local self-governance as is

evident from the Uthiramerur stone inscriptions of Paranthaka
Chola I, in Kanchipuram District. Village republics, reached its
peak during the reign of Cholas. These Village Councils had
effective links with the Chola rulers. “Kuda Olai Murai” was the
name of the secret ballot method exercised to elect members
to the Village Councils. With the downfall of Cholas, the state
experienced a decline of the village autonomy and rise of the
centralized feudal administrative system. This continued till
British rules introduced local self-governance
primarily as an administrative convenience for the colonial British
Government.
In the post independence era, the first

enactment in democratic decentralization in
the state was the Madras Village Panchayats
Act, 1950. Pursuant to the White Paper
on the 'Reform of Local Administration' in 1957, the Madras
Panchayats Act, 1958 and Madras District Development Council
Act were enacted with the following salient features.
Taxes meeting of the Grama Sabha, the income and

• Property Tax expenditure and the beneficiary of the schemes
in the village are discussed.
• Professional Tax
• House Tax
• Taxes for connection of drinking water
• Land Tax
• Taxes levied on shops
Go to the local government office in

your village and know about the levying
of taxes.
Grama Sabha
Meeting of Gram Sabha Meetings of the Grama Sabha are conducted

In each and every village, the people four times a year
living within its jurisdiction will be the 1. January 26 - Republic Day
members of Panchayat. The President of the 2. May 1 - Labourer Day
Panchayat will preside over its meetings. In the

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3. August 15 - Independent Day District Panchayat

4. October 2 - Gandhi Jayanthi A District Panchayat is constituted in each
Panchayat Union district. One district Panchayat is constituted for
Panchayat Union is formed by grouping every 50,000 people and the ward members are
of villages. Members of the Panchayat Union are directly elected by the people. The Chairman is
directly elected by the people. The Chairman of elected from one among its members and their
the Panchayat Union is chosen from among the term is 5 years.
members.
Functions of District Panchayat
• Advising the government about the
developmental schemes of the Village
Panchayat and Panchayat Union.
District
• Supervising the functions of District
Panchayat
Planning Commission.
Panchayat Urban Local Government

Union • Town Panchayat
• Municipality
Village • Corporation
Panchayat
Gandhi’s Concept of Gram Swaraj

Functions of the Panchayat Union Gandhi really
• Supply of drinking water wanted ‘Swaraj’, the self
rule by the people of
• Maintenance of Village Health Centres
India who represent the
• Maintenance of roads
rural mass. He observed
• Establishment of Maternity Homes 'India’s soul lives in the
• Establishment of Public fairs village'. He dreamt of village republics in
• Establishment of Veterinary hospitals terms of Panchayat in free India.
• Maintenance of Social forests Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayat
Raj, a decentralized form of government,
• Repairing of Primary School buildings
where each village is responsible for its own
affairs, as the foundation of India’s political
Where will you report if street lights are
system.
not functioning and drinking water is not
In simpler words, Gandhi’s ideal village
available in the tap in your village?
should be basically self-reliant, making
provision for all necessities of life-food
The district collector, Planning officer, clothing, clean water, sanitation, housing,
concerned Block Development Officer are education, and other requirements,
empowered to supervise the developmental including government and self-defense.
functions of the Panchayat Union.

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Town Panchayat Important functions of the Mayor

The area where more than 10,000 people
• He acts as a bridge between the members
live is called a Town Panchayat. Members and
of the corporation and the government
President of the town Panchayat are directly
• He presides over the meetings of the
elected by the people. There is an Executive
Officer to look after the administration of the Corporation Council
Town Panchayat and their term of office is • He receives the dignitaries from foreign
5 years and he is appointed by the government. countries
Municipality Types of other Urban Panchayats
The area where more than 1,00,000
• Notified Area Committee
people live is called a Municipality.
• Town Area Committee
The Members and the Chairman of the
• Cantonment Board
Municipalities are directly elected by the
people and their term of office is five years. • Township
A Municipal Commissioner is appointed by the • Port Trust
government to administer the Municipality. • Special Purpose Agency
Corporation Elections to the local government in Tamil
Municipal corporations are established Nadu
in big cities where the city has many lakhs of The State Election Commission
population. The Municipal Commissioner is conducts the elections to the local
the Administrative Officer. The Mayor is the government like general elections. The
Chairman of the corporation. The term of office
electoral roll is prepared ward wise. Seats
of the Mayor and other members is five years.
are reserved for the SC & ST and also for the
In Tamil Nadu, there are 21 Corporations. women in proportion to the population by
They are in Chennai, Kovai, Madurai, Trichy, rotation basis.
Tirunelveli, Salem, Erode, Vellore, Tuticorin,
Problems and Challenges facing the Local
Tirupur, Tanjore, Dindigul, Nagarkoil, Hosur,
Self Governments
Avadi, Tambaram, Kanchipuram, Karur,
Kumbakonam, Cuddalore and Sivakasi. Local self governments are the crucial
basis for our democracy. The Constitutional
The Municipal Commissioner will be a
person from the Indian Administrative Service status of local self governments adds more
(IAS). All the decisions of the Corporation significance to their functioning. There are,
Council will be implemented by him. He will be however, a few critical concerns in the working
assisted by the office of the corporation. of local self governments in India. Major
problems and challenges may be mentioned as
Name the British Viceroy after whom the below:
building of Chennai Corporation is name.
• Lack of clear demarcation of powers and
functions of local bodies
• Allocation of funds and needs assessment
are not matched
• Role of caste, class and religion in decision-
making at the local self governments
• Poor accountability of elected members
and officials at the grassroot levels of
Corporation of Chennai democracy

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Periyar as chairman of Municipality:-

P e r i y a r Exercise
E . V. R a m a s a m y
bacame the Chairman I Choose the correct
of Erode Municipality answer
in 1917. During 1. Which committee was appointed by the
his tenure in Erode
planning commission in 1985.
Municipality, Periyar
worked effectively a) Balwant Rai Mehta b) Ashok Mehta
for Providing piped c) G V K Rao d) L M Singhvi
drinking water supply and health facilities
to the people. Piped water supply scheme 2. The Uthiramerur stone inscription show
was implemented in 1919 by Periyar. This evidences of prevelant local self government
scheme was said to be first of kind in the during the ____________ period in Tamil
history of Indian Municipal administration. Nadu.
a) Chola b) Chera
c) Pandiya d) Pallava
Recap
3. The 73rd and 74th constitutional
 Local Self Government operates at the Amendment Acts, was enacted during the
lowest level of society. year in __________.
 Lord Ripon is known as the ‘Father of a) 1992 b) 1995
Local Self Government’.
c) 1997 d) 1990
 ‘Kuda Olai Murai’ during the Chola rule
was a ballot method to elect members 4. _____________ act as the inspector of
to the village councils. Village Panchayat.
 The New Panchayat Raj system came a) Commissioner b) District Collector
into being in Tamil Nadu in the year
c) Councillors d) Mayor
1994.
 Village Panchayats are local II Fill in the blanks
governments of villages. 1. _____________ is known as the 'Father of
 Meetings of the Grama Sabha are Local Governments'.
conducted four times a year. 2. Restoration of ______________ has become
 Panchayat Union is formed by grouping an article of faith during our freedom
of villages. struggle.
 District Panchayat is constituted in each
3. _______________ was the name of the
district.
secret ballot method exercised to elect
 Corporations, Municipalities and Town
members to the village councils during the
Panchayats are urban local bodies.
Chola period
 Mayor is the Chairman of the
corporation. 4. Local Government which function in
 The state Election Commission villages are called _____________.
conducts the elections to the local 5. _____________ will look after the
government. administration of the Town Panchayat.

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III. Match the following 2. List out the salient features of Tamil Nadu
1. Zilla Parishad - Villages Panchayat Raj Act 1994.
2. Gram Sabhas - Mayor 3. Mention the important functions of the
3. Ward Committees - Chairman Village Panchayat.
4. Which are the voluntary functions of the
4. Panchayat Union - District Collector
local governments?
5. Corporation - Municipalities
5. Name the Urban local governments.
IV. Correct the statement
(i) Panchayat Union is formed by grouping of VI. Answer in detail
Districts. 1. Write in details about the salient features of
the 73rd & 74th Constitutional Amendment
(ii) District Panchayat is constituted in each
Act (1992).
village.
(iii) The Municipal Commissioner will be a 2. Describe the major problems & challenges
person from the Indian Administration faced by the local self governments.
Service (IAS). VII. Activity
(iv) In Village Panchayat, the President and 1. Meet your Panchayat President /
ward members are elected by the people. Municipal Chairman and discuss with
V. Give short note him how the local self goverment is being
1. Name the taxes levied by the Village administered.
Panchayat.
ICT CORNER
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT
Official Website of the Rural Development

and Panchayat Raj Department of Tamil
Nadu help to learn about Government
Act, Schemes, Database Map and
Administration.
Procedure
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 Click on Map and Select “Blocks” in Dropdown menu
Step – 3 Click your district name to know about the number of blocks in the
database map (ex. Tiruchirappalli)
URL:
https://www.tnrd.gov.in/ index.html (or) scan the QR Code

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UNIT
Road safety
6
SLOW
Learning Objectives
 To understand the increase of road accidents in our country

 To know the causes of road accidents
 To follow the road safety rules
Introduction With over 1,30,000 deaths

In this lesson, We will learn about a road annually India has the worst
accident refers to any accident involving at road accident rate worldwide.
least a vehicle, occurring on a road open to
public transport, and in which at least one
person is injured or killed. Intentional acts Major Reasons of Road Accidents
(murder, suicide) and natural disasters are
excluded from road accidents. Drunk &
High-Speed
Drive
Road accidents are the leading cause of Improper Driving
Negligence in
death by injury and the tenth-leading cause of Driving
Training
all deaths globally. An estimated 1.2 million Overlooking the Non-stop
people are killed in road crashes each year, other vehicles Long driving
and as many as 50 million people are injured.
279 6. Road safety

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Every three minutes a child is killed in an accident in the world.
The main causes of death by road accidents include
1. Drunk and drive (40%), speeding (24%), car boom in India (16%), inefficient
law enforcement (15%) and less use of helmets and seat belts (5%)
2. Distractions to Driver
3. Red Light Jumping
4. Overtaking in a wrong manner
Top 10 Cies by number of road accidents in 2016

Chennai
Delhi
Bengaluru
Indore
Kolkata
Bhopal
Mumbai
Jabalpur
Jaipur
Hyderabad
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000
Source:Accidents India 2016 report
DIFFERENT FACTORS TO ROAD ACCIDENTS:

Drivers: Over-speeding, rash driving, violation of rules, failure to understand signs,
fatigue, alcohol
Pedestrians: Carelessness, illiteracy, crossing at wrong places, jaywalkers
Passengers: Projecting their body parts outside vehicles, talking to drivers, alighting and
boarding vehicles from the wrong side, travelling on footboards, catching a
running bus etc.
Vehicles: Failure of brakes or steering, tyre burst, insufficient headlights, overloading
Road Conditions: Potholes, damaged roads, eroded roads merging of rural roads with highways
and illegal speed breakers
Weather conditions: Fog, snow, heavy rainfall, wind storms, hail storms.
6. Road safety 280

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Break-up of persons killed by road use category in 2016
Pedestrian Bicycles Two-wheelers Auto-Rickshaws Cars, Taxis, Vans & LMV’s Trucks Buses Other Motor Vehicles
Other (Animal drawn vehicles, cycle rickshaws, hand carts & other persons)
Source:Accidents India 2016 report
Look at the diagram given above and answer Road Traffic Deaths Worldwide by Sex
the following. and Age Group, 2002
1.Which road use category causes the highest Number of deaths, (in thousands)
number of deaths? Could you give any three
possible reasons? What would you suggest as 245
224
the related safety rules?
2.How could pedestrians save themselves from
161
road accidents?
Direct Consequences of Accidents:

1 Fatality (Death) 83
60 64 61 65
2. Injury 49
3. Damage to Property 28 22 28
Preventive measures for accidents: Age 0-4 5-14 15-29 30-44 45-59 60+
1. Education and awareness about road safety Male Female
2. Strict enforcement of law
3. Engineering: Source: WHO Global Burden of Disease
(a) Vehicle design Project, Version 1 (2002).
(b) Road infrastructure Look at the above diagram carefully and
answer the following.
The chances of death by accident
can be decreased by 51% with 1. Which age group tops the number of road
the proper use of seat beltand traffic deaths worldwide? Why?
healmet. 2. Give some inference on the striking difference
between the number of road accident deaths
of males and females.
281 6. Road safety

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Rules to Ensure Road Safety for children Activities

It is important for children to know about Road Safety Games & Activities
road safety rules and regulations. Here are a few
Play is one of the best ways to make
basic road safety rules for children:
children learn important things. A few road
1. Know Your Signals safety tips will help the children learn about
2. Stop, Look and Cross road safety.
3. Pay Attention – Listen 1. Crosswords are excellent learning tools
4. Don’t Run On Roads for older students. You can find road safety
5. Always Use Sidewalks education crosswords for online.
6. Never Stick Hands outside the Vehicle 2. Play guessing games play noises or sounds
7. Never Cross Road at Bends that they are likely to hear on the street and ask
them what it is.
8. Don’t Rush
9. Keep left 3. Red Light, Green Light Have the children
run around and someone yells out, 'red light'
10. Crossing at zebra line.
and the children have to stop what they are
doing until they hear 'green light'.
Exercise
REFERENCES
I Answer the
1. Dinesh Mohan, 'Road Safety in Less-
following. Motorized Environments: Future
1. What are the benefits of wearing helmet Concerns', International Journal of
while driving? Epidemiology 31, No. 3 (2002)
2. Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D.
2. List out the factors of road accidents.
Lopez, eds., The Global Burden of Disease:
3. Which colour in the signal means 'stop? A Comprehensive Assessment of Mortality
4. List out any three road safety rules: and Disability from Diseases, Injuries
and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected in
II Answer in details. 2020 (Boston: Harvard School of Public
1. Explain the factors involved in road Health, 1996).
accidents. 3. Courtesy:- Ministry of Road Transport &
2. Explain in detail: The road safety rules. Highways, Government of India
GLOSSARY
Abandoned Left
Allocation An amount of a resource assigned to a particular recipient
Amendment Changes made to an existing law
Autonomy Self governing
Cantonment A military garrison or camp
Clusters A group of similar things or people
Conceptualisation The action of forming a concept
Compensation Amount awarded to someone for injury or loss
Community A group of people living in the same place of having particular
characteristics in common.
6. Road safety 282

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Consensus General agreement on an isssue

Constituency A group of votes in a specified area who elect a representative
to a legislative body.
Democratic The government is elected by its citizens.
Despotism Excercise of absolute power
Decentralisation The transfer of authority from central to local government
Dignitaries Persons considered to be of high rank or office
Dissolution Formally ending or dismissing an assembly
Executive Having to do with carrying out laws
Ethnicity Belonging to a particular social group
Fundamental Basic
Grass root level The most basic level
Government The group of people with the authority to govern a country or state;
a particular ministry in office.
Intervene Get involved
Judicial Relating to the administration of justice
Judiciary The judges of a court considered as a group
Legislature Law making body
Monarchy A form of government in which a single person is the hereditary
head of the state
NOTA The people in a democratic country are not willing to elect any candidate;
they can vote for the option called NOTA (None Of The Above).
Onslaught A fierce attack
Pressure groups A group of people who are organised actively for promoting and
defending their common interest.
Pursuant Following
Representatives A person chosen or appointed to act or speak for another or others.
Republic The head of the state is elected directly or indirectly.
Racial Related to a race of people
Remedy Solution to an issue /problem
Rigid Hard to change
Rejuvenated Restore
Revitalisation To give new life
Revived Re-establish
Sovereign Free from the interference or control of any foreign power.
Socialist Providing social and economic equality to all citizens.
Secular Freedom to practice any religion or reject all.
Self-Government A system in which the citizens rule themselves
Slaughter Killing of animals for food
Trafficking Carry forcefully from a place to another.
Tier A series of levels of a structure placed one above the other
Victim A person who gets harmed
Voluntary Done of one’s own free will
283 6. Road safety

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ECONOMICS
284
9th Economics U1.indd 284 04-04-2022 20:21:08

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UNIT Understanding Development:
1
Perspectives, Measurement and
Sustainability
Learning Objectives
 To know the meaning of development from different perspectives

 To know the indicators of economic development
 Understand the meaning of economic development
 To know the policies for sustainable development
Introduction Different Perspectives

1.1
The word ‘development’ is used widely. About Development
It refers to the progress of a particular field or Every human being has an ambition or
a particular person. Similarly, the economic desire of his or her own to achieve progress
progress of a country is known as ‘economic in life. Similarly, we have ideas about how
development’. However, the interpretation of a country should progress. If our thinking
the concept development keeps on changing turns towards progress and about the ways
from time to time, from person to person and to achieve the many goals for progress, it
its meaning gets extended further. leads to development.
Let us try to imagine what development means to different people.
Improvement
Growing process in
Progress a needed direcon
Way of moving forward

Freedom to grow
Development
Not doing same

Beering yourself mistake twice
Never ending Part of daily life

process Grows within Advance
285 1. Understanding Development: Perspectives, Measurement and Sustainability

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From the above chart, you will notice Per Capita Income
that other than income, people seek freedom However, for comparing the development
to grow on their own. Thus, development of various countries, total income is not
refers to the improvement in quality of life
satisfactory measure. Since countries have
such as higher income, better education,
different populations, comparing total
better health and nutrition, less poverty and
income will not be suggestive of what an
more equal opportunity.
average person is likely to earn, as people
The term ‘economic development’ refers in one country are better off than others in
to the overall growth of all sectors of the
a different country? The average income is
economy by adoption of new technologies.
Economic development improves the living calculated by dividing the country’s total
standards of the people as well as the status income by its total population. The average
of the country. income is also called per capita income.
Calculations on the per capita income of all
Indicators of Economic countries are calculated only in the US dollar
1.2
Development in order to compare International level.
The major indicators to measure the level Per Capita Income
of economic development are Net National
Product (NNP), Per Capita Income (PCI), According to the World
Bank report, new
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) and Human
income measurements of
Development Index (HDI).
countries are classified as
Final money value of total below (2017–18)
goods and services produced S. Types of Per Capita Income
within the geographic No. Countries (US Dollar)
boundaries of a country during 1 Low Income < 1005
a specified period of time,
2 Lower Middle 1006–3955
normaly a year is known as Gross Domestic
Income
Product (GDP).
3 Upper Middle 3956–12,235
Net National Product Income
The Net National Product (NNP) is 4 High Income > 12,235
considered as a true measure of national
output. It is also known as national income. A Source: www.worldbank.org
rise in per capita income means an increase in
aggregate real output. Hence, this is a better Purchasing Power Parity
indicator than national income for measuring Purchasing power parity is defined as
development. the number of units of a country’s currency
For measuring a country’s development, required to buy the same amount of goods
and services in the domestic market as one
its income is considered to be one of the most dollar would buy in the US.
important factors. Countries with higher
The technique of purchasing power
income are considered to be more developed parity allows us to estimate what exchange
than those with lesser income. So, income between two currencies is needed to express
itself is considered to be one of the indicators the accurate purchasing power of the two
of economic development. currencies in the respective countries.
Recently, India became the third largest
1. Understanding Development: Perspectives, Measurement and Sustainability 286

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economy in terms of PPP. China became Sustainability of

the largest defeating the US to the second 1. 3
position.
Development
Human Development Sustainable economic
Human resource is development is taken to
necessary for the progress mean development without
of any country. The term damaging the environment
‘human resources’ refers and not compromising
to the collective abilities with the needs of the future
of people, which can be generation.
utilised in the production The consequences of environmental
sector. degradation do not respect to national or state
Human resource development means boundaries. Sustainability of development is
the development of a person’s physical and comparatively a new area of knowledge in which
mental abilities through education, health scientists, economists, philosophers and other
care and training. Therefore, investment in social scientists are working together.
education and health of people can result in a
Natural resources can be divided into
high rate of returns in the future for a country.
renewable resources and non-renewable
For example, if a child is invested with good
education and health, he or she may turn to resources.
be very productive in future in the form of Revenewable resources are replenishable.
higher earnings and greater contribution to eg. Solar energy
the society. Human Development Index (HDI) Non renewable resources are non
which indicates all round development of the replenishable eg. Coal, Petroleum.
people in the society.
Groundwater is an example of a renewable
In the past, economists believed that the
rate of economic growth of nations could be resource. The question arises as to how sustainable
increased only by increasing investment in development is possible if the resources are
physical capital. But they have realised over over-used rather than getting replenished. Non-
time that investment in human capital is as renewable resources get exhausted after certain
important as investment in physical capital. number of years of extracting and using them
and they cannot be replenished.
The Ministry of Human
Resource Development is Literacy rate of Tamil Nadu is
responsible for the development the second highest among the
of human resources in India. southern states. Tamil Nadu’s
Its headquarters is situated at literacy rate is higher than the
Shastri Bhavan in New Delhi. national average.
The enrolment for higher education in Tamil
Nadu is the highest in India.
To achieve real sustainability, we need to

balance economic, social and environmental
sustainability in equal harmony.
In general, the question of development
or progress is continuous. At all times, as a
member of society and as individuals, we need
to ask where we want to go, what we wish to
become and what our goals are.

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States
S. Andhra Karnataka Kerala Gujarat Uttar Tamil

India
No Parameter Pradesh Pradesh Nadu
Literacy
1 Rate % 67.02 75.36 94 78.03 69.72 80.09 74.04
(2011)
Sex Ratio
(Females
2 per 1000 993 973 1084 919 912 996 943
Males)
(2011)
Enrolment
in Higher
3 30.8 26.1 30.8 20.7 24.5 44.3 24.5
Education%
(2015–16)
Source: Niti Aayog
Renewable resources Non-renewable resources

Renewable resources are repplenishable Non-renewable resources are non-
resources are pollution free and replenishable resourcespollute and damage
environment friendly. These resources take the environment. Million of years are needed
a short time for renewal. for the formation of these resources.
Example: Solar energy, wind energy, water, Example: Metals, glass, fossil fuels (coal,
wood, paper. petroleum, natural gas, diesel)
Policies for Sustainable these sources have an

1.4
Development adverse environmental
impact. Thermal power
Use of Non-conventional Sources plants emit large quantities
of Energy of carbon dioxide, which
India depends on thermal and hydro pollute the environment.
power plants to meet its power needs. Both

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Solar Power in India Environmental

Solar power is the conversion of energy 1.5
Policies in India
from sunlight into electricity either directly
Environmental policies in India have been
using photovoltaic cells or indirectly using
evolved considerably over the past three decades.
concentrated solar power. Solar panels absorb
These policies have covered a wide range of issues
the sunlight as a source of energy to generate
such as air, water pollution, waste management
electricity. A solar electric system can reliably
and biodiversity conservation.
produce electricity for our home and offices.
India faces challenges in economic
These distributed solar systems are often
development, which has to be achieved with
installed by home and business owners to reduce
limited resources, minimum externalities and in
their electricity costs. Solar power in India is a
the presence of an uncertain climate. One of the
fast-developing industry.
approaches to overcome this challenge is through
Tamil Nadu is the state with highest the path of sustainable development.
installed solar capacity in India. Tamil Nadu is The Supreme Court of India has interpreted
one of the leading solar power producing states and introduced new changes in environmental
in India. As on 31 July 2017, the total installed protection through a series of directions and
capacity in Tamil Nadu is 1,697 MW. judgements.
Article 51A(g) of the Constitution states
that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of India
to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to
have compassion for living creatures.”
Development increases the quality of life.
This means that people will have higher incomes,
better education, better health and nutrition, less
poverty and more equality of opportunity.
List of Environmental Acts in India

S. No Act Action
National Green Tribunal Environmental protection and conservation of
1
Act, 2010 forests and other natural resources
Biological Diversity Act,
2 To provide for conservation of biological diversity
2002
The Environment Providing for the protection and improvement of
3
(Protection) Act, 1986 the environment.
Forest (Conservation) Check deforestation and encourage afforestation

4
Act, 1980 of non-forest areas.
Water (Prevention and
Provides maintenance and restoration and
5 control of pollution)
quality of all types of surface and groundwater.
Act, 1974
Wildlife Protection Act,
6 Providing protection to wild animals and birds.
1972

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The Growth Story of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu is one of the states having achieved rapid
progress with a relatively short period, despite it started
from appalling levels of poverty, deprivation and inequality.
During the short period, Tamil Nadu much to the
consternation of many economists, initiated bold social
programmes such as universal midday meals in primary
schools and started putting in place an extensive social
infrastructure – schools, health centres, roads, public transport, water supply, electricity connections,
and much more. Today, Tamil Nadu has some of the best public services among all Indian states,
and many of them are accessible to all on a non-discriminatory basis.
Last but not least, there is no evidence that the cultivation of human capability has been at the
cost of conventional economic success, such as fast economic growth. Tamil Nadu have some of the
highest per capita incomes and lowest poverty rates among all Indian states. Economic growth, in
turn, has enabled these states to sustain and consolidate active social policies. This is an important
example of the complementarity between economic growth and public support.
Source: An Uncertain Glory by Nobel laureate Prof. Amartya Sen.
Recap
˚ Development refers to the progress of a particular field or a particular person.

˚ Economic development means overall growth of all sectors of the economy.
˚ The major indicators of economic development are Per Capita Income, Net National Product,
Purchasing Power Parity and Human Development Index.
˚ Human resource is necessary for the progress of any country.
˚ Sustainable development means development should take place without damaging the
environment and preserve it for the future.
˚ The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 is aimed at protection to wild animals and birds.
˚ Thermal power plants emit large quantity of carbon dioxide, which is harmful to the
environment
EXERCISE
I. Choose the
correct answer a. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
explains (A)
1. Assertion(A):
Development increases the quality of life. b. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) does
not explain (A)
Reason(R): People will have higher
incomes, better education, better health c. (A) is correct and (R) is false
and nutrition, less poverty. d. (A) is false and (R) is true

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2. The term ‘Human resources’ refers to 9. Assertion (A): Human resource is

a. investment on poor people necessary for the progress of any country.
b. expenditure on agriculture Reason (R): Investment in education and

health of people can result in a high rate
c. investment on assests of returns in the future for a country.
d. collective abilities of people a. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
3. For comparing development between explains (A)
countries, their ________ is considered b. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) does
to be one of the most important attributes. not explain (A)
a. growth b. income c. (A) is correct and (R) is false
c. expenditure d. savings d. (A) is false and (R) is true
4. ________ is considered a true measure of 10. The Human Development Index (HDI)
national income. does not take into account the following
a. GNP b. GDP dimension in its calculation
c. NNP d. NDP a. Gender b. Health
5. The ________ income is also called per c. Education d. Income
capita income. 11. Among the following states which state
a. average b. total have the literacy rate (2011) higher than
national average
c. people d. monthly
a. Andhra Pradesh
6. Which one of the following country is not
a G-8 country b. Uttar Pradesh
a. Japan b. Canada c. Tamil Nadu
c. Russia d. India d. None of these
7. Which one of the following country is not 12. Sex-ratio means
a member of SAARC a. the ratio between adult-male and adult
a. India b. Pakistan female in a population
c. China d. Bhutan b. the ratio between female and male in a
population
8. Assertion (A): The Net National Product
(NNP) is considered as a true measure of c.
the relationship between male of
national output. female
Reason (R): It is also known as national d. the number of females per thousand
income. males
a. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) 13. Inter-generational equality is ensured
explains (A) under the process of
b. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) does a. Industrial progress
not explain (A) b. Economic development
c. (A) is correct and (R) is false c. Sustainable development
d. (A) is false and (R) is true d. Economic growth

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14. Find the odd one 3. Why NNP is not considered as an

a. Solar energy b. Wind energy useful measure to compare a country’s
development with other countries?
c. Paper d. Natural gas
4. Why human resources is considered as
15. _____________ is the state with highest
the foremost resource of any country?
installed solar capacity in India.
a. Tamil Nadu b. West Bengal 5. Expand the following:1. PPP 2. HDI
c. K
erala d. Andhra Pradesh 6. Expand the following: 1. NNP 2. PCI
16. _______ resources are those which will 7. What is ‘Solar Power’?
get exhausted after years of use.
V. Answer in detail
a. Natural b. Renewable
1. Discuss the policies for sustainable
c. Non-Renewable d. New development.
17. Thermal plant emits large quantity of 2. Describe in detail about environmental
_______, which pollutes the environment. policies in India.
a. O
xygen b. Nitrogen 3. Differentiate between renewable and non-
renewable resources.
c. C
arbon d. Carbon dioxide
4. Mention any five environmental acts and
II. Fill in the blanks their action.
1. Economic progress of any country is
known as ______________ VI. Projects and Activities
2. The head quarters of HRD Ministry is in List the various ways in which the
_____________ problems of garbage and emissions are
3. The state having the highest literacy rate being dealt with around the world.
in India is _____________ VII. HOTS
4. Human Development Report of the world Write in detail what kind of environmental
prepared and released by _____________ problems you face in your locality.
5. Groundwater is an example
of______________ resource. VIII. Life Skill
6. The book An Uncertain Glory was written How is the Per Capita income calculated?
by_____________
III. Match the following
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. Development - Wild life
Protection Act 1. www.imf.org (The International Monetary Fund)
2. Human - Renewable resources 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sustainable_
resource development
3. www.worldbank.org
3. S olar energy - Part of daily life
4. Niti Aayog
4. 1972 - Education
5. hdr.undp.org/en/composite/trends (The United
IV. Give Short answers: Nations Development Programme)
1. What do you mean by development? 6. http : //vikaspedia. in / energy / policy_support/
environment_1/forests/generalenvironmental-
2. What are the indicators of development? acts

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UNIT Employment in India

and Tamil Nadu
2
Learning Objectives
 To know the employment structure in India
 Understand the organised and unorganised sector
 Understand the distinction between public sector and private sector
 Understand the changing employment pattern
 To appreciate the case study format
Introduction Employment
2.1
You know the basic needs of every human Structure in India
being are food, clothes and shelter. In the present The nature of employment in India is
world, one more essential need has to be added multi-dimensional. Some get employment
in this list. That is employment. To survive in the throughout the year; some others get
world, we all need employment to earn money. employed for only a few months in a year.
Those who are engaged in economic activities,
in whatever capacity– high or low – are called The economy is classified into three
employees. People who employ these workers sectors: primary or agriculture sector,
and pay rewards for their work are called the secondary or industrial sector and tertiary or
employers. service sector.
Labour force of the economy is the

number of people in the country who work
and also capable of working. We take the age
group of 15–60 years for the computation of
workforce. Persons who are less than 15 years
are considered as children, and person who
have crossed 60 years of age are excluded as they
are not physically fit to undertake productive
occupation. If larger percentage of population
is accounted by children and old-age persons,
then the progress of the country would be very Employment Structure
slow as the working force is very small. Besides,
the small working force will have to maintain The structure of employment denotes
larger non-working force for feeding out of the the number of workers engaged in different
small national product. sectors of the economy. Though the occupational
pattern varies from one country to another, one
293 2. Employment in India and Tamil Nadu

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can find in developing countries like India that

a large work force will be engaged in primary
sector, while a small proportion in secondary
and tertiary sectors. Whereas, in well-developed
countries, the proportion of workforce engaged
in agriculture will be very small and a majority
of labour force will be in the industrial and
tertiary sectors.
Employment has always featured as an
important element of development policy in
India. Unorganised Sector
Employment growth has increased at The unorganised sector of the economy
an average rate of 2% during the past four characterised by the household manufacturing
decades since 1972–73. activity and small-scale industry. Jobs here are
low paid and often not regular, Mostly, they do
In the medieval period, not have paid leave, holiday, leave due to sickness
Feroz Shah Thuglaq, the and so on. Employment is not secure. When there
Sultan of Delhi, had set up an is no work, people are asked to leave the job. This
‘Employment Bureau’ to solve
sector includes a large number of people who are
the unemployment problem.
employed on their own doing small jobs such as
selling on the street, doing repair work and so on.
Types of Employment:
In the unorganised sector, the employment
2. 2 Organised and terms are not fixed and regular. They do not
Unorganised Sectors enjoy any special benefits or job security.
Organised Sector These enterprises are not registered with the
government.
The organised sector is one that is
incorporated with the appropriate authority Public Sector vs Private Sector
or government and follows appropriate rules
Economic activities are
and regulations. In short organised sectors
classified into public and
are those which are deliberately planned,
private sector based on who
designed and duly sanctioned by competent
owns assets and is responsible
authority. They are formal by nature. In India
for the delivery of services.
employees of central and state governments,
banks, railways, insurance, industry and so
on can be called as organised sector. This
THE SECTORS
sector works according to certain rules and
regulations given in the law. Organised sector PUBLIC SECTOR PRIVATE SECTOR
has some formal processes and procedures.
SOLE
The employees in this sector are provided LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNINCORPORATED
TRADER
with job security and receive higher wages PARTNERSHIP
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT PRIVATE LIMITED

than those of the unorganised sectors. INCORPORATED
COMPANY
NATIONALISED
Organised sector gives good salary, INDUSTRIES
PUBLIC LIMITED
COMPANY
fixed working hours, paid holidays and provides

FRANCHISES
medical allowance and insurance also.
2. Employment in India and Tamil Nadu 294

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Differences between the Public Employment in Iruvelpattu: A

Sector and Private Sector case study
S. What is happening in the employment

Public Sector Private Sector scenario can be understood not only from
No.
national or state level, but also from the study
Service of the village economy. Iruvelpattu is one such
1 Profit motive village in Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu.
motive
This village has been studied for more than
Government 100 years by many scholars. This village is
Private individuals
2 owns the also called Slater village as Gilbert Slater was
own the assets
assets the first scholar working in the University of
Madras to go with his students to study this
Wages are Wages are paid by
village in 1916.Over the years, many scholars
3 paid by the the owner of private
surveyed the occupation of villagers and
government enterprises.
collected many more details of each person
in the village.
It was clearly observed that the
Examples government brought social security awareness
Public Sector Private Sector among the people of the village through
NLC TVS Motors primary health care, provision of schools and
maintenance of public distribution system.
SAIL Ashok Leyland Though this village underwent many changes,
BSNL TATA Steel it is still dependent on agriculture as the
main occupation.Look at the following table
or chart.You will notice that during 1981, out
2. 3 Employment Pattern of 100 families, 24% were engaged in non-
In recent years, there has been a change agricultural laboures. In 2008, the member
in the employment pattern and this has helped of families engaged in such employment
the employers to develop more flexible working increased to 41%.During 1981–2008, the
patterns among their employees. The trends are proportion of families engaged in agriculture
(a) increasing self-employment (b) firms using has declined from 34% to 26% – both as
fewer full-time employees and tending to offer agriculture labourers and as cultivators.
more short-term contracts (c) there has been a
growth in part-time employment. This may be Employment details of
due to lifestyle of the people. households in Iruvelpattu (in%)
Employment Trends in Tamil Nadu
% of
Agriculture, despite a sharp decline in Occupation Households
gross domestic product, continues to be the
1981 2008
largest employer in Tamil Nadu. This is because
the non-agriculture sectors are yet to generate Cultivators 42 33
enough employment to affect a shift of labour
Agricultural labourers 34 26
force. Most of the employment growth in Tamil
Nadu has been contributed by the unorganised Non-agricultural labourers 24 41
and informal sectors.
All households 100 100

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1981 2008
EXERCISE
24%
41% 33% I. Choose the correct
42%
answer
34%
26% 1. We take age group _______ years for
computation of the workforce.
a. 12–60 b. 15–60
Cultivators c. 21–65 d. 5–14
2. Which is the correct sequence of
Agricultural Labourers
various sectors in GDP of India in the
Non-Agricultural Labourers descending order?
a. Primary sector, Secondary sector,
Tertiary sector
Activity
b. Primary sector, Tertiary sector,
1. Why did people shift from agriculture Secondary sector
to non-agriculture jobs in Iruvelpattu? c. Tertiary sector, Secondary sector,
What could have been the reasons? Primary sector
2. Do you think it is easy to move from d. Secondary sector, Tertiary sector,
agriculture to non-agriculture jobs? Talk Primary sector
to your teachers and parents and discuss 3. Which one of the following sectors is
in the class. the largest employer in India.
3. Collect details of main occupations of a. Primary Sector
20 families in your locality. Prepare a b. Secondary Sector
table or chart as given above and discuss c. Tertiary Sector
in the class. d. Public sector
4. Which one of the following is not in
Recap
Primary Sector
 Labour force is the number of people in a. Agriculture b. Manufacturing
the country who work and also capable c. Mining d. Fishery
of working. 5. Which one of the following is not in the
 Structure of employment denotes Secondary Sector?
number of workers engaged in different a. Construction b.Manufacturing
sectors of the economy. c. Small Scale Industry
 The employment growth rate of India d. Forestry
increased at an average rate of 2% during 6. Tertiary Sector include/s
past four decades from 1972-73. a. Transport b. Insurance
 Organised sector provides job security c. Banking d. All of these
and other benefits like insurance to its
7. Which sector is not included in the
employees.
occupational pattern?
 Public sector means government a. Primary sector
undertakings. b. Secondary sector
 Employment pattern changes due to c. Tertiary sector
lifestyle of the people. d. Private sector

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8. Match the List I with List II using the a. number of workers employed
codes given below: b. nature of economic activity
I II c. ownership of enterprises
a. A
griculture, 1. Unorganised d. employment conditions
Forestry, Fishery sector 14. Assertion (A) : The unorganised sector
and Mining of the economy characterised by the
b. Manufacturing, 2. Service Sector household manufacturing activity and
Electricity Gas and small-scale industry.
Water Supply Reason (R) : Jobs here are low paid and
c. T
rade, Transport 3. S econdary sector often not regular
and Communication a. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
explains (A)
d. U
nincorporated 4. Primary Sector
b. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R)
Enterprises and
does not explain (A)
Household industries
c. (A) is correct and (R) is false
(A) (B) (C) (D) d. (A) is false and (R) is true
a. 1 2 3 4 15. People who employ workers and pay
b. 4 3 2 1 rewards for their work is termed as
_______.
c. 2 3 1 4 a employee b. employer
d. 3 2 4 1 c. labour d. caretaker
16. __________ continues to be the largest
9. Which Delhi Sultan of medieval India
formed ‘Employment Bureau’ to solve employer in Tamil Nadu.
the unemployment problem. a. Agriculture b. Manufacturing
a. Muhamad Bin Tugluq c. Banking d. Small Scale Industry
b. Allauddin Khilji II. Fill in the blanks
c. Feroz Shah Tugluq
1. In ______ sector, the employment
d. Balban
terms are not fixed and regular.
10. _________ sector is registered and
follows government rules. 2. Economic activities are classified
a. Agriculture b. Organised into _______ and _______ sectors.
c. Unorganised d. Private 3. ________ has always featured as an
11. ________ sector provides job security important element of development
and higher wages policy in India.
a. Public sector
4. Employment pattern changes due to
b. Organised sector
________________
c. Unorganised sector
d. Private sector 5. The nature of employment in India is
12. Find the odd one _________.
a. Banking b. Railways 6. ________ of the economy is the
c. Insurance d. Small Scale Industry number of people in the country, who
13. The sectors are classified into work and also capable of working.
Public and Private sectors on the basis of 7. Public sector means ______________

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III. Match the following: 4. Agriculture, despite a sharp decline in Gross

1. Public sector — a. Banking Domestic Product, continues to be the largest
employer in Tamil Nadu. Give reason.
2. Private sector — b. Poultry
3. Primary sector — c. Profit motive V. Answer in detail:
4. Tertiary sector — d. Service motive 1. Explain: (a) primary sector; (b) secondary
sector; (c)tertiary sector.
IV. Give Short answers: 2. Explain the employment structure of
1. What is labour force of the economy? India.
2. Why are children and old age (above 60 3. Compare the employment conditions
years) are not considered for computation prevailing in the organised and
of workforce? unorganised sectors.
3. What are the three sectors of an economy? 4. Distinguish between the Public sector
and the Private sector.
VI. Projects and Activities

1. Make a long list of all kinds of work that you find adults around you. In what way can you
classify them?
2. A research scholar looked at the working people in the city of Chennai and found the
following:
3. Classify the following list of occupations under primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.
Milk vendor, tailor, teacher, doctor, farmer, postman, engineer, potter, fisherman, artisans,
policeman, banker, driver, carpenter.
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Nature of Percentage of
Place of work
employment working people
In offices and factories registered with the
Organised 15
government
Own shops, office, clinics in marketplaces with
20
formal license
People working on the street, construction workers,
25
domestic workers
Working in small workshops usually not registered
with the government
VII. HOTS VIII. Life Skill

Tertiary sector is in top position in the world Discuss the sectors of your village economy.
now. Justify

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REFERENCE BOOK AND INTERNET RESOURCES
1. Iruvelapattu (1916-2008), Economic and Political 3. https://quickonomics.com

Weekly, July 31, 2010, vol. XLV, No. 31, pp.47-61. 4. https://study.com
2. https://villageinfo.in
ICT CORNER
Employment in India and Tamil Nadu
Explore TNSDC
to know opportunities
for various skills
Steps:
• Type the URL given (or) Scan the QR Code. Tamilnadu skill development
corporation webpage will open.
• Click on the ‘List of Training Courses’. Select occordingly in the corresponding
boxes. A list of training will appear.
• Click New Registration and select ‘TNSDC LOGIN’ and type your username
and password.
• Click ‘Downloads’ to get important G.O.'s about skill developments. Click the
‘Important Links’ to get other important links.
Timeline Project’s URL:

https://www.tnskill.tn.gov.in/

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UNIT
Money and Credit
3
Learning Objectives
To know about the Barter system

To understand about money and various transaction of money
To know about the role of RBI
To understand about the various types of credits and benificiaries
Introduction plays a predominant and inseparable role in all

our lives.
This chapter deals with the evolution of
money over the years and its functions. It also
elucidates on the role of the Reserve Bank of India. 3.1 Barter System
It throws light on Foreign Exchange, monetary If there arises a question, “Has man always
aggregates and forms of credit. It further explains used money?”, the answer would be ‘no’. How?
how technological advancements have made when did money enter into the lives of men? In
banking easy and swift in today’s world. this lesson, let us learn about the evolution of
Almost all things used by man have a money over the years.
monetary value. In addition to that, the pay Ancient man hunted and gathered food.
given for labour, wages and services are all fixed He lived in caves and forests. In later stages, he
on the basis of money. The taxes and duties invented weapons for hunting and gathering
are also paid in the form of money. We would food. Later, he invented fire and learnt to
have seen our parents planning the expenses at practise agriculture. He used mud to build
our home every month. The monthly income, houses and settle down in a place. and also to
pending expenditure, savings, payment of make earthenware.
interest etc., are all measured in terms of money. When the agricultural yield was high, they
Not only at homes, but also the budgets of made handicrafts. When there was surplus in
a country or states are also framed on the basis agricultural produce and other articles like
of money. The Government, as well as, private earthenware, they exchanged it with people who
institutions and industries calculate their needed them. For example, if a community had
financial status through money. Thus, money excess food stuff, they would exchange that with
3. Money and Credit 300
9th Economics U3 Folder.indd 300 08-04-2022 11:04:25

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those who had excess pots. Likewise, when a

During his rule(1540-1546)
particular grain grew in abundance in a region,
Sher Shah Suri set up a new civic
it was exchanged for a different crop in another
and military administration
region. These articles which were exchanged
and issued a coin of silver
through barter system can be termed as the first
weighing 178 grams, which was termed
form of trade.
the Rupiya. The silver coin remained in use
during the Mughal period, the Maratha era
3.2 Coins and in Biritish India as well.
The barter system flourished wherever These may be the reasons why metals were
civilizations thrived. This system was active chosen. Gold, silver and copper were the metals
not only within a civilization, but also among used first. They were called ancient currency.
civilizations. This was the initial form of Leather, beads, shells, tobacco, salt, corn and even
international trade. slaves were exchanged as barter, says economists.
The later Cholas allowed the traders to have
During archaeological excavations in Egypt their own army. Historical evidences state that
and Iraq (Mesopotamia), articles used during during this period, small traders and producers
the Indus valley civilization were excavated. gave credit to the Tamil traders to support their
export needs.
3.3 Natural Money

The metals such as silver and gold gained
importance gradually all over the world. So,
these metals were used as standard value in
the exchange of goods. This was called as
natural money.
3.4 Paper Money

As days went by, issues arose because
while trade prospered, there were insufficient
reserves of gold and silver. Mines also had a
As years went by, there were issues found in
limited reserve of these metals. An alternative
barter system. For example there were problems
was found and coins were made using metals
in the exchanging needed goods. A person
with lesser value. These were used to buy and
who had paddy was in need of earthenware
sell goods of lesser value. It was used as the
for instance. But, the person who had pots and
money of the poor people.
other utensils was not in need of paddy. Thus,
the needs of many people were not fulfilled. Hence these coins were printed in large
Measuring the quantity and value of the goods numbers. Paper money came into being as
exchanged were found very difficult. the next stage. This money was without form
To solve these issues, they fixed a common and people started saving in banks. The Great
item with a standard value, for the effective Economic Depression was also prompted the
exchange of goods. It was usually in the form of saving habit of the people.
some metal. Metals were rare to find and could Money has become an inseparable part of
be maintained for a long time and never lost everyone’s life today. It has changed its form in
their value. Hence, the metals can be termed as the economic front. Money transactions are
the first form of money. done through many ways in the electronic world
301 3. Money and Credit

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3.6 Role of the Reserve

Bank of India
A government has the responsibility
to regulate money supply and oversee the
monetary policy. Hoarding of money must be
avoided at all costs in a country’s economy.
Only then money can be saved in banks.
A major portion of the savings in banks
are used for the development of industries,
3.5 Electronic Transactions economic growth and various development
schemes for the welfare of the poor.
One has to visit the bank and fill in a
challan or produce a cheque to withdraw
money from his account.
Now this practice is gradually
vanishing. Instead, one can easily withdraw
the necessary amount from an Automated
Teller Machine (ATM), with the help of an
ATM debit card. One can easily withdraw the
money needed at any time at ATMs located
everywhere. A person can deposit money in
their account without visiting the branch.
• Similarly, credit cards are also available,
through which things are bought on
credit and the amount can be paid later.
• Nowadays, instead of using cheques
All the major and important banks were
or Demand Drafts (DDs), online
nationalised (1969) in India. The Reserve
transactions through net banking are
Bank of India (RBI) regulates the circulation of
carried out. Through this, money is
currency in India.
transacted to anyone who lives anywhere
across the globe. The Reserve Bank of India started its
• Technology has advanced so much that operations on 1st April 1935. It was permanently
even mobile banking is widely used moved to Mumbai from the year 1937. RBI was
nowadays. natinolised in 1949. 85% of the printed currency
is let for circulation. According to the statistics
available as on August 2018, currency worth of
19 lakh crore are in circulation.
(source - Reserve Bank of India)
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s

Ph.D.thesis on ‘The Problem
of the Rupee - Its origin and
solution’ was the reference
tool and provided guidelines
for the Reserve Bank of India Act of 1934.

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3.7 Relationship between store of value and a standard of deferred payments.

It plays an important role in transactions.
Money and Prices
There is a close Country Currency
relationship between volume
India Rupee
of circulation money and the
price of things. 90% of the
England Pound
products are manufactured European Union Euro
with the main aim of sales or Canada Dollar
meant for services. Growing Japan Yen
crops and production are done on a commercial China Yuan
basis, rather than on a subsistence level. This
Saudi Arabia Riyal
phenomenon also increased the importance of
the market and money. Australia Dollar
Malaysia Ringgit
The relationship between money and price
Pakistan Rupee
is connected with the Monetary policy.
SriLanka Rupee
There is a close relationship between the
growth of money supply and inflation. Price
Activity
controls play a very important role in a country’s
economic stability. This role is played by the Foreign Exchange
Central Bank of our country, RBI in India. Let the teacher bring copies of Indian rupees
Currency is the medium of exchange in and foreign currencies. Distribute the foreign
a country. The Indian currency is called the currencies to pairs / groups. Let the students
Indian Rupee (INR). In a country, the foreign convert it into Indian rupees and collect the
currency is called foreign exchange. equivalent amount of rupees from the teacher.
When all groups complete, the foreign currency
Purchasing capacity of all currencies in can be given to another group in the next round.
the world are compared using the US dollar as
the standard currency. This value differs from Medium of Exchange
country to country. Most of the international Money should be accepted liberally in
trade transactions are carried out in US dollar. exchange of goods and services in a country.
Unit of Account
Activity
Money should be the common, standard
Bank unit of calculating a country’s total consumer
• Set up your classroom like a bank. goods, products, services etc. For example,
• With the help of your teacher, act as a if a book costs ` 50, it means that the price
Cashier, Branch Manager, Assistant of the book is equal to 50 units of money.
Manager, customers etc. Money is used to measure and record financial
• Prepare dummy challans for deposition transactions in a country.
of money, cheques, Demand Draft etc.
A Store of Value
• Do the banking activities
Money is used as a store of purchasing
power. It can be used to finance future payments.
3.8 Functions of Money
Hots
When money replaced the barter system, a
How important is foreign exchange to one's
lot of practical issues were solved. Money acts a
country?
medium of exchange, a unit of measurement, a

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3.9 Credit
How is currency printed in India?
Farmers avail credit during monsoons
One rupee and two rupee notes were
for buying seeds, agricultural input and other
first printed in India in the year 1917.
expenses. Traders and small entrepreneurs need
The Reserve Bank of India is empowered
credit for their needs. Even large industries
to issue the Government of India notes
receive credit to take up their new projects.
since1935. 500 rupee note currency was
Credit is available from: introduced later. In 1940, one Rupee notes
• Formal financial institutions like were issued again. Till 1947, the currency
nationalised and private banks and co- notes with the image of King George VI
operative banks were in circulation. After Independence, the
• Informal financial institutions Government of India issued currency notes.
• Micro credit is received through Self Help In 1925, the British government
Groups (SHG) established a government press at Nasik in
As far as nationalised banks and co- Maharashtra. Currencies were printed three
operative banks are concerned the interest years later. In 1974, a press was started in
to credit is comparatively lesser and there is Dewas, Madhya Pradesh. (Security Printing
gurantee for the pledged, goods. and Minting Corporation of India Ltd.) In
Informal Financial Institutions the 1990s. two more presses were started
in Mysuru, Karnataka and Salboni in West
Informal financial institutions are easily
Bengal to print bank notes.
approachable to the customers with flexible
procedures. But there are issues like the safety of The Reserve Bank of India has the
items pledged high rates of interest and modes authority to decide the value of currency
of recovery. to be printed and how the amount should
reach its destination safely.
People who live in a particular place or
Though the RBI has the power to print up to
those who are involved in a certain work join
ten thousand rupee notes, at present a maximum
together as a group and start saving. These are
of upto rupees two thousand is printed.
called as Self Help Groups. The nationalised
banks provide help to these groups through
micro-credit. . Credit given though Self Help Recap
Groups for street vendors, fishermen, especially B arter system flourished where
women and the poor really make a difference in civilizations thrived.
their life. Gold, silver and copper were called
In Tamil Nadu, all the banks have 10,612 ancient money.
branches,across the state They carry on a total Pepper and spices took a major share of
transaction of around 15 lakh crore rupees exports.
during the financial year (2017-2018). Paper money was introduced because
metal supply was limited.
Mobile banking is widely used nowadays.
A government has the responsibility to
regulate the money supply and oversea
circulation.
All the major and important banks are
nationalised in India.
There is a close relationship between
money and price.

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6. Why were coins of low value printed in

large quantities?
Exercise
7. What is meant by foreign exchange?
V Answer in detail
I Choose the
1. Explain how money is transacted in the
correct answer
digital world.
1. Certain metals like __________ (gold / 2. Explain in detail about the role of RBI in
iron) were used as a medium of exchange the country.
in ancient times.
3. Write in detail about the various functions
2. The Head Quarters of the RBI is at of money.
_____________ (Chennai / Mumbai).
VI Write the correct statement.
3. International trade is carried on in terms
of _____________ (US Dollars / Pounds). (a) 1. The barter system flourished
4. The currency of Japan is _____________ wherever civilizations thrived.
(Yen/ Yuan) 2. This was the initial form of trade.
i) 1 is correct; 2 is wrong
II Fill in the blanks
ii) Both 1 and 2 are correct
1. _____________ System can be considered
iii) Both 1 and 2 are wrong
as the first form of trade.
iv) 1 is wrong; 2 is correct
2. Money supply is divided into
___________. (b) 1. ost of the international trade
M
transactions are carried out in US
3. The first printing press of the RBI was
dollars.
started at _____________.
2. No other country except the US
4. _____________ act as a regulator of the
carries out trade in the world.
circulation of money.
i) Both the statements are correct.
5. The thesis about money by B.R. Ambedkar
is _____________. ii) Both the statements are wrong.
iii) 1 is correct; 2 is wrong
III Match the following
iv) 1 is wrong; 2 is correct
1. US Dollar - Automatic Teller Machine
VII Project and activity
2. Currency in - Substitute of money
circulation 1. Visit a local museum and collect
3. ATM - Universally accepted currency information about the coins displayed
4. Salt - Saudi Arabia there.
5. Riyal - 85% 2. Imagine you are going abroad for a Post
Graduation course in architecture. Write
IV Give short answers a letter to the Branch Manager regarding
1. Why was money invented? an education loan.
2. What is ancient money? VIII Life skills
3. What were the items used as barter during
1. Observe at a 20 rupee note. What is
olden days? written on it?
4. What is spice route? Why was it called so?
2. Prepare a family budget for a month.
5. What is natural money?

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UNIT
Agriculture in Tamil Nadu
4
Learning Objectives
� To know about the agricultural activity in Tamil Nadu
� To know the extent of land under cultivation in Tamil Nadu
� To understand the importance of water and irrigation in agriculture
� To know about various crops grown in Tamil Nadu
� To analyse the crop productivity in Tamil Nadu
Introduction 4.1 Sectors of people

Most of the people of Tamil Nadu involved in agricultural
depended on agriculture at the time of
activities
independence and even after 40 years of

independence. That situation is being changed A major portion of the workers involved in
in the recent years. It has been noticed that agricultural activities are landless labourers. All
the number of farmers in Tamilnadu has got the land holders do not have the same amount
reduced d uring the last 10 years according to of land. Many have very little land and very few
the 2011 census data. Similarly the number of people hold large areas of land.
agricultural workers also r educed during the During 2015-16 , there were 79,38,000
same period. According to the 2001 census, cultivators in Tamil Nadu. But five years earliers
49.3% out of the total population of workers there were 81,18,000 cultivators. There was a
were involved in agriculture. The percentage reduction of 1,80,000 cultivators in these five
has reduced to 42.1 in the next 10 years. In years. Similarly, the area under cultivation also
2011 there were three crore 29 lakh workers in reduced from 64.88 lakh hectares to 59.71 lakh
Tamilnadu of which 96 lakh were agricultural hectares during the same period. That is, the
workers. state of Tamil Nadu had lost nearly 1,03,400
In 2011, nearly 55% of the women hectares on an average during these five years.
were involved in agriculture whereas nearly
one third (35.3%) of the male population was Most of the cultivators in Tamil Nadu are
involved in agriculture during the same year. micro farmers who cultivate in an area less than
307 4. Agriculture in Tamil Nadu
9th Economics U4 EM.indd 307 08-04-2022 15:36:55

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changes every year. This land extent was 9 lakh

hectare in next year but was reduced to 6 lakh
hectare, due to lack of rainfall. This area will be
more or less stable only when there is a stable
and reliable water source.
In 2012-13, out of the total cultivated land,
1 hectare. Micro farmers account to around nearly 72 percent is used for food crops and the
78% of the total cultivators, while the area remaining for non-food crops.
cultivated by these micro farmers is just 36%.
Small farmers cultivating 1-2 hectares of land 4.3 Water Resource for
cover 14%, while the land cultivated by them is Agriculture
26%.
There are no perennial rivers in Tamil
Cultivators of schedule caste farmers are
Nadu. Tamil Nadu receives the required water
only one percent in Tamil Nadu. 96% of this
from the Northeast and Southwest monsoons.
one percent are small, micro farmers.
When the South West monsoon rains are high
The total land area under agriculture is in the catchment areas of the Cauvery River
shrinking fast not only in Tamil Nadu, but in Karnataka dams get filled and in turn the
also throughout India. The number of marginal Cauvery river in Tamil Nadu gets water.
farmers has increased in India. In contrast, the
number of marginal farmers is decreasing in The area under irrigation is about 57
Tamil Nadu. This shows that the farmers are percent of the total area under cultivation.
doing other occupations.
4.2 Types of land usage Northeast monsoon (Oct-Dec) is a major

source of water for Tamil Nadu. The Northeast
The total geographical area of T amil Nadu monsoon rains are stored in reservoirs, lakes,
is One Crore 30 lakhs and 33 thousand hectares. pond and wells for cultivation. Conventional
Out of this only one third of land is used for water bodies like lakes, ponds and canals pro-
agriculture (45,44,000 hectare). 17% of the land vide water for agriculture in Tamil Nadu. 2,239
is used for non agricultural use. Nearly the canals run through Tamil Nadu covering a
same size ( 2125 thousand hectares) of land are length of 9,750 km. There are 7,985 small lakes,
forests. About 4% of the total land is unusable. 33,142 large lakes, 15 lakh open wells and there
One tenth of the land is barren. Other fallow are 3,54,000 borewells in the state where agri-
lands are 13 percent. So nearly one-fourth of the culture is carried out with the help of these wa-
land is barren and we have to be concerned of ter resources.
the increasing size of the barren land. Grazing
The area of land that is irrigated using
land and cash crops occupy slightly more than
water from lakes is very low. Nearly 3.68 lakh
5% of the total land area.
hectares of land obtain water from lakes. The
The size of the total cropping land in Tamil canals provide water to 6.68 lakh hectares.
Nadu is 4,544 thousand hectare and this keeps Borewells irrigate 4.93 lakh hectares and
on changing every year. Sufficient rains at the open wells provide water to 11.91 lakh
proper period will increase this extent of land. hectares of land.
Failure or shortage in rainfall leads to the
Agriculture in Tamil Nadu is dependent
reduction of land usage for cultivation. A small
mostly on groundwater. Use of ground water
part of this area gives a chance to crop more
for agriculture creates many hardships too.
than once in a year. The extent of this area also
There would be no sufferings if the amount
4. Agriculture in Tamil Nadu 308

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of water taken from the underground and 4.4 Irrigation and Crop
the amount of water that goes into the types
underground during the rainy season are
equal. On the contrary, as the amount of water Crops in Tamil Nadu
taken increases, the ground water goes down All cultivated crops can be classified as
resulting in complete dryness or change into food crops and non-food crops. 57 percentage
unusable water. of the total land under food grain cultivation
The Union Ground Water Board is is irrigated. In 2014-15, 59 percentage of food
constantly monitoring the level and nature of crops and 50 percentage of non food crops were
ground water. irrigated in Tamil Nadu.
From this, we come to know that: The total area of land cultivated in Tamil
Nadu was 59 lakh and 94 thousand hectares
1. Tamil Nadu agriculture is dependent on
in 2014-2015. Out of this non-food crops
groundwater.
were 76%.
2. It is very urgent and necessary to regulate the
Paddy cultivation is carried out at a large
usage of underground water.
scale of 30 percent cultivated land area and
3. This is very important for sustainable farming. other food crops in 12 percent area. Millets
Micro irrigation
Virtual water Micro irrigation technology is a very
good remedial measure to tackle shortage in
The term 'virtual water' was introduced
by Tony Allen in 1990. irrigational water. This irrigation technology
helps to have a higher yield when compared
The water consumed in the production
to the traditional irrigation methods. As
process of an agricultural or industrial
product is called 'virtual water'. only required amount of water is supplied
at regular intervals, it increases the ability
It is the hidden flow of water when food
of water usage and productivity of the crop
or other commodities are traded from one
place to another. For instance, it takes 1340 resulting in reduction of labour expenses and
cubic metres of water (based on the world weed growth in the field. As the fertilizer is
average) to produce one metric ton of wheat. distributed through water, it increases the
That is, if one metric ton of wheat is exported usage of fertilizer and the yield. As Tamil Nadu
to another country, it means that 1340 cubic gets insufficient rainfall, the government has
metres of water used to cultivate this amount taken many measures to implement micro
of wheat is also being exported.
irrigation for proper distribution of water to
India is the largest global freshwater crops that require more water.
user. India has been the fifth largest exporter
of virtual water in the world
One Drop is equaivalent to 50 liters of virtual water

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Different water sources for irrigation

Irrigated area
Wells -62% Canals - 24% Lakes - 14%
are cultivated in a very low percentage of area.

4.6 The yield of productive
Sorghum(Cholam) cultivation in 7 per cent
land area, cumbu in one percent and ragi in 1.7 crops
per cent. Other millets occupy 6 per cent in the The amount of production depends not only
year 2014 - 2015. on the area but also on the productivity of crops.
The area cultivatable land changes every Production capacity of paddy in Tamil
year as a result of many factors such as rainfall, Nadu was 4,429 kg per hectare in 2014-2015.
availability of water, weather and market prices. This capacity was 3,039 kilograms in 2010-2011
• River Cauvery is the 3rd revealing the increase in productivity.
largest river in South India. Its Next to paddy, maize stands second in the
length is 765 km. production (8,824 kg/hectare).
• The dams constructed across 2,093 kg/hectare corn, 3,077 kgs of rye
Cauvery in Tamil Nadu are Mettur Dam, (cumbu) and 3348 kgs of ragi were produced
Kallanai during the same period.
Black gram, one of the largest cultivated
4.5 Decadal growth in pulses, produced 645 kg per hectare. Production
agricultural production of sugarcane and ground nut (Manila) were 107
tons and 2,753 kg per hectare respectively.
The total quantity of foodgrains produced
in Tamil Nadu in the year 2014 - 2015 was one The productivity of crops continues to
crore 27 lakh 35 thousand tonnes. Paddy alone increase. For example the productivity of paddy in
accounted to 80 lakhs tonnes. The contribution 1965 - 66 was 1,409 kg. It increased to 2,029 kg in
of paddy to the total amount of food production 1975-76 and 2,372 kg in 1985-86. It increased to
is 62%. Maize production was 20%, corn 7%, 2,712 kg after a decade. The production was 4,429
ragi 3% and another 3% occupied by black kg in the year 2014-15. In the past fifty years, the
gram, while other food crops contributed a very
meager amount to the total food production in
Tamil Nadu.
The amount of production varies depending
on the amount of land being cultivated.

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Exercise
I. Choose the correct

answer
1. Irrigated land surface out of cultivable land
is.
a) 27% b) 57% c) 28% d) 49%
productivity of paddy has increased more than 2. Out of the following, which is not a food
three times. crop
The food grain production capacity, has a) Bajra b) Ragi

increased about 3.5 times between 1965-66 and
c) Maize d) Coconut
2014-15.
3. The productivity of paddy during the year
We find that both the productivity and food
production in Tamil Nadu continue to increase. 2014-2015
However, the area under food grain cultivation a) 3,039 kg b) 4,429 kg
has reduced in the same period. Though there was
a reduction in the area of production, the total c) 2,775 kg d) 3,519 kg
amount of production has been maintained and 4. Both agricultural productivity and food
there is an increase of productivity. productivity has
Recap a) decreased b) not stable
The number of people involved in
c) remained stable d) increased
agriculture and the land under cultivation
is declining in Tamil Nadu. 5. The North-East monsoon period in Tamil
While the number of marginal farmers Nadu
is increasing in India, it is decreasing
steadily in Tamil Nadu. a) August – October
Out of the total geographical land area, b) September – November
only one percent is under cultivation and
one fourth is left fallow. c) October – December
Areas with good water facilities can be
d) November – January
cultivated upto three times a year.
South West and North East monsoons are II. Fill in the blanks
the main sources of water for agriculture in
1. The major occupation of people in Tamil
Tamil Nadu. So Tamil Nadu's agriculture
Nadu is ------------------
is dependent on ground water.
Crops are divided into food and non- 2. Tamil Nadu receives rainfall all from the
food crops. ------------------ monsoon.
Major food crops of Tamil Nadu are
paddy, maize and ragi. Coconut stands 3. The total geographical area of Tamil Nadu is
first in non-food crops. ----------------- hectares.
Recent researches show that the
productivity of crops is steadily increasing.

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III. Match the following V. Answer in Detail

1. Give a note on the water resources of Tamil
1. Non-food crops - 79,38,000
Nadu
2. Dhal - less than 1 hectare 2. What are the problems faced by using
of cultivable land ground water for agriculture?
3. North east - October –
3. Discuss about the source of irrigation for
monsoon December
agriculture.
4. Small farmers - Urad Dal, Toor Dal,
VI. Activity
Green grams
1. Analyse the cultivation of food crops and
5. No. of farmers - Coconut, Channa
non-food crops of your village / area.
in 2015-2016
2. Thanjavur is famous for which crop? Why is
IV. Give short Answers it so? Research.
1. Give two examples for each food crop and 3. Collect statistical data, where paddy is being
non-food crops cultivated at Thanjavur District, which is
2. What are the factors responsible for the
called the Nerkalanjium of Tamil Nadu.
changes in cropping area?
3. Who monitors the quantity and quality of
ground water?
4. Differentiate between small and marginal
farmers.
ICT CORNER
AGRICULTURE IN TAMIL NADU
Through this activity you will

know about agriculture process of Tamil
Nadu people
Procedure
Step – 1 Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step – 2 “Vivasayam” page will appear on the screen.
Step – 3 Click Search Options to know any information agriculture news,
Government Loan etc.,
Step – 4 Click “Velanmai” to know about history of Tamil Nadu agriculture.
URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=nithra.tamil.vivasayam.
agriculture.market&hl=en (or) scan the QR Code

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UNIT
Migration
5
Learning Objectives
To understand the concept of migration

To learn about the extent of migration in India and Tamil Nadu
To analyse the factors underlying migration
Introduction 5.1 Extent of migration in

India and Tamil Nadu
Concept of Migration
In any settlement-village or town- change In India, the Census of 2011 enumerated
in population occurs due to birth, death and a total population of 121 crores, of which
migration. Of these three components of 45 crore people were reported as migrants,
population change, birth and death is clearly according to the definition of the place of last
identifiable events while migration poses the residence. Similarly, in Tamil Nadu out of 7.2
maximum amount of problem with regards crore people, 3.13 crore people were counted
to its definition and measurement. As almost as migrants, in 2011. That is, the percentage of
everyone keeps moving most of the time, it is migrants was 37 percent in the country, while
not easy to define which of these moves have to it was at a much higher rate in Tamil Nadu at
be classified as migratory moves. 43 percent.
In the Census of India, migration is Generally, one tends to associate
enumerated on two bases migration with urban areas. However, we find
(i) Place of birth: If the place of birth is that in India as well as Tamil Nadu, the extent
different from the place of enumeration of migration is much higher in rural areas
(known as life-time migrant). compared to urban areas. In 2011, 37 percent
(ii) Place of residence: If the place of last of the population are counted as migrants in
residence is different from the place of rural areas while the corresponding percentage
enumeration (known as migrant, by place in urban India is 27 percent. In Tamil Nadu,
of last residence). migrants account for 41 percent in rural areas
313 5. Migration

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and 35 percent in urban areas, in 2011. That made some interesting findings, as discussed
is, the mobility of population in rural areas is below:
greater than that in urban areas. • Of the total migrants in Tamil Nadu, 65
Further, one usually associates percent have migrated or moved abroad
mobility with males rather than females. while 35 percent have moved within the
However, an examination of data clearly country.
indicates that a larger proportion of females • Chennai district has recorded the
are reported to be migrants compared to maximum number of emigrants followed
males. In the country as a whole, 53 percent by Coimbatore, Ramanathapuram and
are female migrants while 23 percent are Tiruchirapalli districts.
male migrants, in 2011. In Tamil Nadu, the
picture is very similar, with more than half • Cuddalore, Karur, Thiruvannamalai,
the females (52%) reporting their status as Vellore, Namakkal, Salem, Dindigul,
migrants, by place of last residence, and 35 Krishnagiri, Nilgiris and Dharmapuri
percent are male migrants. districts record low number of emigrants.
Now, why is there such a large This study also provides information
percentage of migration among women? 70 about the sex and destination of migrants from
percent in India and 51 percent in Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu.
report marriage as the reason for migration • Of the total migrants who go to foreign
of females in 2011. That is, marriage and the countries, nearly 20% have chosen to go
movement associated with marriage appear to Singapore, while 18% to the United
to be a major factor responsible for women’s Arab Emirates, 16% to Saudi Arabia, 13
mobility in India and Tamil Nadu. Movement % to the United States of America; and
related to work and employment appears to be Malaysia, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Australia
the driving force for migration, among men. and England are also refered as important
Of all the male migrants in India, 28 percent destinations for migrants from Tamil Nadu
report ‘work’ as the major reason for their in the year 2015.
migration, in 2011. The corresponding
• Of the international migrants, 15 percent
percentage in Tamil Nadu is 26 percent.
are women, while 85 percent are men.
To sum up, in Tamil Nadu, two
On the question of educational
out of every five persons is reported to be
qualifications of migrants from Tamil Nadu,
a migrant in the year 2011. Incidence of
the study reveals that in 2015 about 7 %
migrants is higher in rural areas and larger
were illiterates; 30 % have completed. Class
among women. Tamil Nadu has a history of
X; 10 % have completed Class XII; 15 % had
migration and people have moved for various
undergone vocational training; 11 % were
reasons such as trade, business, employment
graduates; 12% were professionally qualified
etc, to various countries. During the colonial
and 11 % had Post Graduate degrees.
period, labourers had moved to other
colonies seeking work and wages. In the more The study clearly reveals
recent period workers from Tamil Nadu have various occupations undertaken by the
been moving to countries in the Gulf, United migrants: highly skilled professions on one
States of America and Australia. In 2015, an hand and low skilled occupations on the
independent research study was conducted other, along with a large number of semi-
to understand the level, nature and pattern skilled occupations.
of migration in Tamil Nadu . This study has
5. Migration 314

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5.2 Factors underlying the outcome or consequence of migration etc.

migration Poorer sections of the population migrate as
a survival strategy, in response to distressing
The extent and nature of conditions in rural areas. Migrants from
migration in any society is better-off sections migrate to improve their
basically determined by the living standards.
nature of the development
Further, spatially, there would be a
process experienced by that
tendency for migrants to converge on enclaves
society. That is, the type
of growth-either in urban areas or in rural areas.
and scale of development
achieved by the agricultural and industrial The pattern of migration is very complex,
sectors in an economy would determine the comprising of a number of streams:
Reasons for Migration in India
migratory patterns. • rural to rural; rural to urban; urban to rural;
In India and Tamil Nadu, though the9.6% 14.7% 1.2% urban to urban
agricultural and industrial21%
sectors have grown
3%
• short, medium and long distance migration
over the years, inequalities still exist in asset streams
and income distribution. Endemic poverty
6.7%
continues to be a major problem.
43.8%
• long-term stable migration and short-term
circulatory type of movements
Reasons for Migration in India
Work / Employment Each of these streams would consist of
9.6% 14.7% 1.2% Business different types of migrants, (from different social
3%
Education
21% classes) each with its own reason for migration.
Marriage
Moved after birth The extent and nature of these migrant streams
6.7% 43.8%
Moved with household would essentially depend on.
Others
• pressures and aspirations experienced by
Work / Employment
The growth processes have also created
Business people at the origin of migration
Education
spatial inequalities, by leading to enclaves of
Marriage • constraints imposed on mobility at the
growth. The migration patterns observed in a
Moved after birth origin of migration
Moved with household
developing society such as ours correspond to
Others
• opportunities at the destination and
these inequalities (economic, social, spatial etc)
availability of information regarding these
created by the development processes.
opportunities and
Therefore, any migrant stream would
• the cost of migration
consist of heterogeneous sub-streams. For
example, if we consider the rural-urban migrant
stream, it would comprise of rural rich and
the rural poor, each with its own reasons and
motivation for migration, the mode of migration,
The largest migration

corridor in the world in
2010 was Mexico – U.S.A.
The Arctic tern has the
longest migration distance
of any bird in the world. Migration for survival
315 5. Migration

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5.3 Migration Policies

Exercise
Policies to address the problem of migration in
developing countries like India essentially aim
at the following: I. C
hoose the correct
answer
• To reduce the volume of migration: As a large
part of migration is a reflection of poverty 1.
According to the 2011
and insecurity faced by large sections of the census, the total population of India was
rural people, the focus of intervention has to .
be in rural areas. Rural development policies a) 121 crore b) 221 crore
to reduce poverty and insecurity would be c) 102 crore d) 100 crore
essential to reduce the rate of migration. 2. has recorded the maximum
• To redirect the migrant streams: Redirection of number of emigrants.
migrant streams, away from big metropolitan a) Ramanathapuram b) Coimbatore
cities is a desirable policy option. This policy c) Chennai d) Vellore
can help in reducing spatial inequalities by 3. During 2015, of illiterates
suitable strategies, such as developing a more were migrants from Tamil Nadu.
dispersed pattern of urbanisation. a) 7% b) 175% c) 23% d) 9%
4. The poorer sections of the population
Recap migrate .
Change in population occurs due to a) as a survival strategy
births, deaths and migration. b) to improve their living standards
The mobility of population in rural areas c) as a service
is greater than that of the urban areas. d) to get experience
Marriage is the major factor responsible II. Fill in the blanks.
for women’s mobility in India and in
1. Migration is enumerated on __________
Tamil Nadu.
and __________ bases.
Occupation is the major factor responsible
2. The mobility of population in rural areas is
for male migrants in India.
__________ than urban areas.
The extent and nature of migration in
3. In rural India, as per census 2011,
any society is basically determined by
__________ percent of the population are
the nature of the development process
counted as migrants.
experienced by that society.
4. __________ is the major reason for female
The poorer sections of the people migrate
migration.
for survival, but migrants from better-off
sections migrate to improve their living 5. Any migrant stream would consist of
standards. __________ sub streams.
5. Migration 316

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III. Match the following. VI. Write the correct statement
1. Migration policy - Work 1. In recent times workers from Tamil Nadu
are moving to Africa.
2. Female migrants - low incidence of
imigration 2. In Tamil Nadu, the extent of migration is
much higher in urban areas compared to
3. Chennai - maximum number
rural areas.
of emigration
3.
Any migrant stream would consist of
4. Better off migrants - marriage
homogenous sub-streams.
5. Salem - to reduce the
volume of migration
4. Two out of every 10 persons is reported to
be a migrant.
6. Male migrants - to improve the living
standards VII. Project & Activity
IV. Give short Answers. 1. Prepare statistical data by interacting with

your class mates and school mates and find
1. Enlist the reasons for migration. out how many families have migrated.
2. What are the major factors responsible for 2. Prepare an album of pictures on Rural to
female migrants in India? Rural, Rural to Urban, Urban to Rural and
3. Name four districts in Tamil Nadu which Urban to Urban migration.
record low number of imigration.
VIII. Life Skills
4. What are the factors responsible for the
poorer sections and better-off sections to 1. Collect data on various languages spoken
migrate? in your class and represent through a pie
chart.
5. List the four destinations and the percentage
of migrants from Tamil Nadu.
REFERENCE BOOKS
6. What does the study reveal about the
occupation undertaken by migrants?
1.
R ajan S. Irudaya et. al. 2016. 'Non
V. Answer in detail. -Resident Tamils and Remittances: Results
1. State the aims of migration policies. from Tamil Nadu Migration Survey
2015'. Centre for Development Studies,
2. Discuss the patterns of migration.
Thiruvananthapuram.
3. Elucidate about some of the interesting
findings on migration in Tamil Nadu. INTERNET RESOURCES
4. Analyse the educational qualification of
1. www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/
migrants from Tamil Nadu in 2015.
2011-D05-00-prov.xls 1.
GLOSSARY
Catchment areas The area from which rainfall flows into a river, lake or reservoir.
Census To count the number of people living in a country
Colonial Period A period in a country’s history when it was administered by a colonial
power
Commercial buying and selling on a large scale
Conserve protect
Cultivator peasant
317 5. Migration

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Deferred Put off to a later time; postpone

Depletion Exhaustion; using up.
Embodied Within
Entrepreneur A person who sets up a business
Fallow Uncultivated
Heterogeneous Consisting of things that are very different from each other
Inequality It is the difference in social status, wealth or opportunity between people or
groups
Micro credit
Lending small amounts of money at low interest to new businesses
Migration Process of moving from one place to another
Migrants A person who moves from one place to another in order to find work or better
living conditions
Monetary Relating to money or currency
Occupation Job or profession
Perennial Flowing throughout the year
Perspective Outlook
Pledged Give as security on a loan
Population The total number of persons inhabiting a country, city, district (or) area.
Primary sector Raw materials
Productivity Ability to produce
Replenish Restore
Reserve Retain for future use
Rural Area located outside a city or town
Secondary sector Manufacturing
Semi-Skilled Having only a small amount of training
Skilled Having the ability needed to do a job well
Standard Something used as a measure
Subsistence Self sufficient
Sustainability Avoidance of depletion
Tertiary sector Services
Thrive Flourish or grow vigorously
Transaction Buying or selling something
Urban Relating to city or town
Yield Produce or product
5. Migration 318

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Social Science – Class IX

List of Authors and Reviewers
History Geography Civics Academic Adviser & Expert
Chairperson Domain Expert Domain Experts Dr. P. Kumar
Dr. K.A.Manikumar, Dr. R. Bavani. Dr.R.Ramu Manivannan, Joint Director (Syllabus)
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History Associate Professor, HOD, Dept Professor and Head, SCERT, Chennai
of Geography, Dept of Politics and Admn
Co-chairperson Queen Mary’s College, Chennai. University of Madras, Chennai.
Dr. D. Devanathan
Economics
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy Reviewers Associate professor and Head Domain Expert
Professor, Dept. of History, Dr. R. Geetha Dept. of Political Sciences and M.V. Srinivasan
Madras Institute of Development Asst. Professor, Public admn Associate Professor,
Studies, Chennai-600 020 Queen Mary’s College, Chennai. Annamalai University, Department of Education in
Dr. K. Balasubramani Chidambaram
Reviewers Asst. Professor,
Social Science,
Dr. Kesavan Veluthat, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Reviewer NCERT, New Delhi.
Professor of History, Dr. J. Jeyarajan
Dr. K. Kottai Rajan
University of Delhi. Director, Institute of development
Kumaraswamy.K. Asst. Professor
Veluthat Mana, alternatives, Chennai.
UGC BSR Emeritus Professor, Dept. of Political Science
Karathur, Codacal, P.O., Department of Geography, Periyar Govt. Arts College, Reviewer
Tirur 676108, Kerala Bharathidasan University, Trichy. Cuddalore. Dr.P.Anbalagan,
Tmt. Vijaya Sridharan, Maria Anitha Anandhi, Prof. A. Karunanandam, Department of Economics,
Principal (Rtd.), History (CBSE), Associate Professor (Rtd), H.O.D.(Rtd), Presidency College,Chennai.
A2 Flat Sriketan, 15, Vinus Colony, Department of Geography, Dept. of History, Eswari Ramesh
1st Street, Alwarpet, Chennai Nimala College for Women, Vivekananda College, Chennai. Assistant Professor
Dr. S. Ravichandran Coimbatore. M. Appanasamy Queen Marys College, Chennai.
Associate Professor (Retd.) B. Vasudevan Advisor – Textbook Society, Dr. S. Iyyampillai Professor,
Rajus’ College, Rajapalayam. Asst. Professor, TNTB & ESC, Barathidasan University,
Authors Department of Geography, DPI Campus, Chennai. Dept of Economics, Trichy.
Presidency College,
Dr. Kanagalatha Mukunth, Authors Author
Professor, Mumbai University Chennai-5.
D. Suganthi, B.T. Assistant, P. Sundaravadivelu,
Mumbai, Maharashtra Authors Govt. Kallar High School, P.G. Asst,
Dr. V. Selva Kumar
S. Kalpana, Govt. Boys Hr. Sec. School,
Associate Professor, S. Krishnaveni
Dept. of Epigraphy, Asst. Professor, Attur Tk, Salem Dt.
Queen Mary’s College, Chennai. B.T. Assistant, S. Mala, Vice Principal
S. Mohammad Rabeek Kamlavati Hr. Sec. School, Shri Anand Jain Vidyalaya M.H.S.
Dr. S. Ananthakrishnan,
Associate Professor, Senior Lecturer, DIET, School, Chennai.
Dept. of History, Rajalakshmi Parthasarathy Dr. K. Jabamalai, P.G. Asst,
A.M.Jain College, Chennai. R. Subramanian B.T. Assistant, M.F.S.D. HSS, Sowcarpet, Chennai.
Dr. R. Venkataramanujam P.G. Asst. GHSS, Sitadevi Garodia Hindu Vidyalaya K. Satish Babu, P.G. Asst,
Associate Professor, Nandanam, Chennai. Mat. Hr. Sec. School, Agarwal Vidyalan HSS,
Dept. of History, Madras Chris- S. Juditha Pandia Chitra East Tambaram, Chennai. Vepery, Chennai.
tian College, Chennai. B.T. Asst, GHS, Sakkottai, Anjukam. A. Jasmine Patience P.G. Asst
Tmt. M. Amutha, Sivagangai. B.T. Asst ,GGHSS, Bentinck HSS, Vepery, Chennai.
Lecturer, D.I.E.T, Kothagri, Nilgris. T. Vijayalakshmi X. Aseervatham, P.G. Asst (Retd),
, PGT, B.T. Asst, Lady Sivasamy Ayyar M. Grena Janet
Sayed Ammal Hr. Sec. School, G.G.H.S.S, Chennai. B.T. Asst. R.C. Govt. G.H.S.S,
Ramanathapuram. R. Rajeswari Ondipudur, Coimbatore.
R. Jeyashree, PGT,
Academic Co-ordinators
B.T. Asst, Bharathiyar Vidhya
Prince Mat. HSS Tmt. B.Eswari,
Nanganallur, Chennai.
Art and Design Team
Deputy Director, SCERT,
J. Geetha, PGT, Illustration College Road, Chennai.
B.T. Asst., Sri Varadham
Prince Mat.HSS, G.G.H.S.S, Cuddalore. R. Muthukumar
Madipakkam, Chennai. Layout M. Sujatha
J. Jeba Punitha Senior Lecturer,
ARLM Mat. Hr. Sec. School, B.T. Asst., M.C.C Matric Hr. Sec. DIET, Chennai.
Cuddalore Dt. School, Chetpet, Chennai. Porsellvan, Prasanth, Balaji
Dr. K. Suresh, B.T.Asst., R. Muthu Adaikkala Stephen S P. Suresh, P.G. Asst,
Kumara Rajah Muthiah Hr. Sec. B. T. Asst., G.H.S.S, G.G.H.S. School, Attur, Salem
School, Adyar, Chennai-600 020 Kannigaipair, Tiruvallur. Wrapper Design
Kathir Arumugam Gomathimanickam, B.T Asst,
Tmt. S. Elilarasi, B.T.Asst,
Karnataka Sangha Hr. Sec. School, Image Credits GHSS, Old Perungalathur,
In-House QC Kanchipuram District.
T.Nagar, Chennai State Archaeology Dept. Chennai,
S. Rajeswari, B.T. Asst, G.H.S.S, Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Chennai Museum, A.Radha
Nellikuppam, Kanchipuram Dt. Tamil Virtual Academy, Chennai, Arun Kamaraj Palanisamy
B.T. Assistant, G.H.S.S.
A Sahaya Sini, B.T Asst, Archaeological Survey of India. Jerald Wilson Mosur, Vellore
GHSS, Nemmeli,
Co-ordinator S.Maheswari, PG Asst,
Kanchipuram District. ICT Head Ramesh Munisamy GGHSS, Villupuram.
Dr. Asir Julius,
Asst. Professor, SCERT, Chennai. This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M. S.Vijayalakshmi, B.T Asst,
Elegant Maplitho Paper. GHSS, Koovathur, Kanchipuram,
EMIS Technology Team Printed by Offset at :
R.M. Satheesh, State Co-ordinator.
K.P. Sathya Narayana, IT Consultant.
A. Arun Maruthi Selvan, Technical
Project Consultant.
319
319
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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department Of School Education

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 1 08-04-2022 10:32:47

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

(Published under New Syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 2 08-04-2022 10:32:47

Unit Contents Page No Month

1 Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period 001 June

2 Ancient Civilisations 016 July

3 Early Tamil Society and Culture 033 July

4 Intellectual Awakening and Socio-Political Changes 053 August

5 The Classical World 066 August

6 The Middle Ages 077 October

7 State and Society in Medieval India 088 October

8 The Beginning of the Modern Age 101 November

10 Industrial Revolution 130 January

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 3 08-04-2022 10:32:47

Unit Contents Page No Month

2 Lithosphere – II Exogenetic Processes 167 July

3 Atmosphere 180 July

4 Hydrosphere 192 August

5 Biosphere 202 August

6 Man and Environment 210 October

7 Mapping Skills 220 November

8 Disaster Management: Responding to Disasters 230 January

2 Election, Political Parties and Pressure Groups 246 July

4 Forms of Government 265 October

5 Local Self Government 271 November

6 Road safety 279 January

﻿. Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime IV

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 4 08-04-2022 10:32:47

Unit Contents Page No Month

3 Money and CREDIT 300 October

4 Agriculture in Tamil Nadu 307 November

5 Migration 313 January

V . Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 5 08-04-2022 15:35:24

HOW TO USE THE BOOK

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 6 08-04-2022 10:32:47

Fun with History

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 7 08-04-2022 10:32:48

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 8 08-04-2022 10:32:48

UNIT Evolution of Humans and

To trace the world's early history

Introduction Palaeoanthropologists and archaeologists

1 1. Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 1 08-04-2022 10:32:48

The geological eras

Human Enquiries into Scientific Foundations of Geology,

1. Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period 2

9th_History_Unit_1_EM.indd 2 08-04-2022 10:32:49

3 1. Evolution of Humans and Society - Prehistoric Period

. Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime IV

To trace the world's early history

Human Enquiries into Scientific Foundations of Geology,

Recap The Iron Age saw further expansion of

2. a) Among the great Apes Orang utan is

To learn about early societies and state formations