UNIT 1 REAL NUMBERS AND FUNCTIONS

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Basic Properties of R
1.3 Absolute Value
1.4 Intervals on the Real Line
1.5 Functions
Definition and Examples
Inverse Functions
Graphs of Inverse Functions
1.6 New Functions from Old
Operations on Functions
Composite of Functions
1.7 Types of Functions
Even and Odd Functions
Monotone Functions
Periodic Functions
1.8 Summary
1.9 Solutions and Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This is the first unit of the course on Calculus. We thought it would be a good idea to
acquaint you with some basic results about the real number system and functions, before you
actually start your study of Calculus. Perhaps, you are already familiar with these results.
But, a quick look through the pages will help you in refreshing your memory, and you will
be ready to tackle the course.
In the next three sections of this unit, we shall present some results about the real number
system. You will find a number of examples of various types of functions in Sections 5 to 7.
You should also study the graphs of these functions carefully. It is very important to be able
to visualise a given function. In fact, try to draw a graph whenever you encounter a new
function. We shall svstematically study the tracing of curves in Unit 9.

Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to:
recall the basic properties of real numbers,
derive other properties with the help of the basic ones,
identify various types of bounded and unbounded intervals,
define a function and examine whether a given function is one-oneJonto,
investigate whether a given function has an inverse or not,
define the scalar multiple, absolute value, sum, difference, product, quotient of the
given functions,
determine whether a given function is even, odd, monotonic or periodic.

1.2 BASIC PROPERTIES OF R

In the next three sections, we are going to tell you about the set R of real numbers, which is
all-pervading in mathematics. The real number system is the foundation on which a large
part of mathematics, including calculus, rests. Thus, before we actually start learning
calculus, it is necessary to understand the structure of the real number system.
you are already familiar with the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division of real numbers, and with inequalities. Here we shall quickly recall some of their
properties. We start with the operation of addition:
 ,
Elements of Differential A1 R is closed under addition.
Calculus
If x and y are real numbers, then x + y is a unique real number.
A2 Addition is associative.
x + (y + z) = (X+ y) + z holds for all x, y, z in R .
A3 Zero exists.
There is a real number 0 such that
x+O=O+x=xforallxinR.
A4 Negatives exist.
For each real number x, there exists a real number y (called a negative or an additive
inverse 06-x, and denoted by -x) such that x + y = y + x = 0.
A5 Addition is commutative.
x + y = y + x holds for all x, y in R .
Similar to these properties of addition, we can also list some properties of the operation of
multiplication:
M1 R is closed under multiplication.
If x and y are real numbers, then x.y is a unique reJ number.
M2 Multiplicatim-is associative.
x . (y . z) = (X. y ) . ~
holds for all x, y, z in R .
M3 Unit element exists.
There exists a real number 1 such that
x . 1 = 1 .x=xforeveryxinR.
M4 -Inversesexist.
For each real number x other than 0,there exists a real number y (called a multiplicative
inverse of x and denoted by x-'! or by l/x) such that
xy = yx,= 1.
M5 Multiplication is commutative.
xy = yx holds for all x, y in R.
The next property involves addition as well as multiplication.
D Multiplication is distr-ihutiveover addition.
x(y + z ) = xy + xz holds for all x, y, z in R
Remark 1: The fact that the above eleven properties are satisfied is often expressed by
You may have come acrossa "field" saying that the real numbers form afield with respect to the usual addition and
in the course on Linear Algebra.
multiplication operations.
In addition to the above mentioned properties, we can also define an order relation on R
with the.help of which we can compare any two real numbers. We write x > y to mean that x
is greater than y. 'The order relation '>' has the following properties:
0 1 Law of Trichotomy holds.
For any two real numbers a, b, one and only one of the following holds:
a>b,a=b,b>a.
0 2 5' is transitive.
I f a > b a n d b > c , t h e n a > c , + a , b , c ~R .
0 3 Addition is monotone.
Ifa, b, c, inR aresuch thata>b, t h e n a + c > b + c .
0 4 Multiplication is monotone id the following sense.
Ifa,b,cinRaresuchthata>bandc>O,thenac>bc.
Caution:a>bandc<~+ac<bc.
Remark 2: Any field together with a relation > satisfying 01 to 04 is called an ordered
field. Thus R with the usual > is an example of an ordered field.
Notations: We write x < y (and read x is less than y) to mean y Y x. We wAte x Iy (and
read x is less than or equal to y) to mean either x < y or x = y. We write x 2 y (and read x is
greater than or equal to y) if either x > y or x = y.
A number x is said to be positive or negative according as x > 0 or x < 0. If x 2 0, we shy
that x is non-negative.
NOW,you know that given any number x E W, we can always find a number y E R such that
y 2 X. (In fact, there are infinitely many such real numbers y). Let us see what happkhs when
 we take any sub-set of R instead of a single real number x. Do yo11 think that, given a set Real NumMrs and Functions
+i SC R, it is possible tq find u E R such that u 2 x for ad x E S ?
Before we try to answer this question, let us look at a definition.

#& I
s t j ~
Definition 1 Let S be a subset of R. An element u in R is said to be an upper bound of S if
u 2 x holds fot every x in S. We say that S is bounded above, if there is an upper bound of S.
$li
-ill h S
Now we can reword our earlier questions as follows : Is it possible to find an upper bound
for a given set ?
Let us consider the set Z-= 1-1, - 2, - 3, - 4, .,I
Now, each x E Z-is negative. Or, in other words, x < 0 for all x E Z . Yb you see, itr this
case we are able to find an upper bound, namely zero, for our set Z-
y On the other hand, if we consider the set of natural numvers, N = { 1,2,3 &..f,obvimsly we
will not be able to find an upper bound. Thus N is not bounded aborc.
Yett wiN,ef course, realise that if u is an upper bound for a set S then u + 1, u + 2, u + 3,
....,(in fact, w r , where r is any positive number) are all uppr$naqds nf S. For example, we
.
have seen that 0 is an upper bound for Z-. Check that 1,2,3,4.R. .. . are dl upper bounds
of Z,
5
$'
From among all the upper bounds of a set S, which is bounded above, we can choose an
2:1
d.
2g
upper bound u such that u is less than or equal to every upper bound of S. We call this u the
least upper bound or the supremum of S. For example, consider the set
$dt
'$1 T=(x E R : x 2 1 4 )= { X E R : - 2 < x < 2 )
Now 2,3,3.5,4,4 + ~rare all upper bwnds for this set.
But you will see that 2 is less than any other upper bound.
Hence 2 is the supremum or the least upper bound of T.
You will agree that -1 is the 1.u.b. (least upper bound) of Z,
Note that forboth the setsT and Z-, the 1.u.b. belonged to the set. This may not be true m
general. Consider the set of all negative real numbers R-= {x : x < 0 ) . The 1.u.b. of this set ,

is 0.But 0 ei R-.
Working on similar lines we can also define a lower bound for a given set S to be a real
number v such that v 5 x for all x E S. We shall say that a set is bounded below, if we can
find a lower bound for it. Further, the lower bound of S which is greater than any other
lower bound of S will be called its infimum or greatest lower bound (g.1.b.).
As in the case of l.u.b., remember that the g.1.b. of a set may or may not belong to the set.
We shall say that a set S c R is bounded if it has both an upper bound and a lower bound.
>.I
t
Based on this discussion you will be able to solve the following ekercise.

E E 1) Give examples to illustrate the fouowing:

a) A set of real numbers havlng a lower bound,
b) A set of real numbers without any lower bound,
c) A set of real numbers whose g.1.b. does not belong to it,
d) A bounded set of real numbers.
Now we are ready to state an important property of R.
C The order is complete. I

Every non-empty subset S of R that is bounded above, has a supremum. (We shall use this
property in Unit 10).
Many more properties are either restatements or consequences of these sixteen properties.
Here is a list of some of them.
1 Zero is unique.
Ifx+Of=iforallxinR,thenOf=O.
2 Additive inverse is unique.
ForeachxinR,thereisauniquey i n R s u c h t h a t x + y = y + x = 0.
3 Addition is cancellative.
Ifx+y=x+z,theny=z.
4 Unity is unique.
Ifx.lf=xforallxinR,then I f = 1.
5 Multiplicative inverse is unique.
For each non-zero real number x, there is a unique y in R such that xy = yx =l.
6 Multiplication is cancellative.
Ifxy=xzandx#O,theny=z.
Definition 2: If x and y are any two real numbers, the result of subtraction of y from x is
denoted by x - y and is defined as x + (-y). Similarly, the division x + y (also denoted by
x/y) is defined as xy-I, provided y # 0.
Now we are ready to list a few more properties. You are already aware of these. But let us
quickly recall them.
7 - (X+ y) = ( - x) + ( - y) for all x, y in R.
8 If~y=O,theneitherx=Oory=O.
9 (x-')-I = x for all x # 0 in R.
10 If x and y are non zero numbers such that x-' = y-I, then x = y.
11 I f a i b a n d c > O , t h e n a c < b c .
12 a is positive if and only if -a is negative.
13 I f a < b a n d c < d , . t h e n a + c < b + d .
14 Ifa>bandc<O,thenac<bc.
15 a2is non-negative for all a in R.
16 If a and b are positive, then
*
i) a2= b2 a = b.
(The symbol w is read as 'if and only if")
*
ii) a2> b2 a > b
iii) a2< b2a a < b
17 Ifb>0,thena2<b2*-b<a<b.
You are,also familiar with the following subsets of R:
1) The set N of natural numbers. Note that it is the smallest subset of R possessing the
following properties:
i) EN
ii) k~ N * k + l c N
 2) The set Z of integers. It is the smallest subset of R possessing the following properties: Real Numbers and Functions
i) Z x N
ii) If x, y E Z, then x - y E Z.
3) The set Q of rational numbers. We observe that it is the smallest subset of R possessing
the following properties:
i) Q 2 Z
ii) If x, y E Q and y + O, then xy-' E Q.
You must have also studied the following properties of these sets.
1) k E N if and only if k is a positive integer, that is, k E Z and k > 0.
2) The operations of addition and multiplication on N satisfy A 1, A2, A5, M1, M2, M3, M5
and D. They do not, however, satisfy A3, A4 and M4.
3) The operations on Q satisfy A 1 to A5, M1 to M5 and 0 1 to 04. Therefore Q is an
.,; ,. ordered field. But C is not satisfied, that is, Q is not order- complete.
i

We list here some more properties of these sets which you will find useful in your study of
calculus:
4) Archimedean Property :If a and b are any real numbers and if b > 0, then there is a
positive integer n such that nb > a.
5) If a is any real number, there is a positive integer n such that n > a (Archimedean
property applied to a and 1).
6) A real number s is the supremum of a set S c R if and only if the following conditions
are satisfied.
is; :
f!' i) s 2 x for all x in S. I
g-.i 1 ii) For each E > 0, there is a y in S sucn chat y > s - E. e (epsilon) is a Greek letter used to
P.!
, I..
r-::
denote small real numbers.
:*&
s.,
For example, consider the set A = ( x E R : 8 Ix c 10). 10 ig the supremumafrhis set.
$Fb
ii
.a+
"
I Now, if we are given any E, say, E = 0.01, we should be able to find some y E X such
that y > 10 0.01 = 9.99. As you can see, y = 9.999 serves our purpose.
b .! Now 10.01 is a h q n upper Bound for A. But 10.01 is not the supremuA of A. For
<+$;
a1 E = 0.001, we cannot find any y E A such that y > 10.01 - 0.001 = 10.009.
,i;;,r
:I.
t?I
7) Every nonempty set of real numbers that is bounded below, has an infimum.
The exercise below can now be done easily.
E E2) a) Show that the set of positive real nurpbers is bounded below. What is its infimum?
' i.;,
b) Write the characterisation of the infimum of a subset of R, wlich corresponds to 6)
$#l
L . . above. Give an example.
Z,/I~L
k*, ,
.,.OI 8

r"t
.I!

s3,:
..:
;*
i;lif 'L

@I,
~'i,
J ;;
,
:;;
i:',
%,
,,.,

1.3 ABSOLUTE VALUE

In this qection we shall define the absolute value of a real number. You will realise the
importdnce of this simple concept as you study the later units. .
Elements of Differential Definitio~3:If x is a real number, its absolute value, denoted by ( x I (read as modulus of
Calculus x, or mod x), is defined by the following rules:
x, i f x 2 . 0
Ixl =

For example, we get

151=5, 1-51=5,
11.7(=1.7, 1-21=2, 1 0 ) = 0
It is obvious that ( x I is defined for all x E R.The following theorem gives some of the 4
important properties of I x I.
Theorem 1: If x and y be any real numbers, then
I*

h E
a) By the law of trichotomy (01) applied to the real numbers x and 0, exactly one of the
following holds:
i) x > 0, ii) x = 0, or iii) x < 0.
Lei us consider these one by one.
i) Ifx>O,thenIxI=xandx>-x,sothat
max (- x, x ) = x and hence I x I = max (-x, x )
ii) If x = 0, then x = 0 = -x, and therefore,
max (-x,x)=O.AlsoIxI=O,sothatIxI=max (-x,x)
iii) I f x c O , @ e n I x I = - x , a n d - x > x , s o @ a t .
rnax (-x, x ) = -x. Thus, again, I x I = & (-x, x ) .
From this it follows that x I I x I
b) I -x I =max (-(-x),-x) =max (x,-x) Amax (-x, x ) = I x I .

d) We shall consider two different cases accokding as

i) x + y 2 r ) or i i ) x + y c O .
1~tx+~~0.~hen1x+~1=x+~.~bwx11x1and~~1~1b~(a).Therefo
Ix+yl =x+ySlxl+lyl.
Let x + y < 0. Then -(x + y) > 0, that i$,
(-X) + (-y) > 0 and we can use the resfflt of (i)
for-xand-y.NowIx+yI=I-(x+y)Iby(b~.
Thus, I x + y I = I (-x) + (-y) 1 5 I-x I + I -y I, by i) .
=Ixl+lyl, ' by@).
Therefore,wegetIx+yIIIxI'+Iyl.
Thuswefindthatforallx,y~R, I x + y I S l x I + I y I .
e) By writing x = (x - y) + y and applying the triangle inequality to the numbers x - y @-
y, we have

Since ( I ) holds for all x and y in R,

 therefore by interchanging x and y in (I), we have Real Numbers end Fundions
IyI-Ix I I I y - X I = \ - ( x - y ) I = I x - y l ,
sothat -(\XI-ly I)<lx-y I. ... (2)
From (1) and (2) we find that I x I - I y I and its negative - (I x I - I y I) are both less than or at
themostequaltolx-yI.Therefore,max { I x I - I y I , - ( 1 x 1 - I y I ) ] S I x - y l .
But the left hand side of the above inequality is simply 1 I x I - I y I I. Therefore, we habe
1 1 x 1 - l y l ls l x - y l
That is, I x - y I 2 I I x I - I y I I for all x, y
R. E

Now you should be able to prove some easy consequences of this theorem. The following
exercise will also give you some practice in manipulating absolute values. This practice will
come in handy when you study Unit 2.
E E 3) Rove the following:

.e) and f) can b extended to any number of reds. Now if a E R and 6 > 0,then
-
I x 3 I < 6 3 x - a / 6, or - (X- a) < S according as x - a 2 0, or x - a < 0, reqdively.
If x - a < 6, this means that x c a + 6
If -(% - a) 5 6, this means that a - 6 < r
Thus,wegetthat I x - a I < & * a - & < x < a + 6 .
This means that the difference between x and a is not more than 6.
In the next s&tion.we shall see how the set (x : I x - a I < 61 can be represented
I --- -

Elements of DifTerential
Calculus 1.4 INTERVALS ON THE REAL LINE

Before we define an interval let us see what is meant by a number line. The real numbers in
the set R can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the points on a straight line L. In
other words, we shall associate a unique point on L to each real number and vice versa.
Consider a straight line L (see Fig. l(a)). Mark a point 0 on it. The point 0 divides the
straight line into two parts. We shall use the part to the left of 0 for representing%egative
real numbers and the part to the right of 0 for representing positive real numbers. We
choose a point A on L which is to the right of 0.We shall represent the number 0 by 0 and
1 by A. OA can now serve as a unit. To each positive real number x we can associate exactly
one point P lying to the right of 0 on L, so that OP = I x I units (= x units). A ?ega$ve real
number y will be represented by a point Q lying to the left of 0 on the straight line L, so that
OQ = I y I units. (= -y units, since y is negative). We thus find that to each real number we
can associate a point on the line. Also, each point S on the line represents a unique real
number z, such that I z I = 0s. Further, z i~'~ositive if S is to the right of 0 , and is negative if
S is to the left of 0.
Distance is always non-negative.
This representation of real numbers by points on a-straight line is often very useful. Because
of this one-to-one correspondence between real numbers and the points of a straight line, we
often call a real number " a point of R". Similarly L is called a "number line". Note that the
absolute value or the modulus of any number x is nothing but its distance from the point 0
on the number line. In the same way, I x - y I denotes the distance between the two numbers
x and y (see Fig. l(b)).

F i p r e 1 :(a) Number line b)DtPtrncebehveenxandy IsIx-y (

Now let us consider the set of all real numbers which lie between two given real numbers a
and b. Actually, there will be four different sets satisfying this loose condition.
These are:

ii) [ a , ~ = ( x : a I x I b )
a b
-
-
iii) la, b] = { x : a < x lb)
iv) [a,b[= { x : a l x < b )

The representation of each of these sets is given alongside. Each of these sets is called an
interval, and a and b are called the end points of the interval. The interval ]a, b[, in which
the end points aremot included, is called an open interval. Note that in this case we have
drawn a hollow circle around a and b to indicate that they are not included in the graph. The
set [a, b] contains both its end points and is called a closed interval. In the representation
of this closed interval, we have put thick black dots at a and b to indicate that they are
incIuded in the get.
The sets [a, b[ and ] a,b] are called half-open (or half-closed) intervals or semi-open (or
semi-closed) intervals, as they contain only one end point. This fact is also indicated in
their geometrical representation.

Each of the.se intervals is bounded above by b and bounded below by a.

Can wt represent the set1 = ( x : I x - a I < 6 ) on the number line? Yes, we can. We know
that I x 1a I can be thought of as the distance between x and a. This means I is the set of all
numbers x, whose distance from a is less than 6. Thus,
 is the open interval ]a - 6, a + 6[. Similarly, I, = {x : I x - a I 2 6 ) is the closed interval Real Numbers and Functions
[a - 6, a + 61. Sometimes we also come across sets like I, = {x : 0 < I x - a I < 6 ) .This
means if x E I,, then the distance between x and a is less than 6, but is not zero. We can also
say that the distance between x and a is less than 6, but x # a. Thus,

Apart from the four types of intervals listed above, there are a few more types. These are:
]a, m [ = {x : a < x ) (open right ray)
?

a
>
[a, m [ = {x : a I x ) (closed right ray) >
a
1- m,b[ = {x : k < b ) (open left ray) 4
-
v

b
1- m, bj = {x : x 5 b ) (closed left ray) <
b
1--,-,[=R (open interval) 4 >
As you can see easily, none of these sets are bounded. For instance, ]a, -[ is bounded below.
but is ndt bounded above. I- -, b] is bounded above, but is not bounded below. Note that
does not denote a real number, it merely indicates that an interval extends without limit.
-
We note further that if S is any interval (bounded or unbounded) and if c and d are two
elements of S, fhen all numbers lying ktwe'en c and d are also elements of S.

E E 4) State whether the followink arei true or false.

a) 0 E 11,81, b) -1 E I--,2[
C) 1~ [1,21 d) 5 E I % +
E E 5) Represent the intervals in E 4) geometrically.

1.5 FUNCTIONS

Now let us move over to functions. Here we shall present some basic facts about functions
which will help you refresh your knowledge. We shall look at various examples of functions
and shall also define inverse functions. Let us start with th6tMinitkm of a f t m c h .

1.5.1 Definition and Examples

Definition 4 If X and Y are two sets, a function f from X to Y, is a rule or a
correspondence which connects every member of X to a unique member of Y. We write
f: X + Y (read as "f is a function from X to Y). X is called the domain and Y is called the
co-domain off. We shall denote by f(x) that unique element of Y which is associated
t0XE X.
The following examples will help you in understanding this definition better.
Example 1 f: N + R, defined by f(x) = -x. f i s a function since the rule f(x) = -x
associates a unique member (-x) of R to every member x of N. The domain here is N and
the co-domain is R.
Example 2 The rule f(x) = x/2 does not define a function from N + Z as odd natural
numbers like 1,3,5 ... from N cannot be connected to any member of Z.
Elements of Differential ExampW 3 Every natural number can be written as a product of some prime numbers,
Calculus
Consider the rule f(x) = a prime factor of x, which connects elements of N. Here since
6 = 2 x 3, f(6) has two values: f(6) =.2 and f(6) = 3. This rule does not associate a unique
number with 6 and hence does not give a function from N to N.
Thus, you see, to describe a. function completely we have to specify the following three
>
things:
a) the domain
b) the co-domain and
C) the rule which associates a unique member of the co-domain to each member of the
domain.
The rule which defines a function need not always be in the form of a formula. But it should
clearly specify (perhaps by actual listing) the correspondence between X and Y.
Iff: X + Y ,then y = f(x) is called the image of x under f o r the f-image of x. The set of
f-images of all members of X, i.e. (f(x) : x E X ) is called the range off and is denoted by
f(X). It is easy to see that f(X)G Y.
Remark 3 a) Throughout this course we shall consider functions whose domain and co-
domain are both subsets of R. Such functions are often called real functions or real-valued
functions of a real variable. We shall, however, simply use the word 'function' to mean a
real function.
b) The variable x used in describing a function is often called a dummy variable because it
can be replaced by any other letter. Thus, for example, the rule f(x) = -x, x E N can as well
be written in the form f(t) = -t, t E N or as f(u) = - u, u E N. The variable x (or t or u) is
also called an independent variable, and f(x) is dependent on this independent ~ariable.
Graph of a function A convenient and useful method for studying a function is to study it
through its graph. To draw the graph of a function f :X + Y, we choose a system of -.
coordinate axes in the plane. For each x E X, the ordered pair (x, f(x)) determines a point '.I
the plane (see Fig. 2). The set of all the points obtained byconsidering all possible values of
x (remember that the domain off is X) is the graph off. The role that the graph of a function
plays in the study of the function will become clear as we proceed further. In the meantime
let us consider some more examples of functions and their graphs.

Fig. 2

1) A constant function: The simplest example of a function is a constant function. A

constant function sends all the elements of the domain to just one element of the co-domain.
For example, let f: R 4 R be defined by f(x) = 1.
Alternatively, we may write
f:x + l V x E R
The graph off is as s h ~ w nin Fig. 3.
 Itistheliney= 1. Real Numbers and Functions

In general, the graph of a constant function f : x + c is a straight line which is parallel to the
x-axis at a distance of I c I units from it.
2 The identity function: Another simple hut important example of a function is a function
which sends every element of the domain to itself.
#
Let X be any non-empty set, and let f be the function on X defined by setting '
*I
7' f(x) = x *X E X I
fit
This function is known as the identity function on X and is denoted by ix.
8,

The graph of i, the identity function on R, is shown in Fig. 4. It is :he line y = x.

3 Absolute valuehnction: Another interesting function is the absolute value function (or
modulus function) which can be defined by using the concept of the absolute value of a real m.4
number as:

f ( x ) t IxT=
-x1x if x 2 0
ifx<O,

The graph of this function is shown in Fig. 5. It consists of two rays, both starting at the
origin and making angles n/4 and 3d4, respectively, with the positive direction of the
. x-axis.
E E 6) Given below are the graphs of four functions depending on the notion of absolute
value. The functions are x + - I x I, x + I x I + 1, x + I x + I I, x + I x - 1 I, though not
necessarily in this order. (The domain in each case is R). Can you identify them3

4 The Exponential Function: If a is a positive real number other than 1,.we can define a
function f as-:
f:W+R

re +- This function is known as the exponential function. A special case of this function, where
*q+t a=e, is often found useful. Fig. 6 shows the graph of the function f : R + R'such that
3,
L.l.
f(x) = ex.This function is also cdled the natural exponential hnction. Its -is the set
:3:. R+of positive real numbers.
'4. L

5 The Natural Logarithmic Function: This function is defined on the set'R+of positive
real numbers f: R+ + R such that f(x) = In (x). The range of this function is R. Its graph is
shown in Fig. 7.
6 The Greatest Integer Function: Take a real number x. Either it is an integer, say n (so
that x = n) or it is not an integer. If it is not an integer, we can find (by the Archimedean
property df real numbeisj an integer n, such that n < x < n + 1. Therefore, for each reid
number x we can find an integer n such that n S x < n + 1. Further, for a given real number
x, we can find only one such integer n. We say that n is the greatest integer not exceeding x,
and denote it by [XI.For example, [3] = 3 and [3.5] = 3,[-3.5]= - 4. Let us consider the
function defined on R hv setting f(x) = [XI.
~lcmcntsof Mfferentlsl This function is called the greatest integer function. The graph of the function is as shown
Cakulw in Fig. 8, (It resembles the step? of an infinite staircase).
Notice that the graph consiits of infinitely many line segments of unit length, all parallel to
4 the x - axis.
-- M

.2
-- CO
7 Other Functions The following are some important classes of functions.
-- M
x a) Polynomial Functions f(x) = aoxn+ a,xn-I+ --------- + anwhere ao, a I , ------------, a,, are

-
1 1 1 l . , - l l l
I I I I - - ~ I I * given real numbers (constants) and n is a positive integer.

-
-4 -2 -I 2 4
b) Rational Functions f (x) = g (x)/k(x), where g (x) and k (x) are polynomial functions
T-2 of degree n and in. This is defined for all real x, for which k(x) # 0.
C) Trigonometric or Circular G c t i o n s f(x) = sin x, f(x) = cos x, f(x) = tan x,
c-0 T-4
f(x) = cot X, f(x) = sec x, f(x) = cosec x.
(ex - e-x
m-8 d) Hyperbolic Functions f(x) = coshx =.~(e" + e-" ) , f(x) = sinhx =
shall study these in detail in Unit 5. 2 2 ).we

1.5.2 Inverse Functions

In this sub-section we shall see what is meant by the inve~seof a function. But before
talking about the inverse, let us look at some special categories of functions. These special
types of functions will then lead us to the definition of the inverse of a function.
One-one and Onto Functions
Consider the function h : x 4 x2, defined on the set R. Here h(2) = h(-2) = 4. 2 and -2 ark
distinct members of the domain R, but their h-images are the same. (Can you find some
more numbers whose h-images Bre equal?) his may be expressed by saying that 3x, y such
that x # y but h(x) = h(y).
Now, consider the function g: x + 2x + 3
Here you will be able to see that if x, and x2are two distinct real numbers', then g(x,) and
g(x2)are also.distinct.
For, x, # x, * 2x, # 2x2* 2x, + 3 # 2x, + 3* g (x,) # g(x2)
We have considered two functions here. While one of them, namely g, sends distinct
members of the domain to distinct members of the co-domain, the other, namely h, does not
always do so. We give a special name to functions like g above.
Definition 5 A function f: X + Y is said to be a one-one function ( a (1- 1) function or an 1
injective funciion) if the images of distinct members of X are distinct members of Y. II
1

Thus the function g above is one-one, whereas h is not one-one.

Remark 4 The condition "the images of distinct members of X are distinct members of Y
in the above definition can be replaced by either of the following equivalent conditions:
a) For every pair of members x, y of X, x # y f(x) # f(y)
b) For every pair of members x,y of X, f(x) = f(y) x = y.
We have observed earlier that for a function EX + Y,
f(X)E Y. This opens two possibilities:
i) f (X) = Y, or ii) f(X) 9 Y, that is, f(X) is a proper subset of Y.
The function h. : x + x2 + x E R falls in the second category. Since the square of any real
number is always non-negative, h(R) = R+u { O ) , the set of non-negative real numbers.
Thus h(R) $ R.i
On the other hand, the function g : x + 2x + 3 belongs to the first category. Given any
y E R (co-domain) if we take x = (112)~- 312, we find that g(x) = y. This shows that every
member of the co-domain is a g-image of some member of the domain and thus, is in the
range g(R). From this we get that g(R) = R. The following definition characterises this
property of the function.
Definition 6 A function f: X + Y is said to be an onto function (or a surjective function)
if every member of Y is the image of some member of X. Iff is a function from X onto Y, I 'Li

we often write: f : x*> Y (or f : X + + Y).

1.i
I

I I
Thus, h is not an onto function, whereas g is an onto function. Functions which are both one- 4 :I
 Consider a function f:X-+ Y which is both one-one and onto. Since f is an onto function, Real Numbers and Functions
each y E Y is the image of some x E X. Also, since f is one-one, y cannot be the image of ,

two distinct members of X. Thus, we find that to each y E Y there corresponds a unique
x E X such that f(x) = y. Consequently, f sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the
members of X and Y. It is this one-to-one correspondence between members of X and Y
which makes a one-one and onto function so special, as we shall.soon see.
Consider the functiorrf : N -+ E defined by f(x) = 2x, where E is the set of even natural
numbers. We can see that f is one-one as well as onto. In fact, to each y E E there exists
y/2 E N, such that f(y12) = y. The correspondence y -+ y/2 defines a function, say g, from E
to N such that g(y) = y/2.
The function g so defined is called an inverse off. Since, to each y E E there corresponds, a
t unique x E N such that f(x) = y, only one such function g can be defined corresponding to a
given function f. For this reason g is called the inverse off.
As you will notice, the function g is also one-one and onto and therefore it will also have an
inverse. You must have already guessed that the inverse of g is the function f.
From this discussion we have the following:
Iff is a one-one and onto function from X to Y, then there exists a unique function
g : Y-+X such that for each y E Y, g(y) = x e y =f(x). The function g so defined is called
the inverse off. Further, if g is the inverse off, thtn f is the inverse of g, and the two
functions f and g are said to be the inverses of each other. The inverse of a function f i,
usually denoted by f-'. .
To find the inverse of a given function f, we proceed as follows:
Solve the equation f(x) = y for x. The resulting expression for x (in terms of y) defines the
inverse function.
5 5 .
X
Thus, if f(x) = - + 2, we solve --X + 2 = y for x.
54 I 5 1- .

This gives us x = (5(y - 2))'. Hence f-' is the function defined by f-'(y) = (5(y - 2 ) f

1.5.3 Graphs of Inverse Functions .

There is an interesting relation between the graphs of a pair of inverse functions because of
which, if the graph of one of them is known, the graph of the other can be obtained easily.
Let f : X -+ Y be a one-one and onto function, and let g : Y-+ X be the inverse off. A point
(p, q) lies on the graph o f f 9 q.= f(p) 6 p = g(q) (q, p) lies on the graph of g. Now the
points (p, q) and (q, p) are reflections of each other with respect to (w.r.t.) the line y = x.
'

'Therefore, we can say that the graphs o f f and g are reflections of each other w.r.t. the line
y = X.
Therefore, it follows that, if the'graph of one of the functions f and g is given, that of the
Other can be obtained by reflecting it w.r.t. the line y = x. As an illustration, the graphs of the
functions y = x3 and y = x1I3are given in Fig.9.
Do you agree that these two functions are inverses of each other? If the sheet of paper on
which the graphs have been drawn is folded along the liie y = x, the two graphs will exactly
coincide.
 Ekments d Differential
C.lfulus
E E 7) Compare the graphs of In x and ex given in Figs. 6 and 7 and verify that they are
inverses of each other.
\
If a given function is not one-one op its domain, we can choose a subset bf the domain on
which it is one-one, and then define if8 inverse functioil. For example. consider the function
f : x + sin x.
Since we know that sin (x + 2n) = sip x, obviously this function is not one-one on R.But d
we resmct it to the interval [ -n/2,7/2], we find that it is me-one. Thus if f(x) = sin x
+X E [-42, W2], then we can define

I I fA'(x) = sin-' (x) = y if siny = x.

Similarly, we can define cos-' and tan-' functions as Inverse of cosine ahd 'angent functions
if we reiitiict the domains to [0, n] and]-d2, n/2[, respectively.
E E 8) Which of the followlllg functions are one-one?
9) f: R + R defined by f(x) = I x I

b) C R + R defied by f(x)%3x - 1
C) f: R + R defined by f(x) = x'
dS. f: R + R defined by f(x) = I
E E 9) WKch of the following functions are onto?
a) f: R + R defined by f(x) = 3 ~ 7
b) ?A&+ 4R define&by f(x) =.\/I;

C) f: R 4 R defined by f(x) = x2+1

d) f: X + R defined by f(x) = l/x ,
where X stands for the set of non-zero real numbers.

E E 10) Show that the function f: X -+ X such that f(x) = E-?

x-1
, where X is the set of all
real numbers except 1, is one-one and,onto. Find its inverse.

E E 11) Give one example of each of the following:

a) a one-one function which is not onto.
b) onto function which is not one-one.
c) a function which is neither one-one nor onto.
 --
Real Numbers end Functions

1.6 NEW FUNCTIONS FROM OLD

In this section we shall see how we can construct new functions from some given functions.
This can be done by operating upon the given functions in a variety of ways. We give a few
such ways here.

1.6.1 Operations on Functions

ScalarMultiple of a Function
Consider the function f : x + 3x2+1 +x E R. The function g : x + 2(3x2+1) +x E R is
such that g(x) = 2f(x) +x E R. We say that g = 2f, and that g is a scalar multiple off by 2.
In the above example there is nothing special about the number 2. We could have taken any
real number to construct a new f"nction from f. Also, there is nothing special about the
particular function that we have considered. We could as well have taken any other function.
This suggests the following definition: Let f be a $unction with domain D and let k be any
real number. The scalar multiple o f f by k is a function with domain D. It is denoted by kf
and is defined by setting (kf)(x) = kf(x).
Two special cases of the above definition are important.
i) Given any function f, if k = 0, the function kf turns out to be the zero function. That is,
0.f = 0.
ii) If k = -1, the function kf is called the negative off and is denoted simplyby -f instead
. of the clumsy -If.
Absolute Value Function (or modulus function) of a given function
Let f be a function with domain D. The absolute value function of f, denoted by I f I and read
as mod f is defined by setting
(I f I) (x) = I f(x) I, for all x ED.
Since I f(x) I = f(x), if f(x)> 0,f and I f I have the same graph for those values of x for which
f(x)? 0.
Now let us consider those values of x for which f(x) < 0.
-
Here I f(x) I = f(x). Therefore, the graphs off and I f l are reflections of each other w.r.t. the
x-axis for those values of x for which f(x)< 0.

Fig. 10
Elements of Differential As an example, consider the graph in Fig. 10(a). The portion of the graph below the x-axis
Calculos (that is, the portion for which f(x) c 0 ) has been shown by a dotted line.
To !raw the graph of I f I we retain the undotted portion in Fig. 10(a) ai it is, and replace the
dotted portiori by its reflection w.r.t. the x-axis (see Fig. lob)).
Sum, difference, Product and Quotient of two functions
If we are given two functions with a common domain, we can form.severa1 new functions by
applying the four fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division on them.
i) Define a function s on D by setting

The function s is called the sum of the functions f and g, and is denoted by f + g. Thus,
(f + g) (XI=f(x)
-1
ii) Define a function d on D by setting
I
d(x) = f(x) - g(x),
The function d is the function obtained by subtracting g from f, and is denoted by fyg. Y
Thus, for all x E D 8 I

(f - g) (x) = f(x) - g(x).

iii) Define a function p on D by setting
p(x) = f(x) g(x).
The function p, called the product of the function f and g, is denoted by fg. Thus, for all
XED

iv) Define a function q on D by setting q(x) = f(x)/g(x), provided g(x) # 0 for any x E D.
The function q is called the quotient off by g and is denoted by f/g. Thus,
. (f/g) (x) = f(x)/g(x) (g(x) # 0 for any x E D) .
Remark 5 In case g(x) = 0 for some x E D, we can consider the set, say D',of all those
values of x for which g(x) # 0, and define f/g on D* by setting (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) +jx E D*.
Example 4 Consider the functions f : x + x2and g : x + x3. Then the functions f + g,
f - g, fg are defined as
(f + g)(x) = x2 + x3,
(f - g)(x) = x2 - x3'
(fg) (x) = x5
Now, g(x) = 0 G x3 = 0 G x = 0. Therefore, in order to define the function f/g, we shall
consider only non-zero values of x. If x # 0, f(x)/g(x) = x2/x3= 1/x. Therefore f/g is the
function
f/g : x + l/x, whenever x # 0.
All the operations defined on functions till now, were simihr 10 the corresponding
operations on real numbers. In the next subsection we are going to introduce an operation
which has no parallel in R. Composite functions play a very important role in calculus. You
will realise this as you read this course further.

1.6.2 Composite of Functions

We shall now describe a method of combining two function<which is somewhat different
from the ones studied so far. Uptil now we have considered functions with the same domain.
We shall now consider a pair of functions such that the co-domain of one is the domain of
the other.
Let f : X -+ Y and g : Y + Z be two functions. We
.- define a function h : X + Z by setting
h(x) = g(f(x))
To obtain h(x), we first take the f-image, f(X), of an element x of X. This f(x) E Y, which is
the domain of g. We then take the g-image of f(x), that is, g(f(x)), which is an element of Z.
This scheme has been shown in Fig. 11.
 Real Numbers and Functions
z
-- - - --
,g
/

'
Fig. 11
The function h, defined above, is called the composite off and g and is written as gof. Note
the'order. We fkst find the f-image.and then its g-image. Try to distinguish it from fog,
which will be defined only when Z is a subset of X.
Example 5 Consider the functions f : x + x2 +x E R and g :.x + 8x + I +x ER. g f i' s a .
function from R to itself, defined by (gof)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x2)= 8x2+I+ x E R. fog is a
function from R to itself defined by (fog)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(8x + 1) = ( 8 ~ + 1 )Thus
~ . gof and fog
are both defined, but are different from each other.
s used not only to combine functions, but also to look
two simpler functions. For example, consider the

We can think of it as the composite (gd) of the functions f : x + 3x + 7 +x E R and

g : u + sinu +u E R.
Now let us try to find the composites fog and gof of the functions:
f : x + 2 x + 3 + x ~ ~ , a n d ~ : x + ( 1 / 2 ) ~ - 3 f 2 $ xR~
f(x)) = g(2x+3) .

Similarly, fog(x) = f(g(x)) = f(xl2 - 312) =2(x/2 - 312) + 3 ='x. Thus, we see that gof(x) = x
and fog(x) = x for all x E R. Or, in other words, gof and fog are the identity function on R.
Wh% we have observed here is true for any two functions f and g which are inverses of each
other. Thus, iff : X -2Y and g :Y + X are inverses of each other, then @and fog are
identity functions. Since the domain of gof is X and that of fog is Y, we can write this as :
gof = ix, fog = i,. .
This fact is often used to test whether two given functions are inverses of each other.

1.7 TYPES OF FUNCT~ONS

In this section we shall talk about various types of functions, namely, even, odd, increasing,
decreasing and periodic functions. In each case we shall also try to explain the concept
through graphs.

1.7.1 Even and Odd Functions

We shall firstintroduce two important classes of functions: even functions and odd
functions. ~ o d i d l the
r function f defined on;R by setting A
Y
f(x) = x2 +X R. ..

You will notice that f(-x) = ( -x12 = x2 = f(x) +X E R

This is an example of an even function. Let's take a look at the graph (Fig 12) of this
function. We find that the graph (a parabola) is symmetrical about the y-axis. If we fold the
'paper along the y-axis, we shall see that the parts of the graph on both sides of the y-axis -. C
completely coincide with.each other.. Such functions are called even functions. Thus, a ' 0 X
function f, defined on R is even, if, for each x E R, f(-x) = f(x).
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. We also note that if Fig. 12 23
 :f 4
Elements of Differential the graph of a function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, the function must be an even
Calculus
function. Thus, if we are required to draw the graph of an even function, we can use this
property to our advantage. We only need to draw that part of the graph which lies to the
right of the y-axis and then just take its reflection w.r.t. the y-axis to obtain the part of the
graph which lies to the left of the y-axis.

E E 12) Given below are two examples of even functions, alongwith their graphs. Try to
convince yourself, by calculations as well as by looking at the graphs, that both the functions
"t are, indeed, even functions.
a) The absolute value function on R 4
Y
f : x + Ixl
The graph off is shown alongside.
b) The function g defined on the set
of non-zero real numbers by
setting g(x) = l/xZ,x # 0.
The graph of g.is shown alongside.
-5 -i - i o i 2 3 X

Now let us consider the function f defined by setting f(x) = x3 +x E R. We observe that
f(-x) = = -x3 = -f(x) +X E R. If we consider another function g given by g(x) = sin x
we shall be able to note again that g(-x) = sin(-x) = -sinx = -g(x).
The functions f and g above are similar in one respect: the image of -x is the negative dY the
image of x. Such functions are called odd functions. Thus, a function f defined on R is said
to be an odd function if f(-x) = -f(x) +x E R.
L

If (x, f(x)') is a point on the graph of an odd function f, then (-x, -f(x)) is also a point on it.
This can be expressed by saying that the graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect
to the origin. In other words, if you turn the graph of an odd function through 180"about the
origin you will find that you get the original graph again. Conversely, if the graph of a
function is symmetric with respect to the origin, the function must be an odd function. The
above facts are often useful while handling odd functions.

E E 13) We are giving below two functions alongwith their graphs. By calculations as well as
by looking at the graphs, find out whether each is even or 6dd.
A a) The identity function on R: Y-
Y f:*tx 4
3-
b) The function g defined on
the set cf non-zero real 2-
numbers by sejting 1-
g(x) = ltx, x f '0.
-4 -3 -2 -1 .x

(a)
-3!> *(b)
-4

1
 While many of the functions that yoti will come across in this course wil! turn out to be Real Numbers and Functions
eithereven or odd, there will be many more which will be neither even nor odd. consider,
for ex'ampie, the function
f:x+(x+1)2
Here f(- x) = (-x = i2-2x + 1. IS f(x) = f(-x) +x E R?
The answer is 'no'. Therefore, f is not hn even function. Is f(x) = -f(-x) +x E R? Again,
the answer is 'no'. Therefore f is not an odd function. The same conclusion io'uld have been
drawn by considering the graph o f f which is given in Fig.13. '
You will observe that the graph is symmetric neither with respect to the y-axis, nor with
respect to the origin.
Now there should be no difficulty in solving the exercise below.
Fig. 13
E 14) Which of the following functions are even, which are odd, and which are neither
even nor odd?
a)
b)
C)
x+x2+1 +XE R
x + x 3 - - I , + x ~R
X~COSX +X , E R
e) f ( x ) =
t 0, if x is rational
1, if x is irrational

d) x + x 1x1 + X E R

1.7.2 %on%one Functions

In this sub-section we shall consider two types of functions: 1-1 /
i) Increasing and ii) Decreasing
Any function which conforms to any one of these types is called a monotone function. Does
the profit of a cornpany increase with production? Does the volunie of gas decrease with
increase in pressure? Problems like these require the use of increasing or decreasing
'functions. Now let us see what we mean by an increasing function. Consider the functions g
and h defined

g ( x ) = x3 and h ( x ) = {-1 if x l O
if >

Note that whenever x, > x,, we get x,D > xI3,that is, g(x2) > g(x,). Fig. 14
In other words, 9s x increases, g(x) also increases. This fact can also be seen rrom the graph
of g shown in Fig. 14.
Let us find out how h(x) behaves as x increases. In this case we see that if x, > x,, then
h(x,) 2 h(x,). (You can verify this by choosing any values for x, and x?). Equivalently, we
ean say that h(x) increases (or does not decrease) as x increases. The same can be seen from
the graph of h in Fig.! 5.
Functions like g and h above are called increasing or non-decreasing functions. Thus, a
Fig.15
function f defined on a domain D is said to be increasing (or non-decreasing) if, for every
pair of elements x, x2 E D, x, > x, a f(x2) 2 f(x,). Further, we say that f is strictly
increas?ng if x, > x, f(x2)> f(x,) (strict inequality).
Clearly, a e function g : x + x3 discussed above, is a s&ctly-increasing function; while h is
ndt a strictly increasing function.
We shall now study another concept which is, in some sense, complementary to that of an
increasing function.
Consider the function f, defined on R by setting 25
:+:
Elements of Differential
Calculus '

-1

Fig.16
The graph o f f , is as shown in Fig. 16.
~rom
the graph we can easily see that as x increases f, does not increase.
That is, x, > x, 3 f,(x,) 5 f,(x,) or f,(x,)
Now considerlhe function f,: x + -x3 (x E R)
The graph of f, is shown in Fig. 17.
*
Since x, > x , x,S > xI3* -x:<
I=f,(x,)

*
- x13 f,(x,) < f,(x,), we find that as x increases, f,(x)
decreases. Functions like f, and f, are called decreasing or non-increasing functions. The
above two examples suggest the following definition:
A function f defined on a domain D is said to be decreasing (or non-increasing) if for every

x, > X I f(x,) c f(x,).

*
pair of elements x,, x,, x, > x, f(x,) 5 f(x,). Further, f is said to be strictly decreasing if
*
We have seen that, of the two decreasing functions f, and f,, f, is strictly decreasing, while f,
is not strictly decreasing. A function f defined on a domain D is said to be a monotone
function if it is either increasing or decreasing on D.
All the four functions (g, h, f,, f,) discussed above are monotone functions. The phrases P
'monotonically increasing' and 'monotonically decreasing' are often used for 'increasing'
and 'decreltsing', respectively.
\

While many functions are monotone, there are many others which are not monotone.
Consider, for example, the function
f : x + x2 (XE R).

\ You have, seen the graph o f f in Fig 12. This function is neither increasing nor decreasing.

\
If we find that a given function is not monotone, we can still determine some subsets of the
domain on which the function is increasing or decreasing. For example, the function
f(x) = x2 is strictly decreasing in ]--, 01 and is $.rictly increasing in [O,-[.
\ E E 15) Given below are the graphs of some functions. Classify them as non-decreasing.
strictly decreasing, neither increasing nor decreasing:

1.7.3 Periodic Functions

In this section we are going to tell you about yet another important class of functions, known
as periodic functibns.
Periodic functions occur very frequently in application of mathematics to various branches
of science. Many phenomena in nature such as propagation of water waves, sound waves,
light waves, electromagnetic waves etc. are periodic, and we need periodic functions to
describe them. Similarly, weather conditions and prices can also be described in terms of
periodic functions.
Look at the following patterns:
 +
- .... .. ... ../.. ..*....... *....-.
:aa~aaaaa
-

-~oob'ddoddb&@~bi
(a) 0))
Fig. 18
You must have come across patterns similar to the ones shown iR Fig. 18 on the borders of
sarees, wall papers etc. In each of these pattems~adesign keeps on repeating itself. A
similar situation dwurs in the graphs of periodic functionstLook at the graphs in Fig. 19.
*
Y'4

(b)

In each of the figures shown b b v e the graph consists of a certain pattern repeated infinitel;
many times. Both these graphs represent periodic functions. To understand the situation, let
us examine these graphs closdly.
Consider the graph in Fig. 19kilj. The portion of the graph lying between x = -1 and x = 1 is
the graph of the function x + I x I on the domain -1 I x I 1.
This portion is being repeated both to the left as well as to the right, by translating (pushing)
the graph through two units along the x-axis. That is to say, if x is any point of [-I, I], then
the ordinates at x, x f 2, x f4, x f 6, .... are all equal. The graph therefore represents the
function f defined by
f(x) = I x I, if -1 I x I1 andf(x + 2) =f(x).
The graph in Fig.l9(b) is the graph of the sine function, x -+ sin x, w x E R. You will notice
that the portion of the graph between 0 and 2n-is r eated both to the right and tb the left.
f
You know already that sin (x + 2n) = sin x, +x E . We now give aprecise meaning to the
term "a periodic function".
A function f defined on a domain D is said to be a periodic function if there exists a
positive real number p such that f(x + p) = f(x) for all x E he he number p is said to be a
period off.
If there exists a smallest positive p with the property described above, it is called the period
off.
As you know, tan (x + nn) = tan x +An E N. This means that nn, n E N are all periods of the
tangent function. The smallest of these, that is n, is the period of the tangent function.
See if you can do this exercise. 27
Elements of Differential
Calculus
E E 16) a) What are the periods of the functions given in Fig. 19(a) and (b)?
*

b) Can you give one other period of each of these functions?

As another example of a periodic function, consider the function f defined on R by setting

f(x) = x -[XI
Let us recall that [XI stands for the greatest integer not exceeding x..
The graph of this function is as shown in Fig. 20.
From the graph (as also by calculation) we can easily see that
f(x + n) = f(x) y x E R, and for each positive integer n.

Fig. 20

The given function is therelore periodic, the numbers 1,2, 3,4 being all periods. The
smallest of these, namely 1, is the period.
Thus the given function is periodic and has the period 1.
Remark 6 Monotonicity and periodicity are two properties of functions which cannot
coexist. A monotone function can never be periodic, and a periodic function can never be
monotone.
In general, it may not be easy to decide whether a given function is periodic or not. But
sometimes it can be done in a straight forwarp manner. Suppose we want to find whether the
function f : x + x2 f f - xE R i s periodic or not. We start by assuming that it is periodic with
period p.
Then we must have p > 0 and f(x + p) = f(x) +x
*(x+p)2=x2 ff-x
* 2 x p + p 2 = o . +tx
* p(2x + p) =.o ff- x
Considering xi # -p/2, we find'that 2x + p # 0. Thus, p = 0.This is a contradiction.
Therefore, there does not exist.any positive number p such thatf(x+p) = f(x), % E R and,
consequently, f is not periodic.
E 17) Examine whether the following functions are periodic or not. Write the periods of
the periodic functions.
a) x + cos x b)x+x+2
4
C) x + sin 2x d)x+tan3x
e) x + cos (2x + 5 ) f) x + sin x + sin 2x
 peal Numbers and Functlm

E E 18) The graphs of three functions are given below: classify the functions as periodic and
non-periodic:
E ~ d
Calculus
~ ~ n t i
E
a l E 19) Is the sum of two periodic functions also periodic?Give reasons for your answer.

We end with summarising what we have discussed in this unit.

1.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we have
1 briefly revised the basic properties of real numbers,
2 defined the absolute value of a real number x as
Ixl=xifx2O
=-xifxcO
3 discussed various types of intervals in R
Open : ]a,b[ = ( X ER:acxcb)
closed: [a,b] = ( X E R:alxlb J
semi-open: ]a,b] = { x E R : a < x I b)
or La.bl = { X ER:alxcb),
where a, b E R,
4 defined a function and discussed various types of functions along with their graphs:
one-one, onto, even, odd, monotone, periodic.
5 defined composite of functions and discussed the existence of the inverse of a function.

1.9 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

E 1) a) The set (1,2, 3. ...) has a lower bound, e.g., G.
D) The set (. . . . . . . . . . , -3, -2, -1,0, 1,2, . . . . . . . . ) does not have a lower bound
C) ~ h e g . l . b o f t h e s e t ~ = ( 1 . ~........
/ ~ , ~ / ~1/,, , . . . ) is0,andOe S.
d) (x : x E R and 1 S x 5 2 ) is a bounded set as it is bounded above by 2 and below
by 1.
E 2) a) A real number p is positive if p > 0. Hence 0 is a lower bound for the set P of
positive real numbers. Thus the set P is bounded below. Its infimum is 0.
b) A real number,r is the infimum of a set S C R if and only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
i) r -5x for all x E S.
ii) For each E > 0, there is y E S such that y c r + E
The set Pin a) above has infimum 0, since
i) 0 c p for all p E P and
ii) foreachea.0 there is el2 E Psuch that ~ / <2 O + E = E
E3) a) I x I = m a x { x , - x ) . H e n c e x = O = , I x I = O a n d
Ixl=O+max. (x,-x) = O = , x = O .
b) There are three cases 1) x 2 0, y 2 0
2) x and y have opposite signs
3)xSq.ySO.
We take 2). Suppose x > 0, y c 0, then,
1x1 =max ( x . - x ) = x , I y I = m a x ( y , - y ] = - y .
 xy<0~IxyI=-xy=xx(-y)=IxIIyI. Real Numbers and FuncUonr
1) and 3) can be proved similarly.
c) Ifx>O,IxI=xandI l/xI=l/x=l!IxI
If x < 0, I x I = -x and Il/x I = -l/x = 1/ I x I
d) Ix-yl = Ix+(-y)lS I x l + l - y I = l x l t l y l
e) I x + y + z l = I ( x + y ) + z l S l x + y l + l z l l l x l + l y l + l z l
f) I x y ~ I = l ~ y l i z l = l x l l y l l z l
E 4) a) False b) True c) True d) False

E 8) b) is one-one
E 9) a) is onto

Hence f is one-one.
IfyE X,putx=-
* . Then r E X and y = f(x). Hence, f is onto.
Y-1

E 12) a) f(x) = l x I * f(- x) = 1 -x I = I x I = f(x). Hence, f is even.

b) g(x) = 1/x2a g(-x) = l / ( - ~ )=~g(x) Hence, g is even.
E 13) a) f(x) = x a f(- x) = -- x = - f(x). Hence, f is odd.
b) g(x) = l/x g( - x) = - l/x = - g(x). Hence, g is odd.
E 14) a), c) and e) are even
d) is odd
b) is neither even nor odd
E 15) a) neither increasing, nor decreasing
b) non-decreasing c) strictly decreasing
E 16) The period of the function in Fig.19 a) is 2. Other periohs are 4,6,8, ..........
The period of the function in Fig. l9b) is 2x. Other periods are 4x, 6 ~..........
,
E 17) a) Periodic wi$ period 2x
, Since cos (x + 2z)= cos x for all x.
b) not periodic
c) Periodic with period x.
d) Periodic with period d3.
e) Periodic with period x.
f) Periodic with period 2x.
E 18) a) apd b) are periodic, c) is not.
E 19) No. For example, r - [XIand lsin XI are periodic, but their rum is not.
 UNIT 2 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
Structure
2.1 Introduction 32
Objectives
2.2 Limits 32
Algebra of Limits
Limits as x -+
-(or - -)
One-sided Limits
2.3 Continuity 43
Definitions and Examples
Algebra of Continuous Functions
2.4 Summary 48
2.5 Solutions and Answers 48

The last unit has helped you in recalling some fundamentals that will be needed in this
course. We will now begin the study of calculus, starting with the concept of 'limit'. As you
read the later units, you will realise that the seeds of calculus were sown as early as the third
century B.C. But it was only in the nineteenth century that a rigorous definition of a limit
- was given by Weierstrass. Before him, Newton, d' Alemben and Cauchy had a clear idea
about limits, but none of them had given a formal and precise definition. They had
depended,%moreor less, pn intuition or geometry.
The introduction of limits revolutionised the study of calculus. The cumbersome proofs
which were used by the Greek mathematicians have given way to neat, simpler ones.
You may already have an intuitive idea of limits. In Sec.2 of this unit, we shall give you a
precise definition of this concept. This will lead to the study of continuous functions in
Sec.3. ~ o ' sof
t the functions that you will come across in this course will be continuous. We
shall also give you some examples of discontinuous functions.

Objectives
After ieading this unit you should be able to:
calculate the limits of functions whenever they exist,
identify points of continuity and discontinuity of a function.

2.2 LIMITS
In this section we will introduce you to the notion of 'limit'. We start with considering a
situation which a lot of us are familiar with, such as train travel. Suppose we are travelling
from Delhi to Agra by a train which will reach Agra at 10,00 a.m. As the time gets closer
and closer to 10.00 a.m., the distance of the train from Agra gets closer and closer to zero
(assuming that the train is running on time!). Here, if we consider time as our independent
variable, denoted by t and distance as a function of time, say f(t), then we see that f(t)
approaches zero as t approaches 10. In this case we say that the limit of f(t) is zero as t tends
to 10.
Now consider the function f : R + R defined by f(x) = x2 + 1. Let us consider Tables liij
and l(b) in which we give the values of f(x) as x takes values nearer and nearer to 1.
In Table l(a) we see ;dues of x which are greater than 1. w e can also express this by saying
that x approaches 1 from the right. Similarly, we can say that x approaches 1 from the left in
Tahla 1 fhl
 Table l(a) Limits and iontinulty

Table l(b)

We find that, as x gets closer and closer to 1, f(x) gets closer and closer to 2. Alternatively,
we express this by saying that as x approaches 1 (or tends to I), the limit of f(x) is 2. Let us
now gi.ve a precise meaning of 'limit'.
Definition 1 Let f be a function defined at all points near p (except possibly at p). ~ ebe t ~ definition of limit was fust
This
a real number. We say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches p if, for each real stated by Karl Weierstrass, around
1850.
number E >O, we can find a real number 6 > 0 such that

As youknowfromunit l , I x - p l < 6 m e a r . s t h a t x ~ ] p - 6 , p + 6 [ a n d O < I x - p I means (E epsilon) and 6 (delta) are Greek

that x # p. That is, 0 < I x - p I < 6 means that x can take any value lying between p - 6 and leners used to denote real numbers.
p + 6 except p.
t

The limit L is denoted by lim f (x ), We also write f(x) +L as x + p.. '-+ ' denotes 'rends to'
x -'P
Note that, in the above definition, we take any real number E >O and then choose some
6 > 0, so that L - E < f(x) < L + E , whenever I x - p I < 6, that is, p - 6 < x < p + 6.
' -
The E G definition do& not give
In Unit 1 we have also mentioned that Ix - p I can be thought of as the distance between x us the value of Lilt just helps us
check whether a given number L is'
and p. In the light of this the definition of the limit of a function can also be interpreted as:
the limit of f(x).
Given E > 0, we can choose 6 > 0 such that if we choose x whose distance from p is less than
6, then the distance of its image from L must be less than E. The pictures in Fig. 1 may help
you absorb the definition.

for each & >0 3 a 6 > 0 s.t. O.<lx-cks

Remember, the number & is given' first and the number 6 is to be produced.
An important point to note here is that while taking the limit of f(x) as x + p, we are
concerned only with the values of f(x) as x takes va!ues closer and closer to p, but not when
x'- 1 .
x = p. For example, consider the function f(x) = -. This function is not defined for
x-1
x = 1, but is defined ford1 other x G R. However, we can still talk about its limit as x + 1.
This is because for taking the limit we will have to look at the values of f(x) as x tends to 1,
but not when x = I .
Now let us take the following examples:
Example 1Consider the function f : R + R defined by f(x) = x3 How can we find
lim f (x ) ?
x -ro
Ekments of Mfferential
Calculus

Look at the graph off in Fig.2. You will see that when x is small, x3is also small. As x
comes closer and closer to 0,x3also comes closer and closer to zero. It is reasonable to
expect that lirn f(x) = 0 as x 0.
Let us prove that this is what happens. Take any real number E > 0.Then,I f(x) - 0 1 < E e
1 x3 I <E w I x I < & I n . Therefore, if we choose 6 = &'I3 we get I f(x) - 0 I< E whenever
0 < I x - 0 I < 6. This gives us lim f(x) = 0.
..-
x+O

A useful general rule to prove lirn f (x ) = Lis to write down f(x) - L and then express it in
x+a
terms of (x - a) as much as possible.
Let us now see how to use this rule to calculate the limit in the following examples.
x2- 1
Example 2 Let us calculate lirn
x+, X-1
-
x2- 1
We know that division by zero is not defined. Thus, the function f ( x ) = ---- - is not
x-1
defined at x = 1. But, as we have mentioned earlier, when we calculate the limit as x
approaches 1, we do not take the value of the function at x = 1. Now, to obtain ,
x2- 1 x2-1 -
lirn --- , we first note that x2- 1 = (X- 1) (X + I), SO that, - -x+ 1 for x # 1.
X+l x -1 . --1 x- 1
Therefore lim
X+l
-
ILL

x-1
= lirn (x + 1)
x-t,

As x approaches 1, we can intuitively see that this limit approaches 2. To prove that the limit
is 2, we first write f(x) - L = x + 1 - 2 = x - 1, which is itself in the form x - a, since a = 1
in this case. Let us take any number E > 0.Now,
I(x+~)-~~<E&Ix-~~<E
Thus, if we choose 6 = E, in our definition of limit, we see that

Example 3 Let us prove that lirn (x + 4) = 13.

x-t 3

~ 0, 36 > 0 such that I x2+ 4 -13 1 < E whenever

That is, we shall prove that $ c >
Ix-3L<6.
Here,f(x)- L = ( x Z + 4 ) - 13 =x2-9, a n d x - a = x - 3.
 Now we writeIx2-91 in termsoflx-3 1 I ;wit\ .ind Continuity

Thus, apart from I x - 3 1, we have a factor, namely I x + 3 1. To decide the limits of I x + 3 1,

let us put a restriction on 6. Remember, we have to choose 6. So let us say we choose a
6 5 1. What does this imply?
Ix-31<6aIx-31<1a3-1<~<3+1
2 < x < 4 a 5 < x + 3 <7. RecallSec.4, Unit 1.

For this we shall try to make 7 1 x - 3 1 < E. Now when will this be true? It will be true when
I x - 3 1 < ED. So this &/7is the value of 6 we were looking for. But we have already chosen
6 5 1. This means that given E > 0, the 6 we choose should satisfy

r
In other words, 6 = min ( 1, ~ / 1,7 should serve our purpose. Let us verify this:
I i x - 3 1 < 6 a I x - 3 1 < 1 and Ix-31< & / 7 a I ~ ~ - 9 1 = I ~ + 3 1 I ~ - 3 1 < 7 . ~ / 7 = & .
r Remark 1:Iff is a constant function on R,that is, if f(x) = k +x E R,where k is some
fixed real number, then lim f (x ) = k .
X
-
'
P
Now please try the following exercises.
E E 1) show that
1
a) lim g = 1
x+ 1

x3- 1
b) lim ---- =3
x-,, x-1

Before we go further, let us ask, 'Can a function f(x) tend to two diffixent l i d as x tends
to p'?
I The answer 15 NO, as you can see from the following :
Eiements ot Differential Theorem 1 If lim f (x ) = L and lim f(x) = M, then L = M.
Calculus X+P x-t P
IL-MI
Proof : Suppose L # M, then I L - M I > 0. Since lirn f(x) = L , if we take&= -
x+ P 2 '
,
then 3 6 > 0 such that
Ix-~I<~,*I~(x)-LI<&
Similarly, since lim f (x ) = M , 3 6, > 0 such that
x -+P
Ix-pI<6,~lf(x)-MI<~.
If we choose 6 = min {a,,a,}, then Ix - pl < 6 will mean that Ix-pl < 6 and lx - pi < 6,. ,
In this case we will have both I f(x) - L I < &, as well as, I f(x) - M I < &.
So that I L - M I = I L - f(x) + f(x) - M I 5 I f(x) - L I + I f(x) - M I <& + &
la+blSI al+lbl =2&=lL-MI.
That is, we get I L - M I < I L - M I, which is a contradiction. Therefore, our supposition is
wrong. Hence L =M.
We now state and prove a theorem whose usefulness will-be clear to you in Unit 4.
Theorem 2 Let f, g and h be functions defined on an interval I containing a, except
possibly at a. Suppose
i) f(x)lg(x)Ih(x)+x E I\{a}
ii) lim f(x) = L = lim h (x )
x+ a x +a

Then lim g (x) exists and is equal to L.

x+ a

Proof: By the definition of limit, given e > 0 , 3 6, > 0 and 6, > 0 such that
I f ( x ) - L I < & for O < l x - a I < 6 , a n d
I h ( x ) - L I < E #or O < I x - a I < 6 ,
Let 6 = min {a,,6,}. Then,
O<lx-al<6*lf(x)-LI<& andlh(x)-LI<E

L-&Ih(x)lL+&
We also have f(x) Ig(x) I h(x) +X E I \ {a)
Thus,wegetO<Ix-aI<6*L-&< C(x)Sg(x)Ih(x)IL+&
In other words, 0 < I x - a I < 6 3 I g(x) - L I < &
Therefore lim g (x) = L .
x+ a
Theorem 2 is also called the sandwich theorem (or the squeeze theorem), because g is
being sandwiched between f and h. Let us see how this theorem can be used.
Example 4 Given that I f(x) - 1 I S 3(x + 1)' + X E R, can we calculatelim f (x ) ?
x+-1
We know that -3(x +I), I f(x) - 1 I3(x + +%.This means that
-3(x + 1 I f(x) 1 3 ( x +1), + 1 +x. Using the sandwich theorem and the fact that
lim [-3 (x + 1) + 1 ] = 1 = lim [3(x + 1) + 11, we get lim f ( x ) = 1, ,
2 2
x+-1 x+-1 x-+-1
In the next section we will look at the limits of the sum, product and quotient of functions.

2.2.1 Algebra of limits

Now that you are familiar with limits. Let us state some basic of limits. (Their
proofs are beyond the scope of this course.)
Theorem 3 Let f and g be two functions such that
lim f(x) and lim g(x) exist. Then
x+ P x+ P
lirn [f(x)+ g(x)] = lim f ( x ) + lim g(x) Sum rule
i) x-+p x+ P x+ P

ii) lirn [f(x)g(x)]= Product rule

x+ P

iii) 1 =
lim ---- , provided lim g (x ) + 0 ~ e c i ~ & arule
l
X+P g ( x ) lilipg(x) P'-X
 We can easily prove two more rules in addition to the thsee rules given in' Theorem 3. Limib nnd Continuity
These are:
iv) lirn k = k Constant function rule
x+ P
V) lim x = p Identity function rule
x+ P
We shall only indicate the method of proving iv) and v):
iv) Here I f(x) - L I = I k - k I = 0 < E, whatever be the value of 6.

Using the properties that we have just stated, we will calculate the limit in the following
example.
Example 5 Let us evaluate lim 3 x 2 + 4x
x+ 2 2x + 1
Now lim 2 x + 1 = lirn 2 x + lirn 1 by using i)
x+ 2 x+ 2 x+2

= lirn 2 lim x + lirn 1 by using ii)

,x+2 x-2 x+2

= 2 x 2 + 1 = 5 # 0 by using iv) and v)

-'. We can use (iii) of Theorem 3. Then the required limit is
lim ( 3 x 2 + 4 x ) lirn 3 x 2 + lim 4x
x +2
- x+ 2 x+2
by using i )
lim ( 2 x + 1) lirn 2x + lim 1

lirn 3 lim x lim x + lim 4 lim x

- x+2 x+2 x+2 x-i2 x+2 .
by using ii)
lim 2 lim x + lim 1

You can similarly calculate the limits in the following exercises.

3'
E E 2) Show that lim
x-11
=3

E E 3) Calculate lim 2x + 5
x-11
2.2.2 Limits as x + (or - 00 )
1,
Take a look at the graph of the function f ( ) ~= T > o in Fig.3. This is a decreasing
function of x. In fact, we see from Fig. 3 that f(x) comes closer and closer to zero as x gets
larger and larger. This situation is similar to the one where we have a function g(x) gett~ng
closer and closer to a value L as x comes nearer and nearer to,some number p, that is when
lim g ( x ) = L.
X-iP

The only difference is that in the case of f(x), x is not approaching any finite value, and is

-
just becoming larger and larger. We express this by saying that f(x) + 0 as x,+ m, or
lim f(x) = 0. Note that, is not a real number. We write x + w merely to indicate that
x-i-
x becomes larger and larger.
We now formalise this discussion in the following definition.
Oefinition 2 A function f is said to tend to a limit L as x tends to m if, for each C > 0 it is
possible to choose K > 0 such that I f(x) - L I < E whenever x > K.
In this case, as x gets larger and larger, f(x) gets nearer and nearer to L. We now give
another example of this situation.
Example 6 Let f be defined by setting f(x) = 1/x2for all x E R \ ( 0 ) .Here f is defined for
all real values of x other than zero. Let us substitute larger and larger values of x in
f(x) = 1/x2and see what happens (see Table 2).
Table 2

We see that as x becomes larger and larger, f(x) comes closer and-closer tozero. Now, let us
choose any E > 0. If x >I/&, then 1/x2< E. Therefore, by choosing K = I/&, we find that
x>K~If(x)l<~.Thus,lim f(x)=O.
X+=-

Fig.4 gives us a graphic idea of how this function behaves as x + -.

Fig. 4

Sometimes we also need to study the behaviour of a function f(x3, as x takes smaller and
smaller negative values. This can be examined by the following definition.
Definition 3 A function f is said to tend to a limit L as x + - m if, for each E > 0, it is
possible to choose K > 0, such that I f(x) - L I < E whenever x < -K,
The following example will help you ir, understanding this idea.
Example 7 Consider the function f: R + R defined by

The graph off is as shown in Fig.5.

 Limits and Continuity

What happens to f(x) as x takes smaller and smaller negative values? Let us make a table
(Table 3) to get some idea.

Table 3

L _ _ _ _ - - J - I I I

We see that as x takes smaller and smaller negative values, f(x) comes closer and closer to
zero. In fact 1/(1 + x2)< E whenever 1 + x2> l/&,.thatis, whenever x2 > (I/&)- 1, that is,
whenever either x < - 1; - '12
11 or x > :1 '12
- 11. Thus, we find that if we take
I. /
I
K = -- 1
1'12
,then x < - K=, I f(x) I< E. Consequently, lim f (x ) = 0 .
x-+-00

In the above example we also find that lim f(x) = 0.

x-+-
Let us see how lirn f (x)can be interpreted geometrically.
x -+-
In the above example we have the function f(x) = 1/(1+ x2),and as x + =,,or x+ -.
f(x) + 0. From Fig. 5 you can see that, as x + = or x + - =, the curve y = f(x) comes
nearer and nearer the straight line y = 0,which is the x-axis.

X+ -
Siyilarly, if we say that lirn g(x) = L, then it means that, as x + = the curve y =g(x)
comes closer and closer to the straight line v = L.
x2
Example 8 Let us show that lim = 1.
X+oo (1 + x2)
Now, I x2/(1+ x2)- 1 I = 1/(1 + x2).In the previous example we have shown that
I 1/(1 + x2)1< E for x > K, where K = ( 1 / -~ 1 I'D. Thus, given E > 0, we choose
K = I 1 / -~ 1 Ill2,SO that
x
x>K+ -- 1 1 < & T h i s m e a n s t h a txlim
-$- =1 + x2I .

We show this geometrically in Fig.6.

Y t
Elements of Differential You must be wondering ifall the properties given in Theorem 3 also hold when we take
Calculus limits as x + m. Yes,they do.
You can use them to solve this exercise.
E 4) Show that a) lirn I/x = 0
x+-

b) lirn ( l / x + 3 / x 2 + 5 ) = 5
x+-

Sometimes we cannot use Theorem 2 directly, as is clear in the following example. Let us .
see how to overcome this problem.
3x + 1
Example 9 Suppose, we want to find lirn
x-t-
-
2x+5'
We cannot apply Theorem 3 directly since the limits of the numerator and the denominator,
as x + =, cannot be found.'
Instead, we rewrite the quotient by multiplying the numerator and denominator by l/r,
for x # 0.

Then, --------
3x
2x+5
+ '
= -3t ( I h ) , f o r x +O.NOW we use
2+(5/x) '

Theorem 3 and the fact that:L% I h = 0 (see E 4 a)), to get

lirn (3 + l / x )
?c
. .x+-lirn (2+5/x)
=
-. 3+0
2+0
-3
2
X +-
By now you must be used to the various definitions of limits, so can try this exercise.
E 5 ) a) If for some E > 0, and for every K, 3 x > K s.t.
I f(x) - L I > E , what will you infer?
b) H lirn f (x ) # L ,how can you express it in the E - 6 form?
X+P
1
 We end this section with the following important remark. Limits and Continuity

Remark 2 In case we have to show that a'function f does not tend to a limit L as x
approaches p, we shall have to negate the definition of limit (also see E5(b)). Let us see what
this means. Suppose we want to prove that lim f (x ) # L. Then, we should find some
X-t P
E > 0 such that for every 6 > 0, there is some x E ]p - 6, p + 6[ for which I f(x) - L I > E.
Through our next example we shall illustrate the negation of the definition of the limit of
f(x) as x -+ rn.
Example YO To show that lirn I/x # > 0 such that for any K
I , we have to find some E
x+m
(howsoever large) we can always find an x > K such that I l/x - 1 I > E
Take E = 114. Now, for any K > 0, if we take x = m a (2, K + 1 ), we find that x > K and
I Ilx - 1 I > 114. This clearly .shows that lirn l l x # 1.
x+-

b 2.2.3 One-sided Limits

If we consider the graph of the function f(x) = [x], shown in Fig. 7, we see that f(x) does not
seem to approach any fixed value as x approaches 2. But from the graph we can say that if x
I approaches 2 from the left then f(x) seems to tend to 1. At the same time, if x approaches 2
from the right, then f(x) seems to tend to 2. This means that the limit o f f exists if x
approaches 2 from only one side (left or right) at a time. This example suggests that we
Fig. 7
introduce the idea of a one-sided limit.
Definition 4 Let f be a function defined for all x in the interval ]p, q[. f is said to approach a
limit L as x approaches p from right if, given any E > 0, there exists a number 6 > 0 such
thatp<x<p+ 6+lf(x)-11~6.
In symbols we denote this limit by lirn f (x ) = L
x +p+
Similarly, the function f : ]a, p[ -+ R is said to approach a limit L as x approaches p from
the left if, given any E > 0, 3 6 > 0 such that p - 6 < x < p a I f(x) - L I < E.
This limit is denoted by lirn f (x ) .
x + p-
e in computing these limits the values of f(x) for x lying on only one side of p are
N ~ t that
taken into account.
Let us apply this definition to the function f(x) = [XI.We know that for x E [I, 2[, [x] = 1.
That is, [XIis a constant func!ion on [I, 2[. Hence lirn [ x ] = 1 .Arguing similarly, we find '
x+ 2-
that since [x] = 2 for all x E [2,3[, [x] is, again, a constant functidn on [2,3[, and'
lim, [x] = 2.
x -2

Let us improve our understanding of the definition of one-sided limits by looking at some
more examples.
Example 11 Let f be defined on R by setting

f(x)= y, when x'#O

f(0) = 0
We will show that lim- f ( x ) equals - 1.
x +o
When x < 0, I x I = - x, and therefore, f(x) = (- x)/x = - 1. In order to show thatx!?- f(x)
exists and equals -1, we have to start with any E > 0 and then find a 6 > 0 such that+if.
.- 6,s:x < 0, then I f(x)- (-1) I < E.
Since f(x) = -1 for all x < 0, I f(x) - (- 1) I = 0 and, hence, any number 6 > 0 will work.
.Therefore, whatever 6 > 0 we may choose, if - 6 < x < 0, then I f(k) - (-1) I = 0 < E . Hence,
lim- f ( x ) = -1.
x+ 0

Example 12 f is a function defined on R by setting

'
f(x) = x - [x], for all x E R.
Let us examine whether lim- f ( x ) exists.
x-1

Recall (Unit 1) that this function is given by f(x) = x, if 0 S x < 1.

f(x) = x -1 if 1 -< x < 2, and, in general
f(x) = x - n if n Ix < n + 1 (see Fig.8)
 Llements of Dit'feranlinl
Calculus

A
Y

Fig. 8

Since f(x) = x for values of x less than 1 but close to 1, it is reasonable to expect that
lim f(x) = I .Let us prove this by taking any E > 0 and choosing 5 = min ( 1, €1. We find
x41-
1- 6 < x < 1 * f(x)=xandIf(x)-1 I = I x - 1 I<65&.
Therefore, lim f(x) = 1.
x-11
Proceeding exactly as above, and notlng that f(x) = x - 1 if 1 I x < 2, we can similarly prove
that lim,
+ I f (x)= 0.
-
E E 6 ) Rovathat a) i5y-X- [ X I =1

1x1 = 1
lim -
b) ,40+ x
(x + 2)lx(
C) lim- = -2
x4 0

Before going further, let us see how the concepts of one-sided l~mitand li.t~itare connected.
 Theorem 4 The following statements are equivalent. Limiti and Continuity

i) lirn f (x) exists

X+P
ii) lirn f (x ) and lim f (x ) exist and are equal.
x+ 'p X+ F

Proof :To show that i) and ii) are equivalent, we have to show that i) + ii) and ii) 3 i).
We first prove that i) 3 ii). For this we assume that lirn f(x) = L. Then given E > 0,
x +P
36>OsuchthatIf(x)-LI<&forO< I x - p I < 6 .
Now,O< I x - p I < 6 3 p < x < p + 6 a n d p - 6 < x < p . T h u s , w e h a v e I f ( x ) - L I < ~ f o r
p < x < p + 6 a n d f o r p - 6 < x < p . T h i s m e a n s t h a t l i m f ( x ) = L = lim f(x).
x+ p- x+ p+
We now prove the converse, that is, ii) 3 i). For this, we assume that
lirn f (x ) = lirn f (x ) .= L. Then, given E > 0 , 3 6,, 6, >O
x-3 p- x+ p+
such that

This means that I f(x)- L I < E whenever 0 < I x - p I < 6.

Hence lirn f(x) = L.
x -'P
Thus, we have shown that i) ii) and ii) +
i), proving that they are equivalent.
From Theorem 4, we can conclude that if lirn f(x) exists, then lim f (x ) and lirn f (x )
X-'P x+ p+ x+ F
also exist and further
lirn f ( x ) = lirn f(x) = lirn f (x )
X+P x -rp+ x + p-

Remark 3 If you apply Theorem 4 to the function f(x) = x - [x] (see Example 12), you will
see thatljm (x-- [x] ] does not exist as lim+ ( x 7 [x] } ?t lim- ( x - [x] ),
x+ 1 x+l x+l

We shall use this concept of one-sided limits to define continuous functions in the next
section.

2.3 CONTINUITY
A continuous process is one that goes on smoothly without any abrupt change. Continuity of
a function can also be interpreted in a similar way. Look at Fig. 9. The graph of the function
f i n Fig.9 (a) has an abrupt cut at the point x = 3, whereas the graph of the function g in
Fig.9 (b) proceeds smoothly. We say that the function g is continuous, while f is not.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9 :(a) Graph o f f (b) Graph of g
Continuous functions play a very important role in calculus. As you proceed, you will be
able to see that many theorems which we have stateqin this course are true only for
continuous functions. You will also see that continuity is a necessary ~onditionfor the
derivability of a function, and that it is a sufficient condition for the integrability of a
function. But l h usgive a precise meaning to "a continuous function" now.
I
 2.3.1 Deflnitlons and Examplcs
In this section we shall mive you the definition and some examples of a continuous functiur~.
We shall also give you a short list of conditions which a function must satisfy in order to be
continuous at a point.
kflnltlon S k t f be a function defined on a domain D, and let r be a positive real number
-
such that the interval ]p r, p t r [ c D. Pis said to be ~ntinuousat x = p if lirn f (x ) = f (p) .
X--) 1)
By the definition of limit this means that f is continuous 'at p if given E > 0, 3 6 > 0 such
- -
that I f(x) f(p) I < € whenever I x p I < 6. To clarify this concept let us look at an
example,
Example 13 k t us check the continuity of the function
f :R -+ R such that f(x) = x atthe point x = 0. .
Now, f(0) = 0. Thus we want to know if lirn f (x ) = 0 .
x -0
This is aue because given e z 0,we can choose 6 = E and verify that I x I < 6 3 I f(x) I < E
Thus f is continuous at x = 0.
Remark 4 f is continuous at x s p provided the following two criteria are met:
i) lirn f (x ) exists.
*-+ P
ii) lirn f(x )= f @ ) .
I-+ P

Fil. 10 : (a) Graph d f @I *rph dl/@

Fig. 10 shows two discontinuous functions f and g. Criterion i) is not met by f, whereas g
.fails to meet criterion ii). If you read Remark 3 again, you will find.that f(x) = x - [XI
is not
continuous at x =l. But we have seen that we can calculate one-sided limit8 of f(x) = x - [XI
at x = 1. This leads us to the following definition.
Definition 6 A function f : ]p, q[& R is said to be continuous from the right at x =p if
lim+f(x )= f @). We say that f is continuous from the left at q if lirn f(x) = f(q) .
x-9 P x-9 q-
Thus, f(x) =x - [x] is continuous from the right but not from the left at x =1 since
lim- f(x)# f(1) and lim+ f(x) = f(1) = 0.
X-rl x+ 1

E E 7) Give E - 6 definition of continuity at a point from the right as well as from the left.
 E 8) Show that a function f: ]p - r, p + r[ + R is continuous at x = p if and only i f f is
continuous from the right as well as from the left at x = p (Use Theorem 4).

1
Now that you know how to test the continuity of a function at a potnt, let us go a step
further, and define continuity of a function on a set.
Definition 7 A function f defined on a domain D is said to be continuous on D, if it is
continuous at every point of D.
Let us see some more examples.
Example 14 Let f(x) = xn for an x 6 R and any n E ZC.Show that f(x) is continuovs at &I\ttw set 0 , IIO~I~IVLIntegers.
x = p f o r a l l p ~ R.
:
We know that lirn x = p for any p E R. Then, by F e product rule in Theorem 3, we get
x+a
lim x " = (lim x) (lim x ). .
x+ P x+p x+p
... (lim
*+ P
x) (n times)

= pp . . . . . p (n times) = d . Therefore , lim f(x] exists and equals f(p). Hence f is

X +D
continuous at x = p. Since p was any arbitrary number in R, we can say that f is continuous
on R.
Remark 5 Using Example 14 and Theorem 3, we can also. probe that polynomial
a, + a,x + . . . . . . + anxn,where a,, a, . . . . . . an E R, is continuous on R, that is,
lirn (a, + a,x + . . . . . . + anxn)= a, + alp + . . . . . . + anpnfor all p E R.
x+ P
Example 15 The greatest integer fu~ctionf : R + R : f(x) = [x] is discontinuous at x = 2.
To prove this we recall our discussion in Sec. 2 in which we have proved that lime f(x) = I
x+ 2
and lirn f (x ) = 2. Thus, since these two limits are not equal, lim f (x ) does not exist.
x+2+ x+ 2
Therefore, f is not continuous at x = 2 because the first criterion laid down in Remark 4 is
not met.
Example 16 Let f(x) = I x I for all x e R. This f is continuous at x = 0.
Here f(x) = x, if x 2 0, and f(x) = - x if x < 0. YOU can sm that
lirn f ( x ) = lirn x = O=f(O)and
r+g+ x + ~ +
'lim- f(x ) = lim- (- x ) = 0 = f(0). Thusr lirn f (x ) exists and equals f(0). Hence f is
0 x+ 0
-x+ x+ 0
continuous at x = 0 . - - -
Note :f is also continuous at every other point of R. (Check this statement).
Example 17 Suppose we want to find whether f(x) =
x2- I
x-1
- is continuous at.x = 0.
In Fig. 11 you see the graph of f. It is the line y = x + 1 except for the pointi(l,2). We can write fix) a x + I for all
x + 1.
Elements of Uiflewntial
Calculus f(O) = (02- l)/(O - I) = 1 and
lirn f ( x ) = lirn ( x 2 - 1)/(x - I ) = lirn ( x + I ) = 1
x 4 0 x +o x-i 0

lirn f (x )= f (0), so that f is continuous at x = 0.

x 4 0

The exponential function f(x) = exand the logarithmic function f(x) = In x are continuous
functions. You can check this by looking at their graphs in Unit 1. Similarly, x -+ sinx and
x -+ cosx are continuous. x -+ tanx is continuous in 1- p/2, n/2[. This fact is quite obvious
from the graphs of these functions (We have given their graphs in Unit 1). We shall not
attempt a rigorous proof of their continuity here.

Caution :Checking the continuity of a function from the smoothness of its graph is not a
fool-proof method. If you look at the graph (Fig. 12) of the function x + x sin (l/x), you
will find that it has no breaks in the neighbourhood of x = 0. But this function is not
continuous. Observe that the graph oscillates wildly near zero.

Fig.12

E E 9) Show that the function f :R .+ R given by f(x) -. l/(xz - 9) is continuous at all points
of R except at x = 3 and x = -3.
 Now that we know how to check whether a function is continuous or not, let us go further, Limits and Continuity
and talk about'the continuity of some combinations of functions.

2.3.2 Algebra of Contihuous Functions

Let f and g be functions defined and continuous on a common domain D E R, and let k be
any real number. In Unit 1, we defined the functions f + g, fg, f/g (provided g(x) + 0 any
where in D), kf and I f t The following theorem tells us about the continuity of these
functions.
Theorem 5 Let f and g be functions defined and continuous on a common domain D, and let
k be any real number. The functions f + g, kf, I f I and fg are all continuous on D. If g(x) # 0
anywhere in D, then the function f/g is also continuous on D.

rl We shall not prove this theorem here.

In Unit 1, you have studied the important concept of composite functions. In Theorem 6, we
will talk about the continuity of the composite of two continuous functions. Here again, we
shall state the theorem without giving proof as it is beyond the level of this course.
Theorem 6 Let f : Dl + D, and g : D, + D, be continuous on their domains. Then gof is
continuous on D,. (Dl, D,, D, C R).
Example 18 To prove that f : R + R : f(x) = (x2 + is continuous at x = 0, we'consider
the functions g : R + R: g(x) = x' and h : R -+ R :h(x) = x2 + 1. You can check that
f(x) = goh (x). Further. by Remark 5, h is continuous on R, and g is also continuous on R.
Thus, goh = f is continuous on R.
Let us see if the converse of the above theorems are true. For example, iff and g are defined
on an interval la, b] and iff + g is continuous on [a, b], does that mean that f and g are
continuous on [a. b] ?
No. Consider the functions f and g over the interval [0,1] given by

Then nelther f nor g is continuous at x F 112. (Why?) But (f + g) (x) = 1+x E [O, I].
Therefore, f + g is continuous on [0, I].
Now. if I f I is continuous at a point p, must f alsp be continuous at p? Again, the answer is
NQ.'Take, for example, the function f :R + R given by

Then I f(x) I = 1 in R and hence I f I is continuous.

But f is not continuous at x = 0 (Why?)
E E10) I f f : . R + R i s d e f i n e d b y f ( x ) =

is f continuous at a) x = 1 b) x = - 3/2?
Element#of DUlemtlal Before we end this unit. we shall state an important theorem concerning continuous
Clleuhfi functions. Once again, we won't prove this theorem here. But try to understand its statement
because we shdll be using it in subsequent units.
Theorem 7 (Intermediate Value Theorem) Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a,b].
Suppose c is a real number lying between f(a) and f(b). (That is, f(a) < c < f(b) or
f(a) > c > f(b)). Then there exists some xo E ]a.h[, such that f(x0)= C.
How can we interpret this geometrically? We have already seen that the graph of a
continuous function is smooth. It does not have any breaks or jumps. This theorem says that,
if the points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)) lie on two opposite sides of a line y = c (see Fig.13). then
the graph off must cross the line y = c.

Note that this theorem guarantees only the existence of the number x,. It does not tell us how
to find it.'Another thing to note is that this xo need not be unique.
That brings us to the end of this unit.

2.4 SUMMARY
We end this unit by summarising what we have covered in it.
I Tlw limi: of a function f a t a point p of its domain is L if given E > 0,36 > 0, such that
-
I f(x) I, I < e whenever ! x - p I < 6.
2 One-sided limits
3 lirn f (x )exists if and only if
X+P
lim f (x ) and x rim
-+:-
f (x ) h t h exist and are equal.
X4P
4 A function f is continuous at a point x = p if
lim f(x) = f(p)
X+P
#
5 If the function f and p are continuous on D. then so are the functions f + g, fg, ! f I, kf
(where k E R)flg (where g(x) ;t 0 in D)
6 The Intermediate Value Theorem : If f is continuous on [a, b] and if f(a) < c < f(b) (or
f(a) > c > f(b) ), then
3x, E la, 'b[ such that f(x,) = c.

2.5 SOLUTrONS AND ANSWERS

E 1) a) Given any E > 0, if we choose S = min ( ~ 1 2112).
, then
Ix-lI<6$1/2~~>112
 Llmlts and Contlnultj3

Ix-1 I<l/2 -
Given E > 0, if we choose 6 = min ((2/7)~,1/21, then
x<3/2 -x+2<7/2and

Thatis.1~-1IcG : : : 1-- Ice

3

Hence, lirn
x+l
-
xJ- 1
X - 1
= 3.
lirn 3
E 2) lirn 3/x =
x-31
-
x+l
lim x
= 311 = 3
x-31 .

5 lirn x 2
x+ 1
x-3 1
x +1

E 4) a) Given E > 0 if we choose K = I/&,then

x > K a I l/x-OI=I l/xI<I/K=&.
Thus, lirn l/x = 0
x+

b) Given E > 0, if we choose K = 11 fi, then

x > K * I 1 / ~ ~ - 0 1 11/x1l<
= 1/K2=E
Hence. lirn l/x = 0
x+
Now, lirn (1 /x
- + 3/x2 + 5)
x+-
= lim l / x + 3 lirn l / x 2 + lirn 5 = 0 + 3 x 0 + 5 = 5
X +- x+- x.+-
E 5 ) a). lirn f(x) # L
X-+"

b) 3 e > 0, s.r. 4 6 > 0 3 x s.t. I x - p I c 6 and I f(x) - L I > e.

E. Ii .I) Since x - [x] = x - 2, 2 5; x < 3,

" +3
-
l i m x [ X I = lirn x - 2 = 1
x -3-
h) .lim (x(/x = lirn x/x = 1,
K+ o+ x+p+
]XI= x for x > 0.

( x 2 + 2)Ixl (x2 + 2)(-x)

C, x+o-
lim
x
= lim
x+o- X
- sincelxl=-x forx<O

= lim
x-0-
- (x2 + 2 ) ~ -s 2
I

E 7) f is continuous from the right at x = p if +be 5 0 there exists a 6 > 0 set.

p c x c p + 6 *lf(x)-f(p)l<e
f is continuous from the left at x = p if +E > 0 there exists a 6 0 s.t.

E f is continuous at x = p a lim f(x) = f(p)

x -'P
3 lim+ f (x ) = f @) and lirn f (x ) = f @) by Theorem 4
x-hp-
X+P
+ f is continuous from right and from left at x = p.
I f f is continuous from right and left,
a lim f ( x ) = f @ ) = lirn f(x)
x+p+ x-' p-

a lim f (x ) exists and = f (p)

x-' P
 Elements of Differential 1 - = ---- -
I Calculus E9) lim f ( x ) = -
K+ a lim x 2 - 9 a2 - 9 - f ( a ) f o r a l l a e x c e p t a = + 3
x+ a

Hence f is continuous at all points except at f 3, f is not defined at f 3.

E 10) a) f is not continuous at x = 1. For E = 1 and any 6 > 0, if x is any non-integer
E 11- 6, 1 + 61,then
I f(x) - f(1) I = I -1 -1 I = 2 > E.
b) f is continuous at -312. Since given E > 0, if we choose 6 < 112, then
I x - (-312) 1 < 112 3 - 2 < x < - 1 x e Z and hence I f(x) - f(- 3/2)1= 0 < E.
 UNIT 3 DIFFERENTIATION
Structure
3.1 Introduction 51
Objectives
3.2 The Derivative of a Function 52
Slope of a Tangent
Rate of Change
The Derivative
3.3 Derivatives of Some Simple ~uncti0r.s
3.4 Algebra of Derivatives
~erivativeof a Scalar Multiple of a Function
Derivative of the Sum of Two Functions
Derivative of the Product of Two Functions
Derivative of the Quotient of Two Functions
C The Chain Rule of Differentiation
3.5 Continuity versus Derivability
3.6 Summary
3.7 Solutions and Answers

3.1 ,INTRODUCTION

It was the seventeenth century. Some European mathematicians were working on two basic
problems.

i) Is it possible to find the tangent to a given curve at a given point of the curve?
.ii) Is it possible to find the area under a given curve?
Two mathematical giants, Newton and Leibniz, independent of each other, solved these
problems. The theory that they invented in the process was Calculus.
In this first unit on differentiation, we propose to introduce the concept of a derivative which ,

is a basic tool of calculus. Leibniz was motivated directly by the first problem given
above - a problem which was of great significance fo? scientific applications;.He
- Newton (1642-1727)

recognised the derivative as the slope of the tangent to the curve at the given point. Newton,
on the other hand, anived at it by considefing some physical such as determination
of the velocity or the acceleration of a particle at a particular instant; He recognised the
. derivative as a rate of change of physical quantities. We shall now show that both these
considerations lead to the concept of derivative as the limit of a ratio. Of course, to
understand what a derivative is, you should have gonethrough Sec. 2 thoroughly.
We shall first differentiale some standard functions using the definition of the derivative.
The algebra of derivatives can then be effectively used to write down the derivatives of.
severalfunctions which are algebraic combinations of these functions. We shall also discuss
the' chain rule of differentiation which offers an unbelievable simplificatiori in the process of
finding derivatives. We shall also establish a relationship between differentiable functions
and continuous functions which you have studied in Unit 2.
I

Objectives
Leibniz (1646-1716)
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
*

d.raw a tangent to a given curve at a given paint

;O determine the rate of change of a given quantity with respect to another
obtain the derivatives of some simple functions such as xn, I x I, fi etc. from the first
principles
Ond the derivatives of functions which can be written as the sum, difference, product,
quotient of functions whose derivatives you already know
derive and use the chain rule of differentiation for writing down the derivatiGes of a
composite of functions
a discuss the relationship between continuity and derivability of a function. .51
Elements of Differential
Calculus 3.2 THE DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
Before defining a derivative, let us consider two problems in the next two subsections. The
'Eiist is to find the slope of a tangent and the second is to find the rate of change of a givcn
quantity in terms of another.

3.2.1 Slope of a Tangent

Let us consider the problem of finding a tangent to a given curve at a given point. But, what
do we mean by the tangent to a curve? Euclid (300 B.C.) thought of a tangent as a line
touching the curve at one point. This definition works fine in the case of a circle Fig.1 (a).
but it fails in the case of many other curves (see Fig. 1 (b).

Fig. 1 (b)

We may define a tangent to a curve at P to be a line which best approximates the curve near
P. But this definition is still too vague. Then how can we define a tangent precisely? The
concept of limit which you have studied in Unit 2 comes to our aid here.
Let P be a fixed point on the curve in Fig. 2 (a), and let Q be a nearby point on that curve.
The line through P and Q is called a secant. We define the tangent line at P to be the limiting
position (if it exists) of the secant PQ as Q moves towards P along the curve (Fig.2(b)).

It may not be always possible to find the lipiting position of the secant. As we shall see
later, there are curves which do not have tangents at some points. In fact, there are curves
which do not have a tangent at any point!
There is another question which we can ask here. Suppose we know that a tangent to a curve
exists at a point, how do we go about ktually drawing the tangent?
We have said earlier that the tangent at P is the limiting position of the secant PQ. With
The tangent of the angle which a reference to a system of coordinate axes OX and OY (Fig.3), we can also say that the
,line makes with the positive tangent at P is a line through P whose slope is the limiting value of the slope of PQ as Q
:direction of the x-axis is called the approaches P along the curve. The problem of determining the tangent is, then, the problem
slope of the line.
of finding the slope of the tangent line,
 Differentiation

Suppose the curve in Fig.3 is given by y = f(x). Let (x,f(x)) be the point P and let
Q (X+ ax, f(x + &;)) be any other point on the curve. The prefix 6 before a variable quantity
means a small change in the quantity. Thus, 6x means a small change in the variable x.
(Caution : 6x is one inseparable quantity. It is not 6 x x). The coordinates (x + 6x, f(x + 6x))
indicate that Q is near P. If 8 is the angle which PQ makes with the x-axis, then the slope of
PQ = tan 8 = QMPM
- f(x + a x ) - f ( x )
6x
The limiting value of tan 8,as Q tends to P, (and hence 6x + 0) then gives us the slope of
the tangent at P. Thus,

i
I
the slope of the tangent line = lim
h+ o
f(x + 6x) - f(x)
6x

~ h t indicates
s that the tangent line will exist only if the limit of
f(x + 6x) - f(x) . exists as
6x + 0. 6x

Remark 1 In Fig.3.we have taken 6x to be positive. But our discussion is valid even for
negative values of 6x.
Let us take an example .
Example 1 Suppose we want to determine the tangent to the parabola y = x2at the point
P(2,4).
In Fig.4 we give a portion of the parabola in the vicinity of P(2.4).
 $lem?nts of Differential Let Q (x, xZ)be any other point on the parahfa. The slope of
Cakulua
-
y coordinateof Q y coordirlateof P
Pa = x coordinate of Q - x coordinate of P

= -x2 4 -
' x-,2
The tangent at P (2,4) is the limiting position of PQ as x + 2. Therefore, the slope of the
I Equation of a lime passing through a
tangent at P is
-
point (x,,y,)and having slope m is
-
Y y, = m(x x,)
:52'
x2 - 4
7GT
I
(X +2)(k - 2)
= lim = lim (X+ 2 ) = 4
'x-2 x-2 X- a
The equation of the tangent line will be (y - 4) = 4 (x - 2).
Now, how do we draw this tangent? Just mark the point P'by moving a distance 1 unit from
P, parallel to the x-axis to the right, and then, moving a distance equal to 4 units parallel to
the y-axis upward. Join P to P'as shown in Fig.4. The coordinates of p'are (2 t 1 , 4 + 4).
The resulting line will touch the parabola at P, and the slope of the tangent at P = tan 8 = 4.
E 1) Find the equation of the tangent to the following curves at the given points.
a) y = llx at (2, 112)
b) = x 3 a t ( l , 1)

In this gubsection we have given a pkcise ddinition of a tangent to a curve. We have also
seen how to draw the tangent to a given curve at a given point. Now let us consider the
Second problem mentioded at the beginning of this section.

3.2.2 Rate of Change

Suppose a particle is moving along a straight line, h d covers a distance s in time t. The
distance covered depends on the time t. Q a t is s = f(t), a function of time. When the time
changes to t + 6t. the distance covered 'changes from f(t) = s to f(t + 6t) = s + 6s. Therefore
we oan say that 6s is the distance covered fi~the time St. We want to know the average
velocity of the particle during the time interval t to t + 6t (or t + t to t, according as t > 0 ot
t < O).,'
Total distance travelled
Now ,'h e average velkity =
-=me taken
Therefore, the average velocity. in the time interval [t, t + 6t] (or [t + t, t]).
 f(t+6t)-f(t) - @ + a s ) - s
- - = -6s where
(t+6t)-t (t+6t)-t 6t'

But this does not give us the velocity of the particle at a particular instant t. which is called
the instantaneous velocity. How do we calculate this?
To f h d the velocity at a particular time t, we proceed to find the average velocity in the time
interval [t, t + 6t] (or It + ,t t]) for smaller and smaller values of 6t.
I If 6t is very small. then t + 6t is very near t and so the average velocity during the time
i interval 5t would be very near the velocity at t. It seems reasonable, therefore, to define the
I instantaneous velocity at time t to be lim
f(t + 6t)- f(t)
I
&+o 6t
Thus, we have f ( t + 6t)- f(t)
v = lim

L where s = f(t) is the distance travelled in time t. Comparing this box with the one given at
the end of the last subsection, we find that the concepts of the slope of a tangent and the
instantaneous velocity are identical. Further, velocity can be considered as the rate of change
of distance with respect to .time. So, extending our definition of velocity to other rates of
change, we can saythat if a quantity y depends on x according to the Ale y = f(x), then the
rate ofchange of y with respect to x canbe defined as

Exiimple 2 Suppose we want to find the rate of change of the function f defined by
f(x) = x + 5, +X E R, at x = 0.
We shall first calculate the average rate of change off in an interval [O,6x].
, This average rate of change off in [O,6x] is

I - 6x+5-5.=&=]
1 6x 6x
I Hence, the rate of change off at 0, which is the limiting value of this average rate as
! 6x -+ 0,
f(O+ 6 x ) - f ( @
, = lim = lim 1 = 1.

Example 3 Suppose a particle is moving along a straight line and the distance s covered in
time 1 is given by the equation s = (1/2)t2.Let us draw the curve represented by the function s
= (1/2)tZ,measuring time along x-axis and,distance along y-axis. Let P and Q be points on
the curve which correspond to $ = 2 and t, = 4.
1
We shall show that the average velocity of the particle in the time interval [2,4] is the slope
of the line PQ and the velocity at time t, = 2 is the slope of the tangent to the curve at t, = 2.
b

The curve represented by s = (1/2)t2is a parahoh as shownin Fig. 5. P and Q correspond to

1 the values t, = 2 and t, = 4 oft. Now s, = ( I n ) tI2=.2 and S, = (112) $2 = 8. Therefore, the
coordinates of the points P and Q are C2,2) and (4, 8), respectively.
8- 2
Theslopeof PQ= -=6/2=3.
4- 2
Also, the distance travelled by the particle in the time (t, - t,) is s, - s, = 8 - 2 = 6.
Therefore, the average velocity of the particle in the time (t, - t,) is
distance travelled 26/2 = 3.
time taken 6t may be positive or negative
Hence, the slope of PQ is the same as the average velocity of the particle in the time
0, - t,).
2
Further, to calculate the slope of the tangent at P, we choose a point R(2 + 6t, (2 + 6t) )on
1

the curve, near P. Then the required slope is lim (slope of PR),
61 +O 55
Elements of Differential
Calculus

Fig. 5
i2 (2 + 6t)?- 2 6t(4 + 6t)
lim
8t-o
- = st-o
(2+6t)-2
lim
26t
=2

And, what is the velocity at t,? It is lim W t , which is again equal to 2. Thus ihe velocity at
8t -0
t, is the same as the slope of the tangent at P.
Remark 2 i) Example 3 is a particular case of the general result: If the path of a particle
moving according to s = f(t) is shown in the ts - plane and if P and Q are points on the path
which correspond to t = t, and t = t,, then the average velocity of the particle in time (t, - t,)
is given by the slope of PQ and the velocity at time t, is given by the slope of the tangent atP.
ii) Distance is always measured in units of length (metres, centimetres, feet) and so velocity
v really means v units of distance per unit of time. The slope of the tangent is a
dimensionless number, while the velocity has the dimension of lengthltime.
Now you can try some exercises on your own.

E E 2) A particle is thrown vertically upwards in the air. The distance it covers in 'lime t is
given by s(t) = ut - (112) gt2where u is the initial velocity'and g denotes thc i~ccelerationdue
to gravity. Find the velocity of the particle at any time t.

E E 3) Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to its radius when the radius
is 2 cm. (Hint: Express the area of a circle as a function of its radius first).
 Differentiation
E E 4) Find the average rate of change of the function f defined by f(x) = 2x2+ 1,+x E R in
the interval [l,1 h] and hence evaluate the rate of change of f at x = 1.

We have seen that the slope of a tangent and the rate of growth have the same basic concept
behind them. Won't it be better, then, to give a separate name to this basic concept, and
study it independently of its diverse applications? We give it the name "derivative".
Definition 1 Let y = f(x) be a real-valued function whose' domain is a subset D on R. Let
x E D. If

lim
f(x + 6x) f(x) - exists, then it is called the derivative off at x.
6x +o 6x
Now, if we write f(x + 6x) = y + 6y, then derivative off = lim 6yISx. Here 6y denotes the
change in y caused by a change 6x in x. , . &+O
The derivative is denoted variously by f(x), dyldx or Df. The value o f f (x) at a point x, is
denoted by f (xd. Thus, . Thc notation dy/& is due to Leibniz
and f(x) is due to Lagrange (1 736 -
f(xo + 6x)- f(x,) 1813).
f (x,)= lim
Sx+O 8x
f(xo + a x ) - . f v , )
If, in the expressinrl P(xo) = lim we write
6x-0 6~
xo+6x=x,weget6x=x-x,,and6x+Owx+x,.
f(x) - f(xo
f (x, )= lim
x+x
0
x-Xo
This is an altemapve expressiorr for the denvauve off at the point x,.
Remark 3 In this definition x and y are real numbers and are two dimensionlessnumbers.
If x and y are dir~tensionalquantities (lefigth, time, distance, velocity, area, volume) then the
derivative wll also'havea dimension. For convenience, we shall always treat x arlc y a.
dimensionless i'eal ntirnbqs. The appronrias dimensions can k addcd later.
Cautionz 'dy' and 'dx' in the e x p s i o n dyMx are not separate entities : :.rn.l, !: . , t ~

'd' fro& dyldx to get ylx. The noation only suggests the fact that the deril aei~r:1s otl~iil~,
;

as a ratio.
When f'(x) exists, we say that f is diflerentiale (or dkrivable) at x. When f is
differentiable at each wint'of i a domain D, then f is said to be a differentinble functiurr.
'E'he process of obtaining the derivative is called differentiation. The funchurl f kkuc;,
associates to each poifit x of D, the derivative f'(x) at x, is called the derived function off.
Tbus, the domain of the denved function is { x E D:fyx) exists).
The process of tinding the derivative of 8 function by actually calculating the limit of the
f(x +6x)-f(x)
ratio is called differentiating from first principle&
6x
As we shall see later, it is not always necessary to find a derivative from the first principles.
We shall develop certain rules which can k used to write down the derivatives of some
functions without actually finding the limit. Some such rules arecontained in the next
section.

3.3 DERIVATIVES OF SOME SIMPLE FUNCTIONS

Inthis section we shall find the derivatives of some simple functions like the constant
Elements of Differential function, [he power function and the absolute value function. We shall illustrate the m e t h ~ d
Calculus
of finding the derivative by the first principle method through some e x a p l e s . . .

Example 4 Let f : R + R be a constant function, that is, f(x) = c for all x E R, c being a
real number. We shall show that f is differentiable, and its derivative is zero.
f(x + 6 x ) - f ( x ) c - C.
Now, lim
SX+ o 6x
= lim
SX+O 6~
-
= lim 0 = 0
SX+O

Hence, a constant function is differentiable and its derivative is equal to zero at any point of
its domain.
The result of the above example can be seen more easily geometrically. The constant
function f(x) = c +x E R represents the straight line y = c which is parallel to the x - axis
(Fig.6). If we join any two points, P and Q, on it, the line PQ is parallel to the x - axis.
Hence, the angle made by PQ with the x - axis is zero. This means the slope of PQ is
tan 0 = 0.Since f'(x) is the limit of this slope as Q -+ P, we get f'(x) = 0 for all x in the
domain o f f .
4
Y

4 *
C

Example 5 We now show that, if n is a positive integer, then D(xn)= nxn-I.

In order to obtain D(xn), in case it exists, we have to deteirtine
(x+h)" -xn
lirn
h +O h
Notice that we have used the letter h (instead of our usual 6x) to denote the small change in
the variable x. We are, in fact, free to use any notation; but 6x and h are the more commonly,
used ones.
(X + h)n - xn
lirn
h+ 0 h

= lirn
( X" + nhxP-I + . . . . . . . + h n, --xn (by bionomial theorem)
h+O h

n-i
= nx

The result of the above example is very useful. We shall show later, that - d (xn) = nxn- '
'
dx
for all non-zero x E R even when n is a negative integer. The result also holds for all x >#O
if n is any non-zero real number. Of course, if n = 0,then xn = 1 +x and hence, Dxn = 0 for
all x E R. This means that the result is trivially true for n = 0.~ e v e h h e l e s sright
, now we
are in a position to prove this result for n = 112. That is,

-( &. = (+)x-"', and this we do in the following example.

dx
6 is not defined for x < 0 . Example 6 We shall show that the function f defined by f(x)=, -fi-,
x > 0 is differentiabbe.

We have, lim
f(x + h)- fix)
= lirn
m-fi
h+O h h+O h
 Differentiation

- lim (x + h ) -x
- h+o h ( ~ + hfi)

1 The result of our next example is of great significance. Recall that, in Sec. 2 we mentioned
i that there are functions that have no tangents at some point (or equivalently. have no
I derivative there). This example will illustrate this fact. Before giving the example we give
1

LI
some definitions.

~f (a) = lim .f(a ( a ) , if it exists, is called the right hand derivative of f(xj at
)-
f (a + h ) - f(a)
+
~,
h -rot h
x = a and is, written as Rf'(a). Likewise. Lf'(a) = lirn is called the left
I h+O- h
hand derivative of f(x) at x = a and is written as L f (a). I f f (a) exists, we must have
Rf(a) = L f (a) = f (a) (See Unit 2, Theorem 4).
Example 7 The function f : R + R defined by f(x) = I x I is not derivable at x = 0 but is
derivable at every other point of its domain.

Fig. 7

Fig. 7 shows the graph of this function.

To prove that the given function is not derivable at x = 0,we have to show that

lim 10 + I - 101 does not exist. In fact as we shall see, Rf(0) and Lfl(0) both exiht. but
ti+o h
they are not equal.
10 + I1
Xow Rf '(0)= lirn -
tl-rOt h

Therefore. RtY(O) = 1 # -1 = Lfl(0). Hence l'(0) does not e u \ t Wc shali now \how that the
function is derivable at every other point.
First, let x > 0. Choose h so that I 1 I < x. This will ensure that x + h > 0 whether h > O or
h i0.Now,

lim
f(x i- h ) - f ( x ) - lim + h I - 1x1 IX
tl +() h b; 0 h
x+h-x
= lim
h+Q h
= lim h/h = I
I1 -+ 0
Thus f is derivable at x , and f ( x ) = 1 for all x > 0.
You can now complete the solution by solving E 5 ) .
I Elements of Dlffcrcntlel
Calculus E E 5 ) Show that y = I x I is derivable arld f ( x ) = -1 at all points x < 0.

E E 6) Show that each of the following functions is derivable at x = 2. Find f'(2) in each case.
a) f : R + R given by f(x) = x
b) f :R +R given by f(x) = ax + b where a and b are fixed real numbers.

I
1

j
I
I
1

E E 7) Find dyJdx, w h v e r it exista. for each bf tho following functions:

@)ymrs b ) y - ) r + I 1 C ) ~ = ~ ~ X ~ - ~
r
1
I
So far we have obtained derivatives of certain functions by differentiating from the first
f(x + 6x)- f ( x )
principles. That is, each time we have calculated lim
SX+O 6x -
But the process of taking limits is not an easy operation. It can become a very lengthy and
complicated affair. In the next section we shall see how to simplify the process of
differentiation for some functions.

3.4 ALGEBRA OF DERIVATIVES

Consider the function f(x) 2x3

x4-1
' 3xf If we try to find the derivative of this function
from the first principles, we will have to do lengthy, complicated calculations. However, a.
close look at this function reveals that it is composed of several functions: constant
functions like 2 , 3 and - I. and power functions like x3, x2 and x4. We already know the
derivativ~sof these functions. Can we use this knowledge to find the derivative of f(x)? In
this section we shall state and prove some theorems which help us do just that.

3.4.1. Derivative o f a Scaiar hlultiple of a Funstion

Lct i': R -+ R be a differentiable func:ion and let c E R. 'Then, consider the function
\, ci'i
, ., ". 9 '7 c;!il !hi> f ~:i'+o:! B : i ~ , ~ ~m\i!tip;e
l;l~. o f f by c (see Unit 1). The derivative of y
w i l j l rt.<pt,5,,,. ., ..

= cf'(x)
Tlius. we h,n.e jubt proved the following tneorcrn.

Theorem I If f is a differentiable function and c 6 R then c i is differentiable and

(cf)'!x) = cff(u).
Example 8 To differentiate y = 7 1 x I we apply the scalar multiple rule obtained in Theorem 1
at all points where the function I x I is differentiable and get

But. in view of Exain@lc7, when x = 0, -d (I x I) does not exist. When x 10. d (I x I) = 1

dx dx
-
andwhenxc,@, (IxO=-1.
dx
d d
Therefore, -;i;-(71x1)=7-i:xl)
dx
7when x > 0
- 7 when x < 0
-
and d (7 1x1) does not exist at x = 0.
dx
Note: In example 8 we have used the fact that iff '(x) does not exist, at a point then fcf)'(x)
also does not exist at that point.
Try the following exercise cow.
Elements of Differential
Calculus E E 8) Differentiate the following, using Theorem 1.
a> (5/3>x3 b) 84;

3.4t2 Derivative of the Sum of Two Functions

Let f and g be differentiable functions from R to R. Let us examine whether f + g, the sum
of the functions f and g, is differentiable. Now,
( f + g ) ( x + h ) - (f + g)(x)
lim
h+O h
(f(x + h ) + g(x + h ) - f ( x ) - g ( x ) }
= lim

h+O{
lim
= h+o

f(x
f(x + h ) - f ( x )
h

+ h) - f(x)
h

+
g(x + h ) - g ( x ) .
h

g(x + h ) - g ( x )
?
= lim t lim -
h +O h h+O h

Thus, we htve proved the following

Theorem 2 The sum of two differentiable functions f and g is a differentiable function and
(f + g)' (x) = f'(x) + g'(x) -tf- x E R.
The above result can be easily extended to a finite sum, that is,

where f, , ........ , fn are differentiable functions.

Remark 4 From Theorems 1 and 2 it follows that i f f and g are differentiable functions, then
f - g is also a differentiable function (since f - g = f + ( - g)), and (f - g)'(x) = ff(x) - gf(x).
Let us see how Theorem 2 is useful in the following example.
Example 9 To differentiate 3x2+ 41x- 9, we apply Theorem 2, and get,

2
d
Now. -(3x2) = 3dX- (in view of the theorem)
dx dx

d
and -( - 9 ) = O(see Example 4).
dx
d
Thus, -(3x2 + 41x - 9) = 6x + 41
dx
You are now in a position to solve this exercise.
E E 9) Differentiate the following: Differentiation

a) 5x3+ 2
b) a,+a,x + a 2 x 2 +....... + anxn,wherea, E R f o r i = 1, 2, ......., n.

- -

3.4.3 Derivative of the Product of Two Functions

Let f and g be two differentiable functions on R. We want to find out whether their product
fg is also differentiable.
fg(x + h ) - f g ( x )
Now, lim
h -40 h
f(x f h)g(x + h ) - f(x)g(x)
= lim
h +0 h
{ f ( x + h ) - f ( x ) } g ( x + h ) + {g(x + h ) - g ( x ) } f ( x ) )
= lim
h -+O h
(We have added and subtracted f(x) g(x + h))

- lim
h-40
{ f(x+h)-f(x) '
g(x+h))+lim h - o{
g(x + h ) - g ( x )
f (x ))
f(x + h ) - f ( x )
= lim l i m g ( x + h ) + l i m g (x + h) - g ( x ) lim ( x )
h-+O h h -+\0 h-+o h h -+o

(Ref. Unit 2, Theorem 3)

= f'W g(x) + g'W f(x)
Thus, we get the following:
Theorem 3 The product of two differentiable functions is again a differentiable function and
its derivative at any point x is given by the formula.
(fg)'(x) = f'(x) g(x) + f(x) g'(x)
We can extend this result to the product of three differentiable functions. This gives us
(fgh)'(x) = f'(x)g(x)h(x) + f(x)g'(x)h(x) + f(x)g(x)h'(x)
You see, you have to differentiate only F e function at a time. This respllt can also be
extended to the product of any finite number of differentiable functions. Thus, iff,, ... f,, are
differentiable functions, then,
(f ,f2. ... fn)'(x) = f ,'(x)f2(x) ... fn(x) + f ,(x)fi (x)f,(x) ... fn(x)+ ... + f ,(x)f2(x) ... .fnP(x).
Theorem 3 is very useful in simplifying calculations, as you can see in the following
example.
Example 10 To differentiate f(x) = x2(x + 4). we take g(x) = x2, h(x) = x + 4. We have,
f(x) = x2(x + 4) = g(x)h(x)
d
Now, gt(x) =- (x2) = 2x and h t ( x ) - = L (x + 4) =1
dx dx
 Thus, f'(x) = g'(x)h(x) + h'(x)g(x)
= 2X(x + 4) + 1 x x2

Remnrk 5 You could also have differentiated x2(x + 4) without using Theorem 3, as
follows:
x2(x+ 4) = x3+ 4x2
Therefore, -& -
d (x2(x + 4) = d (x3 + 4x2)
dx

This shows that the same function can be differentiated by using different methods. You
may use any method that you find convenient. This observation should also help you to
check the correctness of your resuit. (We assume that you would not make the same mistake
while using two different methods!)
E E 10) Using Theorem 3, differentiate the following functions. Also, differentiate these
functions without using Theorem 3, and compare the results.
a)x fi b) ( x +
~ 2~~+ 512 c)(x+ l ) ( x + 2 ) ( ~ + 3 )

3.4.4 Derivative of the Quotient of Two Functions

Let 0 = flg, where f and g are differentiable functions on R, and g(x) # 0 for any x. Then,
@(x+ h)-- @(X)= lim (f/gXx + h ) - ( f / g ) ( x )
lim
h -+o h h -0 h
f(x+h) f(x)]
= lim -
g(x+h) g(x)
g(x) f (x + h) - f(x) g(x +h)
= lim
h -+o hg(x) g ( x + h )
f(x + h ) - f(x) g(x+ h)- g(x)
gix) h - f(x) h
= lim
h -0 g(x + h) g(x)
 (by adding and subtracting f(x)g(x) from the nutfierator)
f(x + h ) - f(x) -
- h+u i
lim g ( x )
h
- f(x)
g(x + h) &!(XI

lim gdx 4 h) ,- g ( x )
h 1-
h+O

- iim g (X + h) hlim g (X )
h -0 4 0

Thus, we get the following.

Theorem 4 The quotient f/g of two differentiable functions f and g such that g(x) # 0. for
any x in its domain, is again a differentiable function and its derivative at any point x is
given by the following formula :

This can also be written as

numerator -

(denominator) (derivative of numerator ) - (numerator) (derivative of denominator)

(denominator)*
We will obtain an important corollary to Theorem 4 now.
Corollary 1If g is a function such that g(x) # 0 for any x in its domain, then

Proof :In the result of Theorem 4, take f to be the constant function 1. Then f'(x) = 0 for
all x.
Therefore,

Example 11We shall now show that- d (x") = rixn-', where n is a negative integer and
dx
x # 0.We have already proved this result for a positive integer n in Example 5.
Consider the function f : R\ { 0)- R given by f(x) = x", where m E N. Then
f(x) = l/xmwx E R. Thus, f = l/g, where g(x) = xmfor all x E R,x # 0.g is a differentiable
function and g(x) # 0 if x # 0.So, except at x = 0,we find that
- g ' (XI
f '(x)= (from Corollary 1)
(~(~11
--. - mxm-' (g ' (X) = mx rn -' by using Example 5)
(xmf
-
-
- mxm-'
= - mx-rn-l
x2
Denoting -m by n, we get f(x) = xn, and f'(x) = nxn- I .
Example 12 Let us differentiate the function f given by f(x) = ( x - ~+. 2) / (x2+ 2x)
We can write f as the quotient g/h where g(x) = ( x - ~+ 2) and h(x) = xZ+ 2x.
d d
NOW, g.(~)= - - ( x - ~ ) + - - ( ~ ) = - ~ x - ~ + o = L ~
dx dx x3
Also hl(x) = 2x + 2.
Elements of Differential
Calculus Therefore, f' (X) = h(x)g' (x )- g tx )h' (x)
(h (x ))2

E E 11) Differentiate
2x+ 1 - 1
a) - b) where a, b, c, d are fixed real numbers
x +5 a+bx + cx2 + d B

E E 12) Obtain the derivative of l/f(x) by differentiating from first principles, assuming that
f(x) # 0 for any x.
 Differentiation

2 + 5x + 7x-I
E E .13) Differentiate f(x) = C by three different methods.

3.4.5 The Chain Rule of Differentiation

The chain rule of differentiation is a rule for differentiating a composite of functio. ..,
(Ref. Unit I). It is a remarkable rule which helps us to differentiate complicated functions in
an easy and elegant way.
We establish the rule in the following theorem.
Theorem 5 Let y = g(u) and u = f(x). If both dy/du and du/dx exist, then dy/dx exists and is
dy = -
given by - dy x -
du
dx du dx
Proof: We first note that y = g(u) =gf(x) = (gof) (x), so that y is the composite function gof.
We are given that y, regarded as a function of u, is differentiable. We want to prove that y,
regarded as a function of x, is also differentiable. To do this we must show.that lirn 6y/6x
b+O
exists, where 6y is the change in the variable y corresponding to a change 6x in the variable
x. Now. 6u. the change in the value of u corresponding to a change 6x in the value ofx
,is..
giGn by 6u = f(x + 6x) - f(x).

We have lim 6u = lirn ( $ 6 ~ )

&+O &+O
6u
= lirn - x lim 6 x
&+O 6x &-0

This means that 6u + 0 as 6x + 0

We assume howgver that 6u # 0.
Elements of Differential
Calculus This implies that lirn -
8-0 SU 6u+O 8u
-
6 Y = lirn SY exists and is equal to -
dy
du

. 6~ =dy and lirn --

hm -
Su - du
-
6n-10 6~ du ‘5.40SX dx
Hence, we get
SY = lirn -
lirn -
&-+O~X
sy . lim SU
SX+O~U 6x-O~X
-

Hence dy/dx exists and is equal to dy/du x du/dx.

You may find it more convenient to remember and use the rule in the following form:
If h(x) = g(f(x) ) is the composite of two differentiablefunctions g and f, then h is
differentiable and h'(x) = g'(f(x))f'(x).
To clarify this rule let us look at the following example
Example 19 Here we shall differentiate y = (2x + with respect to x.
Letu=2x+ l . T h e n y = ( 2 ~ + 1 ) ~ = u ~ .
Now y is a differentiable function of u and u is a differentiable function of x. dy/du = 3u2
-
and du/dx = 2. Hence we can use the chain rule to get dy = -
dx
dy . -
du dx
du
2
= 3 u 2 . 2 = 6u2 =6(2x + 1).
You might be thinking that there was really no necessity of using the chain rule here. We
could simply expand (2x + and then write the derivative. But the situation i s q t always
ai simple as in this example. You would appreciate the power of the chain rule after using it
in the next example.
Example 14 To differentiate (x3+ 2x2- 1)"'.
let y = (x3+ 2x2- l)lm and let u = (x3+ 2x2- 1). Then y = uIm
Since dy/du and du/dx both exist, and dyfdu = 100UW and du/dx = 3x2+ 4x, therefore, by
chain rule, dy/dx = dy/du. du/dx.
= 1 0 0 ~ 1(3x2
~~+ . 4x)
99
= 1 o 0 ( ~+ ~2 ~ -
2 1) ( 3 ~ 2+ 4 ~ )
Can you really attempt to solve the above example without using the chain rule? Don't you
think the rule has simplified matters a lot for you?
Instead of introducing u explicitly each time while applying the'chain rule, after a little
practice you would find it more convenient to do away with u and arrange the working in the
above example as follows:

Our next example illustrates that this rule can be extended to three functions.
Example 15 To differentiate ((5x + 2)2+314,we write y = {(Sx+ 2)2+ 314,u = (5x + 2)2 + 3
andv=5x+2
Then y = u4 and u = vZ+ 3. That.is, y is a function of u, u is a function of v, and v is function
of x. By extending the chain rule, we get

This gives,
d y / d x = 4 u 3 . 2 v . 5 = 4 0 u3 v
 This example illustrates that there may be situations in which we may go on using chain rule
for a function of a function of a function ..., and so on. This perhaps justifies the name
'chain' rule. Thus, if g, . . . g,, and h are functions such that h = (g,og,o . . . ogn)(x), then

h'(x)= g;(g,o Ogn(x)) g;(g30 ... Og") (x)...g;-,(g,)(x). gj,(x)

E E 14) Find dyldx for each of the followtng using the chain rule:

3.5 CONTINUITY VERSUS DERIVABILITY

We end this unit with the relationship of differentiability with continuity, which we have
studied in Unit 2. In Sec. 3 of Unit 2 we proved that the function y = I x I is continuous
1
t f x E R. We have also proved that this function is derivable at every point except at x = 0 in
Example 7. This means that the function y=l x I is continuous at x = 0, but is not derivable at
that point. Thus, this shows that a function can be continuous at a point without being
derivable at that point. However, we will now prove that if a function is derivable at a point,
then it must be continuous at that point; or derivability continuity.
Recall that a function f is said to be continuous at a point xo if lim f(x) = f(xo) .
x-+ Xo

Tbeorem 6 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. Iff is derivable at a point x, E I,

then it is continuous at x,.
Root: f ( x ) - f(xO)
If x #xothen .we may write f(x) - f(xo) = ( x -x0)
- ,o
f(x) - f(xo)
Since f is derivable at x , exists and equals f'(%).
- xo
Elemer?tsof DilPerenlial Thus, taking limits as x + x,, we have,
Calculus
lim [f (x ) - f (xo)]
x--lX
0

f ( x ) - f(xo)
= lim
X+XO
. x-xo
lim ( X - xO)
x+xo

Therefore, lim f (x ) - lim f (xo) = 0

X+ Xo x +wo

+ X , ~ f (xo) = f (xo)
That is, x+limXo f(x ) = X lim

Consequently, f is contiquous at x,.

As we have seen, the fuhction y = I x I is continuous but not derivable at only one point,
x = 0.But there are sofne continuous functions which are not derivable at infinitely many
points. For instance, lbok at Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

It shows the graph of a continuous function which is not derivable at infinitely many points.
Can you mark those infinitely many points at which this function is not derivable? You can
take your hint from the graph of the function y = I x I .
The situation is, in fact, much worse. There are functions which are continuous everywhere
but differentiable nowhere. The discovery came as a surprise to the nineteenth century
mathematicians who believed, till then, that if a function is so bad that it is not derivable at
any point, then it can't be so good that it is continuous at every point. The first such function
was put forth by Weierstrass (although he is said to have attributedw
the discovery to
Riemann) in 1812. He showed that the function f given by f(x) =C bn cos (an x x ) ,
n =O
where a is an odd integer and b is a positive constant between 0 and 1 such that
ab > 1 + 3x12, is a function which is continuous everywhere, but derivable nowhere. It will
not be possible for us to prove this assertion at this stage.
Sometimes we use Theorem 6 to prove that a g ~ er, b function is continuous at a given point.

We prove that it$ derivative exists at that point. By Theorem 6 then, the continuity
automatically follows.
50
E E 15) Is the function f : [0,1] + R :f(x) = (2x + 3) continuous at x = 0. l ?
9x+ 2
3.6 SUMMARY

We conclude this unit by summarising what we have covered in it.

1 For any function y = f(x)
f(x + a x ) - f(x)
lim - (if it exists) is called the derivative off at x, denoted by ff(x).
6x40 6x
The function f' is the derived function. The derivative ff(x) is the slope of the tangent to
the curve y = f(x) at the point (x, y). The derivative also gives the rate of change of the
function with respect to the independent variable.
2 The derivative of a constant function is 0.

where n is any integer (and x # 0 if n c 0).

3 The function y = I x I is derivable at every point except at x = 0.

4 (cf)' = cf', c a constant.
(f +g)'= f' + g'
(f-g)'=ff-g'
(fg)' = fg' + gf'
g' f - f'g
(flg )' =
g2
(gof)' = g'(f).ff
5 Every derivable function is contipluous. The converse is not true, that is, there exist
functions which are continuous but not differentiakle.

3.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

= - 114. Equation : (y - 112) = ( - 114) (x - 2)

orx+4y=4
dyI
b)dxx=l
=3. Equation : (y - 1) = 3(x - 1)

E 3) area = A = rc$ . -
E 4) average rate of change off in [I, 1 + h] =

f(1 + h ) - f(1)
rate of change off at x = 1 = lim -
where h may be positive or negati
h-+O h
= lim [ 4 + 2 h ) = 4
h3 0
Elements of Differential E 5) If x < 0, choose 0 < h < I x I then x-+ h < 0 and
Calculus
Ix+hI-lxI - - ( x + h ) - ( - X ) -h
lirn . - =- =- 1
h +o h h h
Thus f'(x) = -I if x < 0. f is derivable f o x~c 0.

E 6) a) f' (2)= lim

h+O
.f ( 2 + hh) - f(2)
2+h-2=1
h
= lim
h+O
a(2+h)+b-(ax2+b)
b) f' (2) = lim
h+O

= lim
. ah
-= a .
h+O h

E7) a) -dy
= lim (X + h $ - x 3 = lirn (3x2 + 3xh + h2) = 3x2
dx h+O h h+O

b) If x > -1, x + 1 > 0,choose h > 0 s.t. h < 1.x + 1 1.

Ix + h + 11-lx'+ 11
t h e n x + h + 1 >Oand lirn
h+O h
(X + h ' + 1 ) - ( X + 1 )
= lirn = 1.
h+O h
I x + h + 11-lx+ 11
I f x < - 1, lirn =- 1.
h +O h
Thus dyldx exists when x > - 1 01 when x < -1. It does not exist when x = - 4
since R f (-1) = 1 and Lf (-I)= -1.

9 + h) +4 2 +~1
Cl
* = l i m ~ z ( ' x + h) + I
h+O h
- J 2 x + l x J2(x
d2(;(+
+I
h)+l+ J2*+ 1
- lim 2 1
J2(x + h ) , + i +J 2 r 1= ~ . i
 1 f ( x ) - f(x + h )
= lim -
h+o h f(x)f(x + h)
f ( x ) - f(x + h )
-
-.
f ( x ) lim f(x
h4 0
+ h)

E 13) a) f(x) =2xU5 + 5 ~ - 7xd ~ +

ff(x) = - 1 0 x 4 - OX-5 - 4 2 ~ - 7
2 (5 - 7 ) (2 + 5 x
~ - -~5x4 + 7x-I)
b) f' ( x ) = 10
X
-10
=x ( - ~ O X ~ - ~ ~ X ~ - I O X ~ )
= - 20x-' - -
c) f(x) = x-"2 + 5x + 7x-')
= -20~-5 - 4 2 ~ - 7- 1 0 ~ 4
E 14) a) u = 1 + 5x + 7x2, y = 5/u
- 25 - 7 0 ~

b) u = 2x + 3, y = u2/(1 + u3)

c) u = 9 x + S s v = u 3 + u - : y = v 7
dy/dx = 7v6 (3u2 - 3u4) x 9
= 63 [(9x + 5)3 + (9x + 5)-'I6 [3(9x + 5)2 -

exists at x = 0.1. Hence the function is continuous at x

Elements of Differential
Calculus
UNIT 4, DERIVATIVES OF
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Some Useful Limits
Derivatives of Sin x and Cos x
Derivatives of other Trigonometric Functions
4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
The Inverse Function Theorem
4.4 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Derivatives of Sin-' x and Cos-' x
Derivatives of Sec-' x and Cosec-' x
4.5 Use of Transformations
4.6 Summary
4.7 Solutions and Answers

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 3 we have introduced the concept of derivatives. We have also talked about the
algebra of derivatives and the chain rule which help us in calculating the derivatives of some
complex functions. This unit will take you a step further in your study of differential
c~lculus.
h this unit we shall first find the derivatives of standard trigonometric functions. We shall
then go on to study the inverse function theorem and its applications in finding the
derivatives of inverses of some standard functions. Finally, we shall see how the use of
transformations can simplify the problem of differentiating some functions.

Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to:
find the derivatives of trigonometric functions
state and prove the inverse function theorem
use the inverse function theorem to find the derivatives of inverse trigonometric~functions
use suitable transformations to differentiate given functions.

4.2 DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In this section we shall calculate the derivatives of the six trigonometric functions: sinx,
cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x and cosec x. You already know that these six functions are related
to each other. For example, we have:
i) sin2x + cos2x = 1 ii) tan x = sin x/cos x, and many more identities which express the
relationships between these functions. As you will soon see, our job of finding the
derivatives of all trigonometric functions becomes a lot easier because of these identities.
But let us first evaluate some important limits which will prove to be very useful later.

4.2.1 Some Useful Limits

In the next subsection we shall come across lim
t
t+O
*
and lim sin t. So let's try to calculate
t -0
these. For this, we first assume that 0 < t < 6 2 and consider a circle with radius 1 unit, given
by xZ+ y2 =1 as shown in Fig. 1.
The line OT passes through the origin and has slope =tan t. Thwefore, we can write its
equation as y = x tan t. This means that the y-coordinate of the p0int.T is tan t, since its
u-mnrdinate i~ 1
 Derivatives of Trigonometric
Fullc:ic,ns

Fi.1
From the figure we can see that
area of AOPA < area of sector OPA < area of AOTA . . . . . ( 1 ) If the sectorial angle is 0, the area of
1 I
5
Now, the area of A0PA = X 1 x PB = - sin t,
2
a sector of a circle of radius r is
(1/2)P0
1 1
The area of sector OPA = 2 x 1 x t = -
2 t'
The at; of oTA = x 1 x tant t
Thus, inequality (I) can be written as:
sint < t < tan t . . . . . (2)
sin t > 0, therefore, from the left-hand inequality in (2) we get
Since 0 < t < 1~12,
I O < s i n t < t . . . . . (3)
I
Now, if -1~12< t < 0, then 0 < -t .:z/2, and applying (3) to - t, 0 < sin ( - t) < - t or
< t < 0, then t < sin t < 0. . .(4)
0 < - sin t < -t since sin(-t) = -sin t. This means that if - 1~12

1 - I I I I I I
I I
0 sin t t ~ / 2 -XI2 t sin t 0

In Fig. 2(a) and (b) you can see the representation of (3) and (4), respectively.
1! We can combine (3) and (4) and write
Here we are using various.results
- I t I < s i n t < I t I f o r - 1 ~ / 2 < t < 1 ~ / 2t #, 0 . about the order relation from Unit 1
You have seen in Unit 2 that lirn I t I = 0. From this we can also say that lirn - I t I = 0.
t -10 r-0
Now applying the sandwich theorem (Theorem 2 of Unit 2) to the functions - I t I, sin t
and I t I,
we get that lirn sint = 0
v0
We shail use this result to calculate lim cost. As you know, cost = 1 - 2 sin2t/2. This means
1-10
We can prove that lirn sin2t/2 = by
lirn cost = lirn (1 - 2 sin2 t/2) t+O
1-10 t+ 0 using Theorem 3 of Unit 2 and by
I noting that t 4 0-t/2 + 0
= I - 2 lirn sin2 t/2
i =1 4.
t-to

Thw, we get lirn Cost = 1.

1-0

Now, let's get back to inequality (2) : sint < t < tant for 0 < t< x/2. Since 0 < t < x/2, sint :O,
"..,I+L-..-C-..- "c*-.. ,I:-.:,I:-
L.
,.. -:-* (91-
.,-.I ---.
Elements of Diflerentlal 1 < tlsint < llcost
Calculus
orcost<sint/t< 1 ... (5),O<t<n/2
Now, since sin(- t) = - sint, we see that sin (- t)/ (- t) = sintlt. This, alongwith the result
COS(-t) = cost, shows that the inequality (5) holds even when - nL? < t < 0.Thus,
cost<sint/t< I, - n / 2 < t < d 2 , t#O

.
Now, let us apply the sandwich theorem to the functions cost, sinttt and 1, and take the
limits as t +0.This give us:
lim sin t/t = 1
t +o
Example 1. Suppose we want to find out
sin 3x
lim -y- and lim
t+o t-0
-
sin 5x
SIR 7x
sin 3x.
Let us first calculate lim .
t+ 0
-sin3x x3.1fwe
For this we shall write sin3x - -
X 3x
replace 3x by t in the right hand side, and take the limit as x + 0, we find that t = 3x also
tends to zero, and lirn
x+O
-
sin 3x
- lim -sin t
x3
t - O t

sin t
= 3 lirn
t+O
-
t
(See Theorem 3 of Unit 2)
=3

X+O
-
To calculate lirn sin 5 x we start by writing
sin 7x
sin 5x sin 5x 7x 5
lirn -. = lim
x + ~ s ~ n 7 xX + O
-
5x
x -x
sm7x 7
-
=- 5 lim -.sin 5x 7x
lim 7----
7x+0 5x X + O s1n7x

7
f
= 2 since lim 7 x =
X+O slni
- 1
-
= 1 by Theorem 3 of Unit 2
Iirn (sin7xi-i~)

sin t
Remark 1 In lim = 1 or lim cost = 1, the angle t is measured in radians. If in a
t+O t +o
particular problem, the angles are measured in degrees, we have to first convert these Into
radians before using these formulas. Thus,

--
lim sin to lim -sin -- (nt/l80) = - lim . sin (rct/l80) -
-. -
0 t t+O t 180 t + O ~tn80 180
See if you can solve this exercise now.
E E 1)Provethata) l i m c o s ( a + x ) = c o s a
x +O
b) lim sin (a + x ) = sin a
x +o

4.2.2 Derivatives of Sin x and Cos x

We shail now find out the derivative of iinx from the first principles. If y = f(x) = sin x, then
by definition
 -dy- - lim sin (x + h) - sin x Derivatives of Trigonometric
Functions
.
dx h+O h
2 sin(h/2) cos (X+ h/2)
= lirn
h+O h Remember the formula sinA - sin B
{A-B) (A+B)
= 2sin - 2
cos -7
2

Thus, we get
d (sin x) = cos x
-
I dx
I Now, let us consider the function y= f(x) = cos x and find its derivative. In this case,

-
dy, = lim
dx h+O
cos(x + h ) - c o s x
h
-2 sin (h/2) sin (x.+ h/2)
- = lim
h+O h
= -1im
h+o
''"0 lim
h/2 h-o
sin (x + h/2)
= - sin x
Thus, we have shown that
d
-(wsx)'=-sinx
dx
d
Actually, having first calculated (sin x ) ,we could have found out the derivative of cos x
by using the formula:
cos x = sin (x + a).
This gives us,
-
. d (COS
dx
d (sin (x + ~ 1 2 ) )
X )= -
dx
,& (sin (x
dx
+ a ) ) = cos (x + a )
can be proved by u s i q the chain
= cos (X + ~ / 2 ) =- sin x rule.

II E
In the next subsection we shall find the derivatives of the other four trigonometric functions
by using similar formulas. But before that it is time to do some exercises.
E 2) Find the derivatives of the following:
a) sid? x bJ cosZx c) 5sin7 x sin3x d) x3cos 9x
I e) cos (sin x).
Elements of Differential 4.2.3 Derivatives of other Trigonometric Functions
Calculus
We shall now find the derivatives of i) tan x ii) cct x iii) sec x iv) cosec x.

i) Suppose y = f(x) = tan x. We know that tan x =

sin x
-
COS X

dy = d
Hence, -
dx dx
-
cos x d/dx (sin x ) - sin x d/dx (cqs x )
-
-

0 s2
-d
dx
(u/v) =
vdu /dx - u
v . ~
dv /dx
2
- ,COS x + sin x
2
-
--
X

1
cos2 x GO? x
=sec2 x
ii) Now, suppose y = f(x) = cot x. Since cot x -- l/tan x, we get

tan x d/dx (1 2 - 1 d/dx (tan x)

-- ---
2
till1 X
2
-_
_ - sec
_ _ x_-- - C O W2 X
tan2 x
iii) Now, let y = f(x) = sec x. Since we know that sec x = l/cos x, proceeding as in ~ i ) ,wt
get
sin x

If you have followed i), ii) and iii) above, you should not have any difficulty in finding the
derivative of cosec x by using cosec x = l/sin x.

Let us summarise our results.

Table 1

Function Derivative '1

sin x COS X

COS X

tan x
- sin x 1
cot x - c0secLX
sec x sec x tan x
cosec r; - cosec x cot x
Remark 2 Here again we note that the angle is measured in radians. Thus,
d
- (sin xq = - - sin
dx
d
dx ( ---
:8:,)
71
= ll(o cos (s) =-
RX
180 cos x0
We shall now see how we can use these results to find the derivatives of some more
complicated functions. The chain rule and the algebra of derivatives with which you must
have become quite familiar by now, will come in handy again.
Example 2 Let us differentiate i) sec3 x ii) ser: x tan x + cot x
i) Let y = sec3 x. If we write u = sec x, we get y = u3. Thus,

= 3 set:3 x tan x
ii) If y = sec x tan x + cot x, then,
- -dy- -- d
(secx t a n x ) + - ( c o t x )
dx c'x dx
d d
=S=x - (tan x ) + tan x - (secx) - cose2 x
-

dx dx
= secx (se2 x + tan2 x ) - cosec2 x
Remark 3 sin x, cos x, sec x ,cosec x are periodic functions with period 2n.Their
derivatives are also periodic with period 2n.tan x and cot x are periodic with period n. Their
derivatives are also periodic with period n.
We have been considering variables which are dimensionless. Actually, in practice, we may
have to consider variables having dimensions of mass, length, time etc.., and we have to be
careful in interpreting their derivatives. Thus, we may be given that the distance x travelled
by a particle in time t is x = a cos bt. Here, since bt is dimensionless (being an angle), b
must have the dimensior, . Similarly, xla = cos bt has to be dimensionless. Tbis means
T
that a must have the same dimension as x. That is dimension of a is L.
Now dxldt = - ab sin bt has the dimension of ab =L x 1/T = L/T, which is not unexpected,
since dx/dt is nothing but the velocity of that particle.
See if you can do these exercises now.
E 4) Find the derivatrres of:
a) cdsec 2x b) cot x t C)Scot 9x
Elements of Difleryttlal
Calcplllll, 4.3 DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS
We have seen in Unit 1 that the graphs of a function and its inverse are very closely related
to each other. If we are given the graph of a function, we have only to take its reflection in
the line y = x, to obtain the graph of its inverse. In this section we shall establish a relation
between the derivatives of a function and its inverie.

'4.3.1 The Inverse Function Theorem

Let us take two functions f and g, which are inverses of each other. We have already seenjn
Unit 1 that in this case, gof(x) = g(f(x)) = x, for all x for which f is defined,
fog(y) = f(g(y)) = y for all y for which g is defined. Now, suppose that both f and g are
differentiable. Then, by applying the Chain rule to differentiate g(f(x)) = x, we get
gf(f(x)).f'(x) = 1 or g'(y).fl(x) = 1, where y = f(x).
This means that if ff(x) # 0, we can write gf(y) = l/ff(x). So we have been able to find some
relation between the derivatives of these inverse functions. Let us state our results more
precisely.
Theorem 1(The Inverse Function Theorem)
Let f be differentiable and strictly monotonic on an intervd I. If ff(x)# 0 at a certain x in I,
then f-I is differentiable at y = f(x) and
The strict monotonicity cond~tion
in this theorem implies that f is
one-one and thus ensures the
Thus, we have the inverse function rule:
existence off '
The derivative of the inverse functia~is the reciprocal of the derivative of the given
function.
Sobn we shall see that this rule is very useful if we want to find the derivative of a function
when the derivative of its inverse function is already known. This will become clear when
we consider the derivatives of the inverses of some standard functions. But first, let us use
this rule to find the derivative of f(i) = xr, where r is a rational number. In Unit 3 we have
d
already proved that - (xh)= nxn-' when n is an integer. We shall use this fact in proving
dx
Ehe general case.
Theorem 2 If y = f(x) = x: where r is a rational number for which xr and x '-'are both
defined, then -d (xr) = rxrT'
dx
x' may not be always defined.For Proof: Let us first consider the case when r = l/q,q being any non-zero integer. In this case,
-
example, ifx = 1 and r = lR, y = f(x) = x1/q.Its inverse function g wilrbe given by x = g(y) = yq. This means
xr= fi"isnotdefinedinR.

-
Thus, by thg inverse function rule, we get
dy
-='-= 1 1
dx dx/dy, q-1
9Y

SOfar, we have seen that the theorem is true when r is of the fonn l/q, where q is an integer.
Now, having proved this, let us take the general case when r = plq, p, q E Z(q is, of course,
non-zero). Here,
y = f(x) = xr = Xdq
 d 119 P xllq)p-l d 114 &civativ& of Trigonometric
Now, &-( X ) =P( .-
dx (X ) , by chain rule Functions

Thus,

This completes the proof of the theorem.

The usefulness of this theorem is quite clear from the following example.
Example 3 Suppose we want to differentiate

We write u = x5I6+fi This gives us, y = u"".

By chain rule, we get

Thus,

Why don't you try these exercises now?

4.4 DERIVATIVES OF'INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

In the last section we haveisem how the inverse function theorem helps us in finding the
derivative of xn where n is a rational number. We shall now use that theorem to find the
derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.
We have noted in Unit 1, Section 5, that sometimes when a given function is not one-one,
we can still talk about its inverse, provided we restrict its (jomain suitably. Now, sin x is
Elements of Differential neither a one-one, nor an onto function from R to R. But if we restrict its domain to
Calculus
[- ~ 1 2x/2],
, and co-domain to [ - I , 11, then it becomes a one-one and onto function, and
hence the existence of its inverse is assured. In a similar manner we can talk about the I

inverses of the remaining trigonometric functions if we place suitable restrictions on their

domains and co-domains.
Now that we are sure of the existence of inverse trigonometric functions. let's go ahead and
find their derivatives.

4.4.1 Derivatives of Sin-' x and Cos-' x /

II
Let us consider the function y = f(x) = sin x on the domain [- 6 2 , x/2]. Fig. 3(a) showsthe
graph of this fur.ction. Its inverse is given by g(y) = sin-' (y) = x. We can see ckarly that
sin x is strictly increasing on [ - ~ 1 2R2].
, I

d
We also know that the derivative, (sin x) = cos x exists and is non-zero for all

This means that sin x satisfies the conditions of the inverse function' theorem. We can,
therefore, conclude that sin-' y is differentiable on.] - 1 , 1 [, and

-
d (sin-' (y )) = - 1 =- 1
ff(x ) cosx
Sin~simx=y,cOsx= -4 dy
for - r c n < x < l d 2 .

Thus. we have the result

d 1
3 (sin-' t) =

Remember, sin-'x is not the same as

at
JZ
Fig.3(b) shows the graph of sin-' x.
(sin x)-' = llsin x or sin x-I = sin llx.
We shall follow exactly the same steps to find out the derivative of the inverse cosine
function.
Let's stkt with the function y = f(x) = cos ;, and restrict its domain to [0, R ] and its co-
domain to [-1,1]. Its inverse function g(y) = cos-' y exists and the graphs of cos x and
-'
cos x are shown in ~ i ~ . 4 ( and
a ) 4(b), respectively.
 As in the earlier case, we cap now check that the conditions of the inverse function $-orem Derivatives of Trigonometric
-'
are satisfied and conclude that cos y is differentiable in 1-1, 1[. Further Functions

-
d (g(y))S -
d (cos -1
9 ) = . - -1 -
f'(x )
- 1
- sin x
dy dy .
Since cos x = y, sin x =* for
o<x<n. '

This gives us the result

Yoti can apply these two results to get the derivatives in the following exercise.
E E 6) Differentiate
a) sin-' (5x) b) cos-I & C)sin x cos-' (x3+ 2)

E E 7) a) By looking at the graph of tan x given alongside, indicate the interval to which the
domain of tan x should be restricted so that the existence of its inve~seis '
guaranteed.
, b) What will be the domain of tan-' x?
c) Prove tdat -
d
dx
2
(tan-' x ) = 1/(1 + x )in its domain.
 In this section we have calculated the derivatives of sin-' x and cos-' x and if you have done
E 7). you will have calculated the derivative of tanm'xalso. Pn>ceedingalong exactly simila
lines. we shall be able to see that
-d -I
(cot x) = 7
-1
dx l+x

4.4.2 Derivatives of Sec-' x and Cosec-' x

Let's tackle the inverses of the remaining two mgonomemc functions now.
To find sec-' x, we proeaed as follows:
If y = sec-I x, then sec y = x or I/cos y = x, which means that Ilx = cos y. This gives u
y = cos-' (I/x), where, I x I 2 1.
Thus, y =set-I x =cos-' (l/x), I x I2 1
Remember, we have seen that cos-' t From this we get
is defined in the interval I-1. I].

-dy
=- (~0s-'(ltx 1)
dx dx
-1
-- 1 -7 d
1/x . z(ltX)

- - Ixl (- llx2)
4n
- 1 ,Ixl>l
lx- 1
Nore tnat dthough see-'x is defined Thus. we have
for 1 x I 2 I,the derivative of eec-' x
does nor exist when x = 1 -
d (sec-' x) =
dx l x- 1
I
, Ixl > I

E 8) Following exactly similar skps, show that

-d
dx
(cosec-I x )=
-1
l x l d z i *
1x1 > I .

Exan)ple 4 Suppose we want to find the derivative of y = sec -I 2 6

By chain rule, we get
Now, you will be able to solve these exercises using the results about the derivatives of Derivatives of Trigonometric
inverse trigonometric functions. Functions

E 9) Differentiate,
cot-' (x + 1)
'
a) c o t ( ~ 1 2 ) b) -~
' + 1)
tan- (x

c) cos- (5x ' + 4)

4.5 USE OF TRANSFORMATIONS

Sometimes the ~IWXSS of finding derivatives is simplified to a large extent by making use of
some suitable transformations. In this section we shall see some examj&ss vvbidt will
illustrate this fact.
Example 5 Suppose we want to finuthe derivative of
y = cos-' (4x3 - 3x)
I
I
Elements d Differential
-Calculus
As you know, we can differentiate this function by using the formula for thederivative of
cos-' x and the chain rule. But suppose we put x ='cos 8 ,then we get
y = cos-' (4 cos38 - 3 cos 8)
= &s-' (COS 38) (COS 38 = 4 c0s38 - 3 cos 8)
= 38
= 3dos-' x. Now this is a much simpler expression, and can be differentiated easily as:

Example 6 To differentiate y = tan-' ,we use the transformation x = tan 8.

This gives us,
I - \

y = tan -l[dl+tantan2e - I J= t a n - l ( ~ e c ~1,)

-
8 tan 8

sin 8
= tan-' (tan 012)
1-(1-2sin28/2)
2 sin 812 cos 812 1
= 812 = -.tan- x '
2
dy 1
Now, we can write - =
dx 2(1+x2)
Let's lackle another probl&n.
Example 7 Suppose we want to differentiate tan-' 2:2
-)with respect to sin-
For this, let y = tan -'(%)
\ 1-
and z = s i n - ' ( 2 ) .
1+x2
Our aim is to find dyldz. We
.
shall use the transfo&ation x'= tan 8. This gi;es us '

y=m y 1 [ - -)
2tan8
1 tan 8
= tan (tan 28) = 20, and

Now if we differentiate y and z with respect to 8, we get dy/d8 = 2 and dz/d8% 2.

Therefore, -
dy
dz
dyId0
=. -= 1 .
dz/d8
Alternatively, we have y = z. Hence, dyldz = 1.
So, you see, a variety of complex.problems tan be solved easily by using transformations.
The key to a successful solution is, however, the choice of a suitable transformation. We a e
giving some exercises below, which will givtyou the necessary practice in choosing the
right transformation.
E E .lo) Find the derivatives of the following functions using suitable transformations :
Now let us summarise the points covercd in this unit.

4.6 SUMMARY

In this unit we have ,

1 calculated the derivatives of trigonometric functions:

1 Function 1 Derivative I
sin x cos x
cos x -sin x

:
tan x sec2x
cot x -cosec2 x
sec x sec x tan x
C O S ~ Cx -cosec x cok x

2 discussed the inverse function theorem and

used the rule

toprove that d/dx(xr) = rx", where r is a rational number.

3 - used the inverse function theorem to find the derivatives of inverse trigonometric
.functions:
 I- !
Elements 01Differential
f-~lculus function Derivative '

tan-'x

Ixl > 1
1 x 4 4 7 7'
- 1
Ixl > 1
1xldZ-l'

4 used transformations to simplify the problems of finding the derivatives of some

functions.

4.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

E 1) a) cos (a + X)= cos a cos x - sin a sin x
lim cos (a + x ) = cos a lim cos x - sin a lim sin x
x+ 0 x+ 0 x+o
b) similar = cos a
d
E 2) a) 2 cos 2x x ) = - 2 sin x cos x
b) 2 cos xc-dx (COS
C) 5(3sin7x cos 3x + 7sin6x cos x sin 3x)
= 5 sin6 x (3 sin x cos 3x + 7cos x sin 3x)
d) 3x2 cos 9x - 9x3sin 9x
e) - sin (sin x) cos x
d d sin x x O - lcosx
E3) -(cosecx)=
dx d

=- -
COS X

sin x2= -cosecx cotx.

E 4) a) - 2cosec 2x cot 2x
1
b) - cosec2x + ( - cosecx cotx)
d i z z x

-3x2
+ cos x cos-I (x3 + 2)
c1 sin

E 7) a) tan x restricted to ] - n/2, n/2[ is a strictly increasing one-one function of x.

Thus, its inverse exists when restricted to ] - n/2, n/2[.
b) The domain of tan-' x is ] - w, -[.
I c) ~f y = f(x) = tan x, Deri~ativesof Trigonometric
Functions

1
Hence d/dx (tan-' x) = - .
1 + x2
I
I E 8) y = cosec -' x a cosec y = x a sin y = l/x 3

1 y = sin-' (l/x) where I x 1 2 1.

-- '"I (- I/&)
-fi

1 [ sin 8 (1 - x cos 8) + x sin 8 cos 8

2
(1 - x cos 8 )
d ) ~ l i ; n ~ g / x ~2 s i n 2 8 2
(1 - x cos 8)
-1 1
-1 1
e) +
I x + l I d ( x + 1)2- 1 Ix- lId(x-112-1

E 10) a) Put x = sin 8 y = sin-' (3x - 4x3)

= sin-' (3sin 8 - 4sin3 8)
= sin-' (sin3 8) = 38 = 3sin-' x.

b) x = cos 812 * y = COS-' (1 - 2x2)

c) Put x = tan 8 * y = sin-' - (,

2):: = 2 tan-lx

-- 2
dy -
-
dx 1+x2
d) Put x = tan 8

e ) Put x = tan (3
UNIT 5 DERIVATIVES OF SOME
STANDARD FUNCTIONS
Structure
5.1 Introduction.
Objectives
5.2 Exponential Fynctions
Definition of an Ewnential Function
Derivative of an Exponential Function
5.3 Derivatives of Logaritlpc Functions
Diffe~ntiatingthe Natural Log Function
Differentiating the General Log Function
5.4 Hyperbolic Functions
Definitions and Basic Properties
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
5.5 Methods of Differentiation 101
Derivatlve of x'
Logarithmic Differentiation
Derivatives of Functions Defined in Terms of a Panupeter
Derivatives of Implicit Functions
5.6 Summary 1W
5.7 Solutions and Answers 107,

Exponential functions occupy an important place in pure and applied science. Laws ofi
growth and decay are very often expressed in terms of these functions. In this unit we s w l
s t a y the derivatives of exponential functions. The inverse function theorem which we
stated in Unit 4 will then help us to differentiate their inverses, the,logarithmicfunctions,In
particular, you will find that the natural exponential function is its own derivative.
~ u h e rwe
, shall introduce and differentiate hyperbolic functidns and their inverses since
they hold special significance for physical sciences. We shall demonstrate the method of
finding derivatives by taking logarithms, and also that of differentiating implicit functions.
Witb this unit we come to the end of ollr quest fot the derivatives of some standard,
frequ&tly used functions. In rhe next block we shall see the geometrical significance of
derivatives and shall use them for sketching graphs of functions.

Objectives
After stvdying this unit you should be able to:
find the derivatives of exponential and log&thmic functions
define hyperbolic functions and discuss the existence of their inverses
differentiate hyperbolic functions and inverse hyperbolic functions 7
use the method of logarithmic differentiation for solving some problems
differentiate implicit functions and also those functions which are defined with the help
of a parameter.

5.2 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Our main aim, here, is to find the derivatives of exponential functions. But let us first recall
I
the definition of an exponential function.

5.2.1-Definition of an Exponential Functioh

A function f defined on R by f(x) = ax,-wherea > 0,is known as an exponential functiun.
Now to find the derivative off, we shal have to take the limit:
 ax+" -ax ah -1 Derivauvar m some Standard
lim
h+Oi h
= a x . lim
h+O
,-
h
............... (1) hndlone

So, if we put lim

h+O
-
ah -1
h
= k, we get a' may not be defined fqr all x if
a< 0. For example, (-2)Gs not
d ax = k. ax. We can also interpret k as the derivative of axat x = 0. In Fig.4 defined in R.
dx
you can see the graphs of exponential functions for various values of a.

All these curves pass through (0, 1) as a0= 1 for all a. Now from all these curves, we shall
choose that one, whose tangent at (0, 1) has slope = 1. (We assume that such a curve exists).
The value of a comsponding to this curve is then denoted by e. Thus, we have singled out
the exponential function :x+ ex, so that its derivative at x = 0 is 1. Thus,

h-+O
-
lim eh -1 = 1
h
This also means that
dex
-=
dx
Pm
h+O
s+h
h
-ex zeX.lim
h-+O
-
& - I - ex
h
That is, the derivative of this function is the function itself. .
This special exponential function is called the natural exponential f'unction.

5.2.2 Derivative of an Exponential Function

In Unit 1, we compared the graghs of the natural exponential 'function exand the natural
logarithmic function lnx and found that they are reflections of each other w.r.t. the line
y = x. (see Fig.2) We concluded that = e" and lnx are inverses of each other. This also means
that eh" G x ++x > 0.

ln.
From this we can write ax = e , or a x = eh, where a > 0 .
lnah = blna
-
n u s d a~ =
dx
,d
dx
- e x ~ n r d(X ln a ) by chain rule,
- dx
Elements of Differential Remark 1 If we compare this result with (1) which we derived at the beginning oflhis
Cdculurr section, we find that
ah - I
h a = lim 7
h +O
Thus, we have
- edx = e x , and
dx
d
-ax=a'ln a
dx
Ewmpk 1Let us use these formulas to find the derivatives of

i) Lety=e
(x 2+2x'
. Then, by chain rule

2
( x +2x)
Hence - ( J ' ~ + ~ " ' )=2(x + l ) e
dx

iii) wx6pply the chain mle again.to differentiate asin-lx

-d (asin-'x)= lna asin-' x d
dx dx
(sin-' x)
, -
= lna a sin-],
-4
See if you can solve these exercises now.

E E 1) Find the derivatives of:

a) sW7 bl e(x + I)/X c)(x+2)eG d)e-mtm-lx e)2h 97-'
 Derivatives of Some Standard
Functions

! E E 2 ) How ,much ta\ter ir f(x) = 2' increasing at x = I/? ihim x = 0':

I
t

h
'3 In this ~ C C L ~ UbI Ie hdve defined e as that real number for which lim
h+O h
=,1 .
Alternatively. e can also be defined as a limit:
# e = ~ i m ( ~ + l / n ) ~ o r a s t h e s u m o f a n i n f i n i t e s e r i e s : e =11 + - 1+ - +......
n+m l! 2!
But all these definitions give the same value, e = 2.7 18281828....e is an irrational number.
In many situations the rate of growth (of human beings, or bacteria or radioactive particles) .
is proportional to the present population. That is, if x(t) is the population at time t.
then
dx
dt
-oc x . In such situationb the exponential function is of great relevance since
d
dt
-
(et = el.

Now let us turn our attention to logarithmic functions.

5.3 DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

In Unit 4, we studied the inverse function theorem, (Theorem 1, Unit 4) and used it to find
the derivatives of various functions such as sin-'x, cos-'x, and so on. Here, we shall, yet
again, apply this theorem to calculate the derivative of the n$ura~b~arithrnicfunction.

5.3.1 Differentiating the Natural Log Function ,

Consider the function y = lnx. This is the inverse of the natural exponential function, that is,
y = lnx if and only if x = ey.
I

From Fig. 2, you can see that the natural exponential function is a strictly increasing
function. (You will be able to rigorously prove this result by the end of this course). Further,
Inx 17 defined on ]O, - [.

the derivative of the function x = ey is

dx
-=-(e d Y
) = e Y> o f o r all E R.
dy dy
Thus, all the conditions of the inverse function theorem are satisfieb. This means we can
conclude that the derivative of the natural logarithmic function (which is the inverse of the
natural exponential function) exists, and .

-dy- -- dxd
(Inx ) =
1
- --1 -
--
1
dx dx/dy ey

Thus, we have

Let's see how we can use this result.

Example 2 Suppose we want to differentiate y = . ln (x2- 2x +2). 93
Elements of Differential dy =
- 1 d 2
Calculus -(x - 2x + 2)
dx x 2 - 2 x + 2 dx
- 2x - 2
-
x2 2x + 2
Note that x2 - 2x + 2 = (x + 1 and hence, is non-zero for d l X. ,
Therefore, ln(x2 - 2x + 2) is well-defined.

Example 3 If we want to differentiatey = In , I x I # 1 , we will have to consider "

two cases: i) l x I > 1 and ii) I x I < 1
1+x2 x2+1
i) If I x I > ~ , =-

since I x I > 1 makes l-xZ negative. So in this case,

-
-- 4x
4 ' after simplification.
1-x

ii) when lx l'<l,

--
l.~l=
1-x . 1-X- and

--- 4x
1- x4

- -
So, we see that dy = 4x4,forallxsuchthat I x I # l .
dx l - x
Now, let us turn our attention to logarithmic functions with arbitrary bases.

5.3.2 Differentiating the General Log Function

a' is a constant function for a = 1. Let us consider any positive number a # 1. We say logax= y if and only if x = ay. Obviously,
H ~it does have any
~ not ~ ~ , the natural logarithmic function lnx Can be written as logex.
The log functions are thus defM Further, we know that logax = logae. lnx. This rule gives a connection between the natural
only for a # 1.
and general logarithmic functions. We shall use this relationship to find the derivative of
logsx.
So, if y = log,x = log,e lnx,

Thus, we arrive at
-d
dx
(log, x) = log,e- -r
1

If we put a = e in this, we get our earlier result:

d 1
.-dx
lnx = y , since logee= 1

Example 4 Let us differentiate y = log, tan3x

--
dy - log e. 1 -
d (tan3 x )
dx tan3 x d~

se2 x
=310g7e-
tan x
If you have followed the solved examples in this section you should have no difficulty in
solving ttiese exercises.
E E 3) Find the derivatives of:
a\ lrrn 7v h\ l l n n I 5 v 2 I 71 "\ n-xlnv
 Derivatives of Some Standard
Functions

5.4 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

In applications of mathematics to other sciences, we, very often, come across certain
combinations of ex and e-'. Because of their importance, these combinations are given
special names, like the hyperbolic sine, the hyperbolic cosine etc. These names suggest that
they have some similarity with the higonomemc functions. Let's look at their precise
definitions and try to understand the points of similarity and dissimilarity between the
hyperbolic and the higonomemc functions.

5.4.1 Definitions and Basic Properties

ex - e-'
Definition 1 The hyperbolic sine function is defined by sinh x = for all x E R.
2
The range of this function is also R.
Definition 2 The hyperbolic cosine function is defined by cosh x = +'-'
2
f o r a l l x ~R.
The range of this function is [l, -1.
You will notice that

= - sinh (x ), and
Elements of Differential In other words, the hyperbolic sine is an odd function, while the hyperbolic cosine is an even
Calculus
function. Fig 3(a) and (b) show the graphs of these two functions.

I (b)
(a)
Fig. 3 : Graph # (a) sinh x (b) cosh x
We also d d n e four other hyperbolic functions as:
ex - e x ex + e-'
tanh x = -
?i + e-"
, coth x = -, ,
e" - e-"

.2 2
E 4) Verify that a) cosh x - sinh x = 1
'

sinh x
b) tanh x = -
cosh x

E E 5) Derive an identity connecting coth x and cosech x.

 Derivatives of Some Standard
Flrnctlons

You must have noticed that the identities involving these hyperbolic functions are similar to
those involving trigonometric functions. It is possible to extend this analogy and get some
more formulas:
sinh (x f y) = sinh x cosh y f cosh x sinh y
cosh(x f y) = cosh x cosh y f sinh x sinh y
tanhx f tanh y
tanh(xf y ) =
1 f tanh x tanh y
Since we have seen that coshZt - sinh2t = 1, it is obvious that apoint with coordinates
(cosh t, sinh t) lies on the unit hyperbola: x2- y2=l. (Hence the name, hyperbolic functions).
We have a similar situation in the case of trigonometric functions. The point (cost, sint) lies
on the unit circle: x2+ y2 = 1. That is why trigonometric functions are also called circular
functions.
There is one major point of difference between the hyperbolic and circular functions,
though. While t in sint, cost, etc. is the measure of an angle, the t which appears in sinht,
cosht, etc. cannot be interpreted as the measure of an angle. However, it is sometimes called
the hypberbolic radian.

5.4.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Since the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the natural exponential function,
whose derivative we already know, it is very easy to calculate their derivatives. For example,
- e-X
sinh x = -. 2
This means,

d
-
dx
(sinh x) = -
d
dx ( ex -e-" e x + e-'
)=T=coshx
Similarly, cosh x = " -
2
'-"
gives us
+

(cosh x) = -= sinh x
d -
-
dx 2 .
e-X

e-X
Inthecaseof tanhx =- , we get
ex + e-'

2 2
= 1 - tanh x = sech x
We can adopt the same method for finding the derivatives of coth x, sech x and cosech x. In
Table 1 we have collecm all these'results.
Table 1

sinh x
cosh x
tanh x
coth x
- sech x tanh x
cosech * - cosech x coth x
Ekrnents of Mfferentlal Example 5 Suppose we want to find dyldx when y = tanh (1 - x2) .
Calculus

See if you can solve these exercises on your own.

E 6) Find f'(x) when f(x) =
4x + 1 b) sinh e2" c ) coth (llx)
a) tanh-
5
d) sexh (lnx ) e ) e" cosh x

5.4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We shall try to find the derivatives of the inverse hyperbolic functions now. Let us start with
the inverse hyperbolic sine function.
From Fig. 3(a) you can see that the hyperbolic sine is a strictly increasing function. This
means that its inverse exists, and
-1
y = sinh x O X = s i n h y =
2 -e-y
2

We have used the formula for

finding the roots of a quadratic
equation here. Note that if
ey = x- c+x', then ey < 0,
which is impossible. Therefore we
ignore this At. Thus sinh-lx = In (x
sinh-lx. Now,
+ m),
I - E ] .o. .o [. In Fig. 4, we have drawn the graph of
 Derivatives of Some Standard
Functions

d (sinh-lx) = 1 1
Thus. -
dx K 2 = c 1
I 4
In the case of the hyperbolic cosine function, we see from Fig. 3(b), that its inverse will exist
if we restrict its domain to [0, m[. The domain of this inverse function will be [l, , and
2 -Y
.
its range will be [0, m[
-1
Now y =cosh x e x =coshy =
ey + e-' 1 -
2
! e e 2 ' -2xey + I = O -
:I 0 11 2 3 4)
*! e e Y= x + G 1
$1 Fig. 5
! o y =h(x + dx2- 1) Again we igno the root

Thus rnsh-l x = In ( X + Jx),

2 1. X
ey=x - ?
x' - 1 , because then
ey< 1. which is imwssible since
Fig. 5 shows the graph of cosh-' x.

Further -d
dx
(cosh-' x) =
x
11
-I
+ vx2-1
-d
dx
-1
(x + v x2- 1)

Note that the derivative of cosh-'x does not exist at x = 1.

Fig.6 (a), (b) and (cj show the graphs of tanh x, coth x and cosech x. You can see that each
of these functions is one-one and smctly monotonic. Thus, we can talk about the inverse in
each case.
Y

2
-, - - -'- - _ __ _
4:~-,x

-4 w
-2 ---.------ 2 44-
--=.

(a) (b) (c)

Arguing as for sinh-' xand cosh-' x, we get

-1
y = cosec h x u x = cosec hy e y = In 7+ , x#O
4
Ix l
Since sech x = ,we shall have to restrict the domain of sech x to [0, m[ before talking
cosh x
abouf its inverse, as we did for coshx. Sech-'x is defined for all x E 10, 11, and we can write

Now, we can find the derivatives of each of these inverse hyperbolic functions. We p k e e d
exactly as we did for the inverse hyperbolic sine and cosine functioris and get
Elements of Differential
Calculus

-d
(sech-1 x ) = -1 ,O e x c l
dx
x &F

Let us use these results to solve someproblems now.

Example 6 Suppose we want to fnd the derivatives of a) f(x) = sinh-'(tanx), and
b) g(x) = tanh-'(cos eX).
Let's start with f(x) = sinh-'(tan x).

.J 1 d
f (x)= -&-(tan x)
tan2 x +1
--
- sec2x =I sec x I
I secx I
Now if g(x) = tanh-'(cos ex),this means that
1 d
g'(x )= - (cos ex)
I - cos2ex dx
_-
- I
( - sin ex).ex
sin e
= -=- 8 -excosecex
sin 8
We are now listing some functions for you to differentrate.
E E 7) Differentiate the following functions bn their respective domains.
a) cosech-'f5&) b) [sech-I (cos2x)]
(x2+5x-6)
c) coth-' (e )
 Derivstlves of Some Standard
Functions

5.5 METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION

In this section, we shall study different methods of finding derivatives. We shall also see that
the problem of differentiating some functions is greatly simplified by using these methods.
Some of the results we derived in the earlier sections will be useful to us here.

5.5.1 Derivative of xr
In Unit 4 we have seen that -
dx
-
d (xr) rxr-' when r is a rational number. Now, we are in a '

position to extend this result to the case when r is any real number. So if y = xr, where x > 0
and r E R, we can write this as As we have mentioned in Unit 4, if
Y = elnx'= erlnx ,since the natural exponential and logarithmic functions are inverses of each x < 0, xr may not be a real number.
olher. For example,- 3 m = n, R.
d
Thus 9 = d ( e r l n x ) = erlnx -(rlnx)
dx dx dx

This proves that

d
-(xr=xr for x > O , r e R.
dx
We are sure, you will be able to solve this exercise now.
E 8) Differentiate,
a) x fi b) X=

. 5.5.2 Logarithmic Diffepentiation

Sometimes we find that the process of taking derivatives becomes simple if we take
logarithms before differentiating. En this section we shall illustrate this point through so-
Elements d Differential examples. But to take the logarithm of any quantity we have to be sure that it is non-
Calculus
negative. To overcome this difficulty, let us first try to find the derivative of In (1 x 1).
By J a we mean the positive square Now you can check easily that I x I = . c2
root of a.
Therefore, ln(l x I ) = ln c2,
and

We get,
d 1
-ln(lx I)= 7
dx
Using chain rule we can now conclude that if u is any function of x, then
d
dx
- 1 du
ln(l u I ) = . .
u dx
--
Let us see how this result helps us in simplifying the differentiation of some functions.

(x2 + 1f (x - 3pI4
Example 7 To differentiate . 213
(x-5)

we start by taking y =
(x2 + 17 (X - 3QI4
(x - 7jI3(x2 + 2x + 1)-113
lx2+ l ( 9 1 x - 3 1 ~ ~ ~
Thus, I y I= 213
l x -51 lx2 + 2 x +1
Then taking logarithms of both sides, we get

In(e/b)=lM-Inb Differentiating throughout we get,

h(ab) = h a + lnb
ln(ab)= blna

Example 8 Suppose we want to differentiate xu'"",x > 0.

Let us write y = xma.Then y > 0 and so we can take logarithms of both sides to the base e
and write
lny = lnx" = sin x.ln x
Differentiating throughout, we get,

AY 4'= sin x 1 + cosx inx

i
.
dy
sin x
= 7+ cosx lnx
 Example 9 TO differentiate xco" + (cosx); let f(x) = xcos;and g(x) = cosxx. To ensure that hrivatives of Some Standard
Functions
f(x) and g(x) are well defined, let us restrict their domain to [O, nl21.. ,

y = xCDSX+ (COSX)~ = f(x) + g(x) > 0 for X E [O, ~ 1 2 1

Let us differentiate both f(x) and g(x) by taking logarithms. We have,

Therefore lnf(x) = cosx Inx.

- x sinx Inx + cosx

-
- XCOEX -1
(cosx - x sinx Inx)
Similarly, g(x) = (cos x)" and sa lng(x) = x In cos x

x -!
cosx In cosx - x sin x
1
= (cosx ) (cosx In cosx - x sin x )

(cosx - xsinx lnx) + cosx"' (cosx lncosx -xsinx)

If you have followed these examples you should have no difficulty in solving these exercises
by the same method.
E E'9) Differ-entiate,
1
a) (x2!- 1) (x2 + 2)6 (x3 - b) 5 6 7
(x - 1) (x - 2 ) (x - 3)
c) ( ~ i n x+) ~(cosx)'"""
( xX)
d) (xX)"+ x e! (sinx)'"" + xx
Elements of Differential
Calcl~lus

5.5.3 Derivatives of Functions Defined in Terms of a Parameter

Till now we were concerned with f k t i o n s which were expressed as y = f(x). We called x
an independent variable, and y, a dependent one. But sometimes the relationship between
two variables x and y may be expressed in terms of another vatiable, say t. That is, we may
have a pair of equations x = ~ ( t )y, = ~ ( t )where
, the functions 0 and y~ have a common
domain. For example, we know that the circle x ~ = a2 + is ~also ~described by the pair of
equations, x = acost, y = asint, 0 < t 5 2n.
In such cases the auxiliary variable t is called a parameter and the equations x = B(t),
y = ~ ( t are
) called parametric equations. Now, suppose a function is defined in terms of a
parameter. To obtain its derivative, we need only differentiate the relations'in x and y
separately. The following example illustrates this method.
dy
Example 10 Let us try to find - if x = acos 8 and y = bsin 8.
dx
(Here the parameter is 8)
We differentiate the given equations w.r.t. 8, and get
dy = b c o s 8 , and -d=i - a s i n 8
-
d8 d8

dx
- dy/de - bcos 8
Now, dy = -
dxJd8- - asin.8
b
=-,cote.

Try to apply this method now.

E E 10) Find dy
- ~f
dx
.

a) x = acos 8, y = asin 8
b) x = at2, y = 2at
c) x = acos78, y = bsin3 8
d) x = a(8 - sin 8), y = a(l - cos 8)
 Derlvatlvea of Some Standard
. Functions

5.5.3 Derivatives of Implicit Functions

It is not always necessary to express y explicitly in terms of x(as in y = f(x)) to find its
derivative. We shall now see how to differentiate a function defined implicitly by a relation
in x and y (such as, g(x, y) = 0).

Example 11 Let us find-dy if x and y are related by

dx
ax2+ 2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
Differentiating throughout with respect to x, we get

dy -(ax+hy+g)
or -=- ---------
dx (hx + b y + f )
- dy
See if you can find -. for 111cIbllowing implicit functions.
dx
dy .
E E 11) Find -
dx
~fx and y are related as follows:

c) x3y3+ x2y2 + xy + 1 = 0
d) cosx cosy - y2sin-'x + 2x2 tanx = 0
Elements of Differential
Calculus

5.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have
1 obtained derivatives of the exponential and logarithmic functions, hyperbolic functions
and their inverses. We give them in the following table.

unction Derivative Function Derivative

ex ex 1
sinh-I x
lm -
1
X
--, 1 x>l
ax aqna cosh-I x
JK-
1
log, x
1
-loga
x e tanh-I x
1 - x2
. 1x1 < 1
sinh x cosh x
1
coth-' x 7 (XI>1
1 -x2
cosh x sinh x
- 1' , O<x<l
tanh x sech2x

-cosech2x
sech-' x
x ,/z- 1
coth x , x*o.
sech x -sech x tanh x cosech-' x I x 1&7
cosech x -cosech x coth x

2 extended the result d (xr = ,,r-l to all r E R and x > 0.

dx
3 illustrated
logarithmic differentiation,
differentiatibn of functions involving parameters and
nf fiinrtinnc oiven hv imnlirit relatinn~
diff~rpntiatinn
 Derivatives of Some Standard
5.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS Functions

E 2) f'(x) = 2% 2 f(0) = In 2
ft(1/2) = 2ln ln2 = d 1 n 2
Hence f increasesfl times faster at x = l/2 than at x = 0.

c) e-'(11~)- e-'lnx e) -
1
4 sin3x cos x
sin4 x

~ 4 ) a) W& x =
2 2'
+e-2x + 2 , Sinh 2 =
e2x .+ e-2x - 2
'4 - 4
2 2
wsh x - sinh x = 1
2 e2" + e-" + 2 - = 4 2
E 5). coth x - 1 = = cosec h x
e2" + e-'" - 2 eZx+ ep2' - 2

E6) a) ;sedT7j4x +1 b) 2e2"cosh 2'

1 1
C) wseclh d) - sech Inx mnh h x
X
e) ex(sinhx4 wshx)

'f
b) 71 [ s ~ m - '( C O ~)I-"
X 1
laa2x,~LX 1 2 cosx sin x

2
- cosech x - 2
dl 2 2
1-cothx 4x - 1
 Elements of Differential
I Calculus
C) Let f(x) = (sinx)" and g(x) = (cos x) .
Then f (x) = sin xX (In sin x + x cot x )and gf(x) = cos xtm (scc2x In cos x - tan2x)
dy
-
dx
= f(x) + gf(x)
d) Let f(x) = (xa)l ,g(x) = x
(xL)
.
. x >0
If y = xx, Iny = xlnx
* dx
dy = x x ( l + l n x )
-

* ff(x ) = ( x - ) ~[1nxh'+ x (1 + IKX )I

Ing(x) = xx Inx

*-g (1x ) g'(x) =

x
+ lnx x X ( I + I n x)
* gf(x) = x(x"lxx-' + x X(I+ i n x)]
Answer = f(x) + g'(x)
( x")
= (xa)" [lnxx + x ( l + lnx)] +x [xa-' + xXl.nx(l+ lnx)]
d Inx lnsin x
e) -dx
-(sin x ) =(sin ~ ) ' ~ ~ ( h x c o+t 7
x
d
dx ( x X ) = x X ( l + ~ n x )
-
I n sin x
~ n s w e =(sin
r x).' (Inx cot x + 7

3 bsin2 8 cos 8
13aco2 8 sin 8
dl x=
dy asin 8
a(1-cos8)
- sin 8
(l-cose)

dy dy 2
d) -cosx siny--sinx
dx cosy - 2 y dx
- s i n - ' x - 2 t4xtanx
W)
2
+ 2 x sec x
2
=o
2
sinx cosy + Y-- - 4x t a n r - 2x2 se'c'x
*--
dy -
G)
dx - (cosx siny + 2 y s i n - ' x )