AQA Computer Science A Level Notes

4.1 - Fundamentals of Programming

Much of this section requires one to understand how to complete a number of tasks, such as
iteration, which would be specific to the language of use, and are rather trivial.

ALGORITHM: Set of rules or sequence of steps specifying how to solve a problem. The
specification indicates that the steps indicated by the algorithm must terminate, but many
disagree with this. An Algorithm generally contains an INPUT step, a PROCESSING step and
an OUTPUT step.

Data Types: Different types of data are stored differently in the computer’s memory; these
are:
• Integers: Number written without a fractional component, is a member of

• Real (floats): Number written with a fractional part.

• Boolean: Variable with two possible values, ‘true’ and ‘false’
• Character: A single number, letter, etc.
• String: Array of characters
• Date / Time: Storage of the date and time
• Arrays: Collection of a number of similar variables – often in rows and
columns in a table like structure
• Records (Struct): Collection of fields, often with a number of different
variables.

Program Constructs: There are three basic programming constructs: Sequence, Selection
and Iteration.
• Sequence is one statement after the other.
• Selection statements are used to find which statement should be performed
next, making use of conditional operators.
• Iteration: Two types of iteration, definite and indefinite iteration – with
definite iteration involving a clear assignment at the beginning of the loop of
how many loop cycles would occur for. Meanwhile the indefinite loop would
often make use of conditions, (such as in a while loop), where the loop would
occur while the condition is being met.
Using Variables: The process involves three steps, declaration, followed by assignment and
then use.

Identifier Names: These names are used for everything from the names of variables to the
names of classes and functions. It is helpful to important to use useful identifier names as it
makes it easier for the program to be easily readable by you or indeed by others.

Integer vs Float Division: Integer division returns the answer without the remainder,
whereas float division will return the answer to the division in a decimal form. In order to get
just the remainder, modular division can be used.
Truncation: Process by which the number of digits after the decimal point are limited.

Boolean Operations: Boolean operations are effectively passing variables through logic
gates, such as the AND, OR, and NOT gate.

Variables vs Constants: Variables are identifiers which are given to a specific memory
location where the value will change over the course of the program. Constants are instead
values which will remain constant throughout the running of the program – in a long
program, they offer peace-of-mind to a programmer, that they could not change this value.

Exception Handling: Exception handling is a mechanism by which the program will cater for
any possible issues that occur through the running of the program, such as accessing non-
existent variables, etc.

Subroutines: A subroutine is a block of code which performs a specific task within a

program. There are two main types of subroutines, functions and procedures. There are a
number of built in functions, for example in C#, functions include Console.ReadLine(). Some
functions return a result, while some are void, therefore not returning a result to the main
program. A function is called, always assigning the value of the return value to a variable. A
procedure is called by writing the identifier without setting the value of the return value to a
variable. In the same way that subroutines can return values to the main program, the main
program can be passed as parameters to the subroutine.

Structured Programming: When a program is short and simple, there is no need to break it
up into subroutines. However, when the program is long, it is often useful to break the
program into a number of subtasks. This offers a number of advantages.
• Easier to read for the programmer and someone else reading the program.
• Easier to edit the program – maintainability.
• Easier to write an algorithm – where the problem can be divided into a
number of subtasks.
• Reduced complexity.
Hierarchy Charts can be showed to show the structure of the program, including how it
flows, including subroutines and subroutines inside these subroutines. However, the
program does not show the detailed program structures in every module, therefore it
doesn’t have the required complexity. These can be shown in a structure chart.

o 4.1.1.15 - Functions of a Call Stack

• Majorly used to store information about the active subroutines while a
program is running
§ HOLDING RETURN ADDRESSES
• Call stack keeps track of the address of the instruction that control
should return to when the subroutine ends.
• Therefore, must be a stack.
§ HOLDING PARAMETERS
• Parameters required for a subroutine may be held on the call
stack
§ LOCAL VARIABLES
 • Much more efficient to store local variables on the call stack than
using the heap.
• The Stack Frame
§ Call stack consists of stack frames - each frame consists of a call to a
subroutine.
§ Including return addresses, holding parameters, local variables.

• 4.1.1.16 - Recursive Algorithms

o Recursive if it calls itself
• Has a base case
• Must call base case after a finite number of calls.
o Uses the call stack - with each recursive step taking up a stack frame.
o Recursive tree traversal
• In-order
§ In-order left node
§ Visit root node
§ In-order right node
• Pre-order
§ Post-order left
§ Visit root
§ Post-order right

4.1.2.3 - Object Oriented Programming

In object oriented programming, the world is seen as a collection of objects, which could
refer to absolutely anything.
OOP is composed of a number of interacting objects, each of which is responsible for its
own data and the operations on that data.
Code creates these objects and allows the objects to communicate with each other by
sending messages and receiving answers.

Why Object Oriented Programming

• Forces designers to go through an extensive planning phase.
• Encapsulation: the source code for an object can be written, tested and
maintained independently of the code for other objects.
• Once an object is created, knowledge of how its methods are implemented in
order for someone to know how to use it.
• Reusability
• Software maintenance.

Objects
Each object will have its own attributes and a state
Each object has behaviours - functions which can be performed by the object.

Classes
Class is a blueprint or template for an object - defines the attributes and methods of objects
in that class.
As a general rule, instance variables or attributes are declared private and most methods
public, so that other classes may use methods belonging to another class but may see or
change their attributes.
This is a principle of information hiding.
Constructors are items used to create objects in the class.
Getters and setters also exist.

Instantiation
Creating an instance of a class is known as instantiation - creating a reference type variable.
Using getters and setters, the items in the class can be changed.

Encapsulation
An object encapsulates both its state and its behaviours and methods.
Related to the concept of encapsulation is information hiding , where details of how a class
can be used can be ignored when utilising this class.

Inheritance
Classes can inherit data and behaviour from a parent class in the same way that children can
inherit characteristics from their parents.
A child class in OOP is a subclass and parent class is a superclass.
Can therefore create a inheritance diagram.
Inheritance should be used using the 'is a' rule…

Association, Aggregation and Composition

Association is a 'has a' relationship

Association Aggregation or simply aggregation is a more special type of association - can

occur when a class is a collection or container of other classes but the contained classes do
not have a strong lifecycle dependency on the container
(player does not cease to exist if the team is disbanded)

Composition is a stronger form of aggregation - if the container is destroyed, then every

instance of the contained class is destroyed - i.e. if a hotel is destroyed, then every room is
destroyed.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism refers to the ability to process objects differently depending on their class -
using overriding things which exist.

COMPOSITION OVER INHERITANCE

Less rigid relationship between two objects. Therefore, generally people prefer to go for
composition over inheritance.
Things are often not 'inheriting' objects - instead they are utilising parts of them.

PROGRAM TO AN INTERFACE
An interface is a collection of abstract methods that a group of unrelated classes may be
implemented. Although the methods are specified in the interface, they will only be
implemented by a class that implements the interface.

This is generally a good idea as it can take immediately from the design and therefore can
ensure that someone definitely implements all the required features of the class.

ENCAPSULATE WHAT VARIES

Used in order to reduce maintenance and testing effort.
If the concept is encapsulated in a single module - and needs to be changed - then only that
module has to be changed while the rest of the system can be left entirely alone.
During design, if things are going to change, then they should be made using encapsulation
rather than inheritance. Therefore, if they are changed, there are no knock-on effects in
other classes which inherit from them.

CLASS DIAGRAMS KEY

4.2 – Fundamentals of Data Structures

• Static vs Dynamic Data Structures
o Dynamic Data Structure refers to a collection of data in memory that has the
ability to grow or shrink in size
• Does this with the aid of a heap
• Queue must often require being given a maximum size to prevent
memory overflow.
 o Static Data Structure
• Static array is fixed in size.
• However, takes up this size forever.

• Abstract Data Types

o Queues, stacks, trees and graphs
o Logical description of how the data is stored, and the operations that can be
performed on it, and not the way this is done.
o (Example of data abstraction, therefore creating an encapsulation around the
data. Therefore information hiding).
• QUEUE
o First In First Out (FIFO)
o New elements added to the end of the queue.
o Elements retrieved from the front of the queue.
o Uses
• Outputs waiting to be printed.
• Characters typed on a keyboard - keyboard buffer.
o OPERATIONS
• enQueue
• deQueue
• isEmpty
• isFull
o Structure of a queue
• Pointer to the front and the rear of the queue.
o Implementing a queue
• 1st way: As items leave a queue, all the other items move up one space
so that the front of the queue is always the front element of the
structure.
• 2nd way: Pointer to front and rear of the queue - integer value of the size
of the array as well as a variable giving the max number of items.
o Circular Queue
• Gets rid of the problem of the second way - that eventually pointer to last
item of data structure - by it eventually pointing to the first event
o Priority Queue
• Acts like a queue in that the order in which things are dequeued from the
front of the queue.
• However, the logical order of the items within the queue is determined
by their priority with the highest priority at the front of the queue.
• Implemented by checking the priority of each item in the queue, starting
at the rear and moving it along one item at the time, until an item with
the same or lower priority.
• STACK
o Last In, First Out (LIFO)
o Items added to the top, and items removed from the tom.
o Can be implemented using either a static or dynamic data structure.
• Static can be implemented using two variables: one for length of stack
and one for location for the top of stack.
 o Operations:
• Push
§ Add item to top of stack
• Pop
§ Remove item from top of stack and returns it
• Peek
§ Returns item from top of stack (doesn't remove it)
• IsEmpty
• IsFull
o Overflow and Underflow
• Stack will always have a maximum size, because memory cannot grow
indefinitely.
• If implemented using an array, full stack can be tested for by examining
the value of the stack pointer.
• Pushing another item would cause an overflow.
• Poping an item would cause an underflow if the stack pointer is -1

• LIST
o Abstract data type - effectively an array with an undefined number of terms.
o It is possible to use a static array to store the items of a list.
o Functions
• Insert
• Remove
o Ordered List
• Some languages, like Python, have a built in dynamic list structure which
uses a linked list - therefore hides all the associated function.
• As nodes are added, new memory locations can be dynamically pulled
from the heap
§ HEAP: A pool of memory locations which can be allocated or
deallocated as required.
• The pointers in different items can then be updated.

• HASH TABLES AND DICTIONARIES

o Hashing
• Large collections of data need to be accessible very quickly without
looking through all the records.
• This can be done by holding an index of the physical address on the file
where the data is held.
• Hashing algorithm applied on the key field of each item.
• COMMON ALGORITHM
§ Divide the key by the number of available addresses and take the
remainder as the address.
• Collisions
§ When two keys generate the same hash
• Synonyms
§ Two things which generate the same hash
 •Hash Table
§ Collection of items stored so they can be accessed quickly.
§ Collisions are stored in the next available free slot.
§ Searching for an item
• Apply the hashing algorithm
• Examine the resulting cell in the list
• If there - return the item
• If empty - item is not in the table
• If used - keep moving forward until it is found, or a cell is
empty.
• Hashing Algorithm
§ FOLDING METHOD
• Divides an item into equal parts and adds the parts to give
the hash value.
§ STRINGS
• Adding up the ASCII values for each letter
• Collision Resolution
§ Finding an empty slot when a collision has occurred - simply looks
for the next empty cell
• Plus 3 rehash is another possibility
o DICTIONARIES
• Effectively a hash table
• Consists of associated pairs of items, where each pair consists of a key
and a value.
• When the user supplies the key, the associated value is returned.
• OPERATIONS ON DICTIONARIES
§ Create new empty dictionary
§ Add a new key:value pair
§ Delete a key:value
§ Amend a key:value
§ Return a value associated with key k
§ Return true or false depending on whether key is in the dictionary
§ Return length of the dictionary
• Pairs not held in any particular sequence.
• GRAPHS
o Set of vertices or nodes connected by edges or arcs.
o Edges may be one-way or two way.
o In an undirected graph, all edges are bidirectional. If all edges in a graph are all
one-way, the graph is set to be a directed graph.
o The edges may be weighted to show there is a cost to go from one vertex to
another.
o Implementing a graph
• ADJANCENCY MATRIX
§ Value stored about each connection between nodes.
§ Adjacency matrix is symmetric if the graph is undirected.
• Adjacency List
§ More space-efficient in the case of a sparsely connected graph.
 § List of all the connections between the node.
§ List can be implemented as a list of dictionaries, with the key in
each dictionary being the node and the value.
o Applications of Graphs
• Computer networks
• Roads between towns
• States in a FSM
• PageRank Algorithm
§ Makes a graph out of the internet and defines the connections as
a graph - weighted based on the importance of the page, and the
number of clicks.
• TREES
o Connected, undirected graph with no cycles.
o If a tree starts with a single node, it is a rooted tree (with the root node)
o DEFINITIONS
• Node: Nodes contain the tree data
• Edge: An edge contains two nodes. Every node except the root is
connected by exactly one edge from another node in the level above it.
• Root: Only node with no incoming edges.
• Child: The set of nodes that have incoming edges from the same node.
• Parent: A node is a parent of all the nodes it connects to with outgoing
edges.
• Subtree: The set of nodes and edges comprised of a parent all
descendants of the parent - may also be a leaf.
• Leaf node: Node with no children.
o BINARY TREE
• Rooted tree in which each node has a maximum of two children
• Binary search tree holds items in such a way that the tree can be
searched quickly and easily for a particular item.
§ IMPLEMENTING A BINARY SEARCH TREE
• Each node consists of:
• Data Item
• Pointer to the left item
• Pointer to the right item
• Alternatively could be held in a 2D list, or three separate
lists of array, one for each of the pointers and one for the
data items.
• VECTORS
o Can be represented as:
• List of numbers
• Function
• Way or representing a point in space
o Often implemented as a list or a dictionary.
o Adding and subtracted vectors - adding elements together.
o Multiplying vectors by scalars - simply multiplying by a value.
o DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
• One form of multiplication - scalar product - combining each element.
 •A.B = |A||B|cosß
•Can be used to find the parity bit
o Galois Field of Two Elements
• GF2(+) = XOR
• GF2(*)=AND

4.3 – Fundamentals of Algorithms

• 4.3.2 - Tree traversal
§ Pre-order traversal
• Go around the tree anticlockwise - when you are to the left of a node, it
should be outputted.
• COPYING A TREE
§ In-order traversal
• Go around the tree and as you pass underneath a node, output the data.
• BINARY SEARCH TREE
§ Post-order traversal
• As you pass to the right of a node, output the data.
• 4.3.3 - INFIX TO REVERSE POLISH NOTATION
• 4.3.3 - Reverse Polish Notation
§ (Postfix)
§ Eliminates the needs for brackets in subexpressions
§ Produces expressions in a form suitable for evaluation using a stack
§ Used in interpreters
§ Precedence rules
• =
• (
• +-)
• */
• ^
• Unary minus
§ Infix = (6 * 7) + 4
§ Postfix = 67*4+
§ Binary Expression Tree
• In order traversal will give in infix form
• Post order traversal will give in reverse polish form.
• 4.3.4 - Searching and Sorting
o LINEAR SEARCH
• Go through all the items in the list and check if something there - clearly
O(n)
o BINARY SEARCH
• If items are sorted
• Split the lists and then search through each halves in turn.
• O(log n)
o 4.3.5 - SORTING ALGORITHMS
• MergeSort - O(nlog n)
• BubbleSort - O(n^2)
o Space Complexity - Amount of memory that an algorithm requires.
• 4.3.1 - Graph Traversal Algorithms
o Depth First:
• Uses a stack - goes deep going as deep as it can before visiting all other
nodes.
• APPLICATIONS
§ Going through a maze
o Breadth First:
• Uses a queue - goes to all nodes before then checking that it can go any
deeper, adding them to a queue of points to visit.
• APPLICATIONS
§ Djikstra is kinda effectively a breadth first search
§ All dem BIO questions blud.
§ Web Crawlers

• 4.3.6 - Optimisation Algorithms

o Djikstra
• 4
• Goes through a graph and has an edge weight for each connection
• Structured Programming - stop using GOTOs.
• Uses a priority queue rather than a FIFO queue.

4.4 – Theories of Computation

• 4.4.2.1 - FSMs (with or without inputs - Mealy Machines)
o FSM with no output is a Finite State Automaton
o FSM is an abstract representation or model of computation used in designing
computer systems and logic circuits.
o FSM with output = Mealy Machine
o State Transition Diagram
• States are
§ Start State
§ End State /
§ Accept State
o Mealy Machine
• Machine has outputs that are determined both by its current state and
the current input.
• For each input, only one transition is possible.
• Applications
§ Cipher Machines (modelling them)
• 4.4.2.2 - Maths for regex
o Set is an unordered collections of values or symbols in which each value or
symbol occurs at most once.
o Can be defined in three ways
• Common Sets
§ Empty set
§ Natural Numbers (N)
§ Integers (Z)
§ Rational Numbers (Q)
 § Real Numbers ( R )
• Finite and Infinite Sets
§ Finite = sets whose elements can be counted off by natural
numbers until a particular number
§ Infinite set
• Can be countable and uncountable
• N is countable - can be counted off against the set of
natural numbers
• R is uncountable
§ Cardinality of set = n of elements in the set
§ Countable Set is a set which can be counted against a subset of
the natural numbers.
• Defining a set by set comprehension
§ B = {n^2 | n E N ^ n < 5}
§ | = such that
§ ^ = and
• Defining a set using the compact representation
§ A = {0^n 1^n | n}
o Set arithmetic
• Cartesian product of two sets
§ Set of all ordered pairs where one member is a member of the
first set, and the other is a member of the other set.
• Union
§ Contains everything in both sets.
• Intersection
§ Contains everything which exists in both sets.
• Difference
§ Removes the members from the element to be subtracted from.
• 4.4.2.3 - Regular Expressions
o | = alternatives
o ? = zero or one
o * = zero or more
o + = one or more
o A regular language can also be defined as any language that a finite state
machine will accept.
o Regular expressions and FSMs are equivalent ways of defining a regular language
• Regular languages are defined as anything which can be represented by a
regular expression.
• Also a regular language is defined as anything which can be represented
by an FSM.
• 4.4.3 - Backus-Naur Form
o It is a met-language, which can be used to check syntax - allowing things to be
described more succintly using BNF.
o Made of terms of the form:
• LHS ::= RHS (where ::= is 'is defined by')
§ ::= is a metasymbol
• <point> is a metacomponent and a syntactic variable
 • Eg. <digit> ::= 0|1|2|3|4…
o Can be composed using other BNF functions
o Also often uses recursion
o SYNTAX DIAGRAMS

•
•
• 4.4.4 - CLASSIFICATION OF ALGORITHMS (time complexity and space complexity)
o 4.4.4.2 - O Notation
• Time Complexity: The definition of how much time an algorithm takes to
solve a problem
• Functions
§ Linear: f(x) = ax + b
§ Polynomial: ..
§ Logarithmic: …
§ Factorial: …
• Orders
§ O(1) - Constant time
§ O(n) - linear time
§ O(n^x) - polynomial time
§ O(2^n) - exponential time
§ O(log n) - Logarithmic time
§ O(n!) - exponential time
o 4.4.4.4 - Limits of Computation
• Insoluble practical problems
§ Problems can be theoretically soluble but will take millions of year
to solve
§ Therefore practically insoluble
§ Eg. Passwords
• Travelling Salesman Problem
§ For a simple method, requires a brute-force method, therefore
testing every combination of the route that would visit every
node.
§ Therefore, insoluble for large number of data.
§ Computationally Difficult - requires heuristics to be easily
doable.
• 4.4.4.5 - Tractable vs intractable
§ NP = Intractable
 § P = Tractable
• Heuristics
§ Solution which has a high probability of being correct - therefore
things like A* instead of Djikstra
§ Other thins like that are usable for Travelling Salesman Problem
§ Eg. A*, virus scanners use heuristics
• 4.4.4.6 - Computable vs Non-Computable
§ Things which can't be solved algorithmically are non-computable.
§ Turing proved some problems are simply non-computable.
• 4.4.4.7 - THE HALTING PROBLEM
§ Problem of, whether a given input, a program will finish running
or continue for ever.
§ Turing proved that no machine can solve this for all possible
inputs.
§ Shows there are some problems which cannot be solved by
computer.
• 4.4.5 - Turing Machines
o A turing machine can be views as a computer with a single fixed program with
• A finite set of states in a state transition diagram
• A finite alphabet of symbols
• An infinite tape with marked off symbols
• Sensing read-write head that can travel along the tape, one square at the
time.
o States include:
• Start state
• Halting state (any state with no outgoing transitions)
o Example is:
• Binary alphabet of 1, 0 or blank
• And a machine can increment by one
o Transition Functions
• Transition rule can be represented by a function d (delta)
• D(Current State, Input Symbol) = (Next State, Output Symbol,
Movement)
o Universal Turing Machine
• A turing machine can theoretically represent any computation
• The UTM can be used to compute any computable sequence - effectively
by compiling something which is written at the beginning of the tape.
• Anything which is computable can be computed by a turing machine.
Otherwise, it is not computable.
• Led to the idea of the stored program computer - program and data
stored in memory

4.5 – Fundamentals of Data Representation

Number Systems
N: Natural Numbers – positive integer or nonnegative integer (some people choose to
include zero while others do not)
Z: Integers – numbers which can be represented without a fractional or decimal part. The
natural numbers are a subset of the integers.
Q: Rational Numbers – numbers which can be represented as a fraction. Irrational numbers
such as p are numbers which cannot be represented as a fraction
R: Real Numbers – set including all natural, rational and irrational numbers.
Ordinal Numbers: Indicate the numerical position of objects – 1st, 2nd etc.

Number Bases
Different number bases show how many possible numbers could be represented by a single
character.
Denary: Base 10 – makes use of ‘0’ to ‘9’
Binary: Base 2 – makes use of ‘0’ and ‘1’
Hexadecimal: Base 16 – makes use of ‘0’ to ‘9’ and ‘A’ to ‘F’
Conversion
1. Denary to Binary
a. Find the largest 2^n that would fit into the number and then subtract
this from the original number. From here, look at all possible 2^n-x
where n-x >= 0, putting a 0 if it would not fit in what is left of the
number or a 1 if it would, then subtracting this from the number.
2. Binary to Denary
a. Using the multipliers of each column, add up the values to find the
original number, for example:
0 1 1 1
x8 x4 x2 x1
0 4 2 1
Therefore
0111 = 0
+4+2+
1=7
3. Binary to Hexadecimal
a. Look at each nibble (four bits) of the number separately, converting
each into hex, (largely through converting through denary) then
combining each hex equivalent of each nibble to form one complete
hexadecimal number.
4. Hexadecimal to Binary
a. Convert each hexadecimal digit directly into a nibble, converting
through denary, then recombining the value afterwards.
5. Denary to Hexadecimal
a. Follow the same process as for denary to binary just for 16 as
opposed to 2.
6. Hexadecimal to Denary
a. Using the multipliers of each digit, add up the values to find the
original number.
Hexadecimal Advantages:
 7. Used to represent binary since it can represent a byte in only two digits
rather than the eight required if binary were to be used.
8. Easy for technicians and computer user to remember hexadecimal digits.
9. Easy to convert to and from raw values on the computer, since binary can be
easily converted to hex.

Binary
Terminology
• Bit = fundamental piece of information – a single 1 or 0
• Byte = set of eight bits
• Nibble = set of four bits
• Signed Integers are when the binary can represent both positive and negative numbers,
where integers are unsigned when that can only represent nonnegative integers.

Unit Nomenclature
Name Symbol Power
Kibi Ki 210
Mebi Mi 220
Gibi Gi 230
Tebi Ti 240
Pebi Pi 250
Exbi Ei 260
Zebi Zi 270
Yobi Yi 280

Kilo K 103
Mega M 106
Giga G 109
Terra T 1012
Peta P 1015
Exa E 1018
Zetta Z 1021
Yotta Y 1024

ASCII Table
The standard manner for representing the characters on a keyboard is called ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange). ASCII originally only used 7 bits, but
there was an increase into an 8 bit version to attempt to include more characters such as
those in foreign languages. Subsequently, there was the production of Unicode (UTF-16 and
UTF-32) which have all the possible characters that could be needed. However, this ensured
that the first 128 characters were the same as those in ASCII to ensure there was complete
compatibility with this.
Important Characters:
• ‘ ’ = 32
• ‘0’ = 48
• ‘A’ = 65
• ‘a’ = 97

Representing Negative Numbers

Two’s Complement: Two’s complement is a system where the most significant bit of the
sum indicates whether the number is positive or negative, while the rest of the system
determine the value of it. The range that can be given by a two’s complement number is
hence:
−(2$%& ) to 2$%& − 1 (where n is the number of bits used)
Therefore, for an eight bit two’s complement number, any number between -128 and 127
can be represented.
Converting Denary to Two’s Complement
• Denary = -10
• Binary of 10 = 0000 1010
• FLIP the bits = 1111 0101
• Add one = 1111 0110
Converting Two’s Complement to Denary
• Two’s complement = 1110 0101
• FLIP the bits = 0001 1010
• Add one = 0001 1011
• Therefore, positive denary = 1 + 2 + 8 + 16 = 27
• Therefore, original was -27
OR
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
-128 64 32 4 1
-128 +
64 + 32
+4+1=
-27
Representing Fractions
The binary system continues from 20 to 2-1 (0.5) etc, hence allowing us to represent
decimals. However, it is important to note that the system is less useful than the decimal
system as many decimals would require infinite bits to represent them, such as 0.2 and 0.3.
To convert from decimal to fixed point binary is similar to convert from denary to binary,
where one attempts to find the largest 2n that would fit in the decimal before moving
further to lower n, until the entire decimal has been represented in the binary using 2n +
2m…
Another way of representing fractions is making use of floating point numbers

Floating Point Numbers

Rounding Error: An important problem with both floating point and fixed point numbers is
that they cannot necessarily be represented in binary. Some numbers, such as 0.1, simply
cannot be represented as a string of binary numbers.
• Absolute error can be calculated as the difference between the number to be
represented and actual representation.
• Relative error is the absolute error divided by the number, and may be expressed
as a percentage.

Floating Point Binary Numbers:

Made up of three parts, the sign bit, the mantissa and the exponent. To convert the floating
point number to a decimal, the number must be translated to the correct binary, by shifting
it the requisite number of places, before converting it to denary.

Normalisation: Normalisation is the process of moving the binary point of a floating point
number to provide the maximum level of precision for a given number of bits.

A positive number starts off with a 01, while negatives should start with a 10 - the mantissa
of a negative number in normalised form always lies between -1/2 and -1.

FIXED POINT vs FLOATING POINT

Floating point allows for greater range of numbers using the same number of bits,
Fixed point depends entirely on the number of places before the binary point and the
number of places after the binary point. However, it is much simpler and faster to process.

UNDERFLOW AND OVERFLOW

Underflow occurs when a number is too small to be represented in the allocated number of
bits - eg. For example, a small number is divided by another small number, underflow will
occur and the answer will be represented by 0.

Overflow occurs when the result of a calculation is too large to be stored in the number of
bits allocated.

Error Checking
Parity Bits: This was developed especially when there was an extra bit, when 7 bit ASCII
code was used. This extra bit could help to find if there was a single change. There are two
types of parity bits, even parity and odd parity. This works by ensuring that the number of
1s in the byte are even or odd respectively by using the 8th bit as a 0 or 1 as required. This
ensures that if there is a change in the rest of the byte (or indeed in the parity bit), the
receiver on attempting to verify it, would find that there was a problem, and hence request
retransmission. However, if there are two (or even number) of problems, this would not find
that.

Majority Voting: Majority voting is a system which would require the same bit to be sent
three times. On the receiving end, these are evaluated for each bit and it chooses the
majority receipt (0 or 1) to be the correct one that had been sent, assuming that the
majority of transmissions would be correct.

Checksums: Checksums work by adding up the value of all of the bytes separately and
sending this value in addition to everything else. Therefore, it is likely (though not
guaranteed) that if there are any changes in any of the bytes it would change the value of
the checksum, hence registering a problem on the receiving end. This would then allow the
receiving computer to request retransmission of the information.

Checkdigit: A checkdigit is similar to a checksum and includes an additional digit at the end
of the string of the other numbers. An example of a use of checkdigits is in the ISBN
(International Standard Book Number) and EAN (European Article Number) which is specific
to each book. They make use of the modulo 10 system.
ISBN 9 7 8 0 9 5 6 1 4 3 0 5 1
Weight 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3
Multiplication 9 21 8 0 9 15 6 3 4 9 0 15
Addition Numbers 99
are added
together
Remainder The answer 9
is divided by
10 with the
remainder
being found
(99 % 10)
Subtraction The answer 1
is
subtracted
from 10

Representing Graphics
Bitmapped Images
A bitmap (or raster) contains many picture elements or pixels that make up the whole
image. A pixel is the smallest identifiable area of an image. Each pixel is attributed a binary
value which represents a single colour.
The Resolution of the image can be expressed by width in pixels x height in pixels. It is
sometimes also expressed as the number of pixels per inch, PPI, and refers to the density of
the pixels. For printing, there is a similar measure of DPI (dots per inch) which refers to the
printing quality of a printer.

The Color Depth of the image refers to the number of bits assigned to each pixels taken to
describe the colour of the pixel. The more bits which are used, the greater accuracy of
colour that will occur. The current standard is 3 bytes per pixel, allowing for one byte for
red, one for green and one for blue. Sometimes an extra byte is used as an alpha channel to
control transparency.

The Metadata specifies the properties of the image, including the colour depth, width and
height of the image.

Vector Graphics
Vector graphics allows for the storage of an image in terms of geometric shapes or objects
such as lines, curve, arcs and polygons. A vector file stores the necessary details about each
shape to redraw the object when the file loads, including its position, and for example for a
circle, radius, fill colour, line colour, line style and line width. These properties are stored in
a drawing list which specifies how to redraw the image.
Vector Graphics Bitmapped Graphics

Scaling Vector graphics scale Bitmapped images do

perfectly, regardless of how not scale well, simply
large or small the image increasing the sizes of
should be. the pixels leading to
blurring at large
scaling.

File Size For simple images, with lots Bitmapped images are
of geometric shapes, vector worse for simple
graphics are much more shapes but more
efficient, taking up much less efficient for complex
space on disk. However, for images, especially with
complex shapes with lots of images with
changing colours, and few continuous areas of
geometric shapes, which changing colours.
could be abstracted from the
image, the file size is very
large, often with a specific list
item (square) required for
every single pixel, being far
larger than the binary
equivalent.
 Manipulation Vector graphics are easy to While large scale
manipulate in changing the manipulation is harder,
position and properties of the fine changes are much
objects however it is very more simple, with the
hard to change small photo being able to
specifics, since the only manipulated to the
changes that are allowed are pixel.
to the properties of the
object.

Representing Sound
Sample Resolution: The resolution of a sound is increased by a greater audio bit depth
which describes the number of bits which would be used to describe the amplitude of the
sound at a given point in time. Each point at the sample rate must be represented by a
binary value and hence the more bits used to describe this amplitude means a greater
accuracy compared to the original analog sound.

Sample Rate: The sampling rate is the rate at which one records the amplitude of the
sound. The more often the sample is taken, the smoother the playback is, with fewer large
changes in the amplitude between samples. However, the greater the sampling rate, the
more space is required for the information about the song, hence leading to the song taking
up more space on the hard disk.

Nyquist’s Theorem: Henry Nyquist in 1928 found that in order to produce an accurate
recording, the sample rate should be double the maximum frequency of the original signal,
with the theory being proved by Claude Shannon. Therefore, music is generally sampled at
44,100 Hz (the max audible frequency for humans is around 20,000 Hz).

ADC:
• In order to convert analog music into digital music, a microphone must record samples
at a regular interval (the sample rate). Each sample is then quantised, where the wave
height is measured and given an integer value, which can be represented in binary, using
a specific audio bit depth that is being used.
• To output a sound, the binary values for a sample point are translated back into
analogue signals or voltage levels and sent to an amplifier.

MIDI
A Musical Instrument Digital Interface is a list of instructions that allow a device to
synthesise a sound based on digital samples and samples of sounds created from different
sources of instruments. Therefore, the file is generally much smaller (1,000 times) than
conventional recordings). Hence, they are often used for phone ringtones.

Event Messages: Since MIDI files generate music used a timed sequence of instructions,
they can also send event messaged to other instruments to synchronise tempo or control
pitch and volume changes.
Metadata: MIDI files contain the information for a computer to recreate it accurately
including the duration of the note, the instrument, volume and timbre.

Data Compression
Data compression techniques attempt to reduce the size of files on the disk. This is highly
important previously when the cost of storage was very high, however, it is still quite
important when the size of the file is important as the file must be transmitted over the
internet. Compression can be lossy when the quality of the file after the compression is
reduced and lossless when the lossless compression retains all information to ensure the
original file can be replicated exactly.

Lossy Compression
This works by removing non-essential information. In images, this often works by reducing
the colour depth ad in reducing the pixel size. In music files, frequencies which could not
otherwise be heard are removed, while quiet sounds which are played at the same time as
loud ones are also removed, meaning the final file is around 10% of the original size. When
we talk over a telephone, the system makes use of lossy compression.

Lossless Compression
Lossless compression looks at patterns in the file to reduce the size of the data. Using the
patterns and a set of instructions on how to use them, the compressed file can easily be
returned to the original.
Run Length Encoding (RLE): Instead of recording every item in a repeating sequence, RLE
find these sequences and records how many times and where these are used, therefore
saving the space required to repeat these many times.
Dictionary-Based Compression: The system is useful when sending text files. Words are
looked up into a common dictionary, finding their place in the dictionary. Therefore, this
number can be transferred instead of the actual word. For example, ‘pelican’ which would
otherwise require 7 bytes to be sent can be sent in two bytes.

Encryption
Encryption is the transformation of data from one form to another to prevent an
unauthorised third party from being able to understand it.

Caesar Cipher

One of the earliest form of ciphers, as used famously by Julius Caesar, to ensure secrecy in
messages was a shift cipher where each letter of the message was moved a certain number
of characters up or down the alphabet, such that a shift encryption with a 3-shift of CAT is
FDX. This is in essence a very simple cipher, and relied mostly upon the reader not spending
the time to break the number of possibilities, clearly 26, the number of possible shifts that
could occur, each one producing a different result.

Over time, a more sophisticated form of breaking shift ciphers and in fact a number of other
ciphers, was developed by the Arab polymath, Al Kindi, in his paper, ‘A Manuscript on
Deciphering Cryptographic Messages’, by investigating the text of the Qu’ran.

The process relies upon the fact that in certain languages the frequency of certain letters is
characteristic. Thus, by investigating the frequency of letters in the encrypted text, one can
easily see the code, as the graph would likely be shifted to the side, such that the peaks and
troughs would be moved a certain amount. Therefore, one can easily find the likely shifts,
reducing the number of attempts required to find the exact shift used.

Vernam Cipher
The Vernam Cipher is the only cipher to still be proven as unbreakable (by Claude Shannon).
It relies on the use of the one-time pad.

One Tine Pad

According to many, Claude Shannon is the father of modern cryptography whose concepts
are still used today, when designing new ciphers. Shannon’s work addressed the ‘problems
of cryptography’. He largely separated the types of cryptography into two categories, one
where the cipher was designed to protect against hackers who have infinite resources, now
known as unconditional secrecy and a second, where the cipher protects against hackers
with finite amount of resources. He also began to define the idea of ‘Perfect Secrecy’ the
cipher text conveys ‘no information about the content of the plaintext’. The manner in
which this can occur is using the One-Time Pad, where frequency analysis and other
cryptanalytic techniques would have no effect upon the encrypted text. The One-Time Pad
is similar to the Polyalphabetic and Substitution Cipher except that the code (key) is entirely
random (as opposed to pseudorandom) and as long as the text to be encoded, such that
there is no repetition of the entire code, which leaves the polyalphabetic code vulnerable.
Shannon proved that perfect secrecy was only possible if this was true. It makes use of the
bitwise XOR operator, which is carried out on the key and the plaintext for each bit.
 Plaintext: M Key XOR
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

Though the One-Time Pad is by far the most sophisticated type of cipher that we have
encountered so far, there are a few issues that it introduces. Firstly, the length of the code
must be at least as long if not longer than the message that the people wish to encrypt, thus
taking up a lot of length. This makes it very difficult to remember and use effectively.
Additionally, the question becomes how to ensure that both parties have the same code, to
decrypt and encrypt the message, since much of the communication is not in person and
rely upon inherently insecure systems such as the internet. The mechanisms of fixing these
issues were fundamentally fixed in RSA and the Diffie-Helman Key Exchange System.

4.6 – Fundamentals of Computer Systems

Hardware & Software
Hardware is the term used to describe the physical parts of a computer and its input, output and
storage devices.
Software comprises of all of the programs that are written to make computers function. The
software operates on the hardware and cannot exist without it. On the other hand, the hardware
can exist without software.

Classification of Software
Software is broadly classified into system software and application software. Application Software
is software completing a task which would need to be done whether or not the person had a
computer. On the other hand, System Software would be unrequired if the person does not have a
computer.

System Software
System software is the software needed to run the computer’s hardware and application programs,
including the operating system, utility programs, libraries and programming language translators.
Operating System: An operating system is a set of programs that lies between application software
and the computer hardware. It serves many different functions including: resource management –
managing all the computer hardware including the CPU, memory, disk drives, IO devices and
provision of a user interface to enable users to perform all the tasks required.
Utility Programs: Utility software is a system software designed to optimise the performance of the
computer or perform tasks such as backing up files, restoring corrupted files from backup, etc.
Examples include a Disk Defragmenter is a program which will reorganise the hard disk so that files
which have been split up into blocks and stored all over the disk. The defragmenter recombines the
files into sequential blocks. A virus checker is another example of a utility program which checks
your hard drive to ensure that there aren’t any viruses.
Libraries: Library programs are ready-compiled which can be run when needed and which are
grouped together in software libraries. Most compiled languages have their own libraries of pre-
written functions which can be invoked in a defined manner from within the user’s program.
Translators: Programming Language Translators fall into three categories: compilers, interpreters
and assemblers.

Application Software
Application Software can be categorised as General Purpose, Special Purpose or Custom-Written.
General Purpose: Software such as word-processor, spreadsheet software which can be used for
multiple purposes.
Special-Purpose: Software which completes a single specific task or set of tasks to serve a niche.
Examples include payroll and accounts software. Software can be bought as ‘off-the-shelf’ or
‘bespoke’ software. While bespoke software is likely to more correctly and properly satisfy the
requirements of the user, it is likely to be far more expensive, as well as requiring the user to well
define the exact requirements of the software which can be challenging.

Role of an Operating System

An operating system is a program or set of programs that manages the operations of the computer
for the user. It acts as a bridge between the user and the computer’s hardware, since a user
cannot communicate directly with hardware.
Functions of an OS
1. Creation of a Virtual Machine
a. The OS disguises the complexities of managing and communicating with its hardware from
the user via a simple interface. Through this interface, a user can complete all the actions
they want to do.
b. A Virtual Machine is any instance when software is used to take on the function of the
machine, including executing intermediate code or running an operating system within
another to emulate different hardware.
2. Memory Management
a. The RAM of a computer is not large enough to store all running programs simultaneously
so that the hard disk is used as virtual memory. Since the virtual memory is much slower
to access than the RAM, it is important for the OS to ensure the programs that are being
used are stored on the RAM, while the others are stored in the Virtual Memory.
3. Processor Scheduling
a. When multiple tasks are being completed at the same time, the OS is responsible for
allocating processor time to each one as they compete for the CPU. While one application
is busy using the CPU for processing, the OS can queue up the next process required by
another application to make the most efficient use of the processor.
b. It also ensures that computers with lager processors can complete multiple tasks at the
same time (by completing small parts of each larger task in sequence).
c. The scheduler is the module responsible for ensuring that the processor time is used as
efficiently as possible.
i. Objectives
1. Maximise throughput
2. Ensure all users on a multi-user system receive their requirements
3. Provide acceptable response time to all users
4. Ensures that hardware resources are kept as busy as possible.
4. Backing Store Management
a. This stores the areas of the disk where the files are stored, and where the free space is,
containing an index of what is in every part of the disk.
5. Peripheral Management
a. This manages all the Input / Output devices connected to the computer – including the
keyboard, mouse, printer.
6. Interrupt Handling
a. An interrupt is a signal from a peripheral or software program that causes the operating
system to stop processing its current list of instructions and carry out the request as
defined in the interrupt.
7. Provision of a User Interface
a. This includes many forms of interface from a command line interface, such as in MS-DOS,
to a Graphical User Interface such as in Microsoft Windows.
OS for Embedded Systems
OSs are also required for all kinds of systems from a washing machine, with differences in everything
from the hardware of the system to the requirements of the system.

Programming Language Classification

Development: The first computers were made in Bletchley Park during the Second World War, when
they attempted to crack the Enigma Code. The earliest computers had a very limited memory (with
each memory cell being made of a vacuum tube) of around 16 bits, a special memory location in
which all calculations were carried out and a control unit that decoded instructions. In order to
program a computer, one has to enter valid machine code (in binary).
Machine Code
In Machine Code, an instruction makes use of an operation code (opcode) in the first few bits and
the operand in the rest of the memory cell, including the data to be operated on or the address
where the data would be held.

The above table shows the possible opcodes of lots of different commands. Machine Code is a very
low-level programming language, because the code reflects how the computer carries out the
command – it is dependent on the specific architecture of the computer.
Assembly Code
From here, there was the development of a slightly higher (second generation) level programming
language, where the opcode was replaced by a mnemonic which showed what the operator was
doing. Additionally, the binary for the operand was replaced by a denary value.
High Level Programming Language
From here, there was the development of high level programming languages, where a single line of
code no longer represented one instruction of the computer (one clock cycle). This allows the coder
to easily code algorithms, using the imperative high-level languages (FORTRAN = FORmula
TRANsmission), without needing to worry about how the machine would handle the code. They are
known as imperative languages, since every line is a single command to do something. Additionally,
the language was identical for every computer, with different architectures, with different
processors, which would require different machine and assembly codes. Though the system is often
easier for programmers to write to use, it is sometimes less efficient than using the assembly code,
programming the complete system. This means for some systems where the program needs to
execute as fast as possible, such as in embedded systems, the program is better off being written in
Assembly Code. Additionally, Assembly Code takes up much less space on a disk than higher level
programming languages, also not requiring a translator.
Imperative Programming involves writing your program as a series of instructions that can actively
modify memory, focusing on how, in the sense that you express the logic of your program based on
how the computer would execute it.
Functional programming involves writing your program in terms of functions and other
mathematical structures, focusing on what, attempting to specify the logic of your program, hence
allowing for the rules of the way in which the program runs in order to solve the problem.

Program Translators
Assembler: Converts each assembly line (source code = code made by the user) piece of code into
machine code (object code = the code which is created post assembly or compilation which is
executable and can be run directly by the computer). This is specific to the computer that is being
used, since the machine code instruction set would differ (though slightly) between different
architectures.
Compiler: Compiler converts high-level code into machine code, therefore still requiring the
compiler to be specific to the exact architecture and platform of the computer.
Interpreter: Interpreting is a different option to compilation, where the interpreter will look at each
line in term, checking for syntactical errors, before translating it into machine code and running it.
(In fact, the interpreter completes a cursory scan looking for flow issues, such as missing brackets etc
before beginning the translation of the first line). This means that if there is a problem in the code,
then the computer will run until that point before registering a problem. Therefore, it is particularly
useful for testing and finding problems in long pieces of code.
Bytecode: In fact, the majority of interpreted languages do not convert to machine code, instead
going to bytecode, which can be executed using a bytecode compiler.

Compiler Interpreter
Advantages Object code can be saved on disk Faster, as the entire code does
and run without needing to not have to be compiled before
recompile the program. running the program. This is
particularly important during
Once compiled, object code runs the program development
faster than interpreted code. For phases when there would be a
interpreted code things like loops number of minor errors, which
are very inefficient, since they are would each require lengthy
converted to machine code every recompilations.
time they are encountered, instead
of being translated once as would It is easier to partially test and
happen with compiled languages. debug programs.

Object code is more secure – hard

to reverse engineer

Can be distributed without a

compiler present.

Logic Gates
Logic gates allow the user to complete conditionals, changing an outputted voltage (or signal)
depending on the various inputs that are occurring. There are a number of different logic gates:

NOT gate
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = ????????
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
AND gate
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡@ ∙ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡B

OR gate
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡@ + 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡B
XOR gate
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡@ D 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡B = (𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡@ ∙ ????????? ?????????
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡B ) + (𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 @ ∙ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡B )

NOR gate
??????????????????????
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 @ + 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡B
NAND gate
?????????????????????
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 @ ∙ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡B
Boolean Algebra
De Morgan’s Laws
𝐴̅ ∙ 𝐵? = 𝐴
????????
+ 𝐵
𝐴̅ + 𝐵? = ???????
𝐴 ∙ 𝐵
Other Laws
X·0=0
X·1=1
X·X=X
X · X’ = 0
X+0=X
X+1=1
X+X=X
X + X’ = 1
X’’ = X

X·Y=Y·X
X+Y=Y+X

X(Y·Z) = (X·Y)Z
X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z

X(Y + Z) = X·Y + X·Z

(X+Y)(W+Z) = X·W + X·Z + Y·W + Y·Z

ADDERS and D-Type Flip Flops

Half-Adder

S = A XOR B
C=A.B
Full Adder
S = A XOR B XOR C
C = (A.B)+(C.(A XOR B))
By connecting multiple full adders together, to complete a concatenated adder capable of adding a
binary number of n bits.

D-type flip-flops
Elemental Sequential Logic Circuit that can store one bit and flip between states - has two inputs, a
control input labelled D and a clock signal.
D type flip flop is a positive edge-triggered flip-flop, so it can only change input value from 1 to 0 or
visa verca when the clock is at a a rising edge.
When the clock is not at a positive edge, the input value is held and does not change. HENCE, CAN
BE USED AS A MEMORY CELL.

4.7 – Fundamentals of Computer Organisation and Architecture

Computers have Internal components – those within the computer shell and external components
such as input / output and storage devices. The internal components include:
• Processor
• Main memory
• Address bus, control bus, data bus
• I/O controller
The Processor
The processor contains the Control Unit, the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Registers. The Control
Unit coordinates and controls all the operations carried out by the computer, completing the
Fetch/(Decode)/Execute cycle.
Fetch: The next instruction to be completed is fetched from the memory
Decode: The signals to control the registers and the ALU are completed – decoding the instruction.
Execute: The instruction is completed.
ALU: The ALU completes all the arithmetic functions, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division, while it also performs the logic functions, such as comparisons between two numbers,
and bitwise operators such as AND and OR.
Registers: Registers are memory cells which are very high speed because they are largely very small
and they are located very close to the Control Unit.
General Purpose Registers: There are generally upto 16 general purpose registers in the CPU.
All arithmetic, logical or shift operations take place in registers, which are very fast. Generally,
especially in old computers, there is one dedicated register for the accumulator.

Dedicated Registers
Program Counter (PC): This holds the address of the next instruction to be executed. This may
be the next instruction in a sequence, or if the instruction is a branch or jump instruction, the
next address to jump to.
Current Instruction Register (CIR): Holds the current instruction being executed.
Memory Address Register (MAR): This holds the address of the memory location from which
the data to be fetched or where data is to be written.
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR): Used to temporarily store the data read from or written to
memory – also sometimes known as the memory data register.
Status Register (SR): Contains bits which are set or cleared depending on the result of the
instruction. It includes whether there was an overflow, whether the result was negative or
zero. There is also bit which is used to store whether there is a carry.
Control Unit: The control unit controls and coordinates the activities of the CPU, directing the flow
of data between the CPU and other devices. It accepts the next instruction, decodes it into several
sequential steps such as fetching addresses and data from memory.
System Clock: The system clock generates a series of signals, switching between 0 and 1 around
seven million times a second. Most fetch execute cycles take one clock cycle but a few take a
number of clock cycles.

Buses
The processor is connected to the main memory by three different bus (A bus is a set of parallel
wires connecting two or more components of a computer). The address bus is used when the
memory from a specific place on memory is required. This data is then returned making use of the
data bus, while control signals, especially from the peripherals are sent along the Control Bus. While
both the data bus and control bus are bidirectional with signals passing from the control unit to the
memory and visa-versa, it is important to note that the address bus only carries data from the
control unit to the memory.
Control Bus: Given that the data and address bus are shared by all components the system, the
control lines must be provided to ensure there is no conflict, transmitting timing and status
information between components. The various commands sent over the Control Bus includes:
• Memory Write; data bus information stored into addressed location
• Memory Read: data from addressed location into data bus
• I/O write: Data from data bus to I/O port
• I/O Read: Data from I/O port into data bus
• Bus Request: indication of a device request to use the data bus
• Bus Grant: indication that the Control Unit has granted access to the data bus
Data Bus: The data bus provides paths for moving data containing information from the memory as
well as instructions to the control unit and between other registers. The width of the data bus us a
key factor in determining overall system performance. Most computers are 32 or 64 bit, indicating
that the have a data bus of this width.
Address Bus: The address bus contains the address of the word (collection of memory) that the
control unit should access. As with the data bus, the wider the address bus, the greater amount of
memory the control unit can address. For example, a system with a 32-bit address bus can address
232 memory locations (with general word lengths is generally around 4GB). During I/O operations,
the address bus is also used to address the I/O ports. However, for the address bus, generally this is
unnecessary, and so it is more common for the address bus to make use of multiplexing, where the
first half of the address is sent in one signal and then the rest of it in another signal.
I/O Controller: The IO Controller is a device which interfaces between an input or output device and
processor. Each device has a separate controller which connects to the control bus. IO Controllers
receive input and output requests from the processor and then can send signals to the device they
control. They also manage the data flow to and from the device. The controller is made up of three
main parts:
• An interface that allows connection of the controller to the system or IO bus
• A set of data, command and status registers.
• An interface (standardised form of connection defining things such as signals, number
connecting pins / sockets and voltage levels) that allows connection of the controller to the
device.
Von Neumann Machine: The von Neumann machine is a machine where there is one main memory
store, where the instructions and the data on which the instructions were being carried out on were
both stored. Almost all computers made today are built on this principle.
Harvard Architecture: The Harvard Architecture is a computer architecture where there are
physically separate memories for instructions and data, allowing the data and instructions to be
fetched in parallel instead of competing for the same bus. Additionally, the two memories can have
different properties, allowing embedded systems where the instructions should never change to
make use of faster and more stable Read only Memory (ROM). Additionally, the system would allow
for different sized data buses (to main memory) and instruction buses to allow for times when the
instructions are complex and long, and hence should have a much larger bus.

Fetch Execute Cycle

• The address of the next instruction is copied from the PC to the MAR
• The instruction held at that address is copied to the MBR
• PC is incremented
• MBR is copied to CIR
• Instruction held in CIR is decoded
• Instruction is executed
Factors effecting processor performance
• Number of cores
a. Computers today make computers faster by tagging a number of identical processors
together in the same integrated circuit (IC). This means there are dual-core, quad-core,
octa-core etc processors which would allow a number of instructions simultaneously, since
each of them would be able to complete a fetch-execute cycle at the same time. However,
it is important to note that the performance is not necessarily proportional to the number
of cores, as the ability of software to optimise the carrying out of multiple actions
simultaneously is generally not perfect.
• Amount of Cache Memory
 a. The cache memory is the very small expensive memory which is very close to the CPU, so
is generally used to store information which is required very often. The larger this
memory, the more information that can be accessed very fast, therefore making the
computer faster.
b. There are three types of cache classed depending on where they are (closer to CPU is
faster)
i. L1 – very small (2-64KB) – very close to CPU
ii. L2 – (256KB-2MB) – fairly close to CPU
iii. L3 – relatively large (hundreds of MB) – quite close to RAM (so far from CPU)
• Clock Speed
a. Most actions are completed at the ticking of the clock, though some actions will take
longer than a single clock cycle.
b. Therefore, a faster clock speed will mean that more actions can be carried out per second.
• Word Length
a. The words size of a computer is the number of bits the CPU can process simultaneously,
therefore how much they can process through registers such as the ALU. Typical word
lengths are 32 or 64 bits.
• Address Bus Length
a. The larger the address bus, the fewer signals would be required to address a single index
on the memory, therefore allowing the processes to happen faster.
• Data Bus Width
a. The larger the width of the data bus, the more data can be transmitted simultaneously,
therefore reducing the time required to complete an instruction, therefore speeding up
the computer.

The Processor Instruction Set

Each processor has its own instruction set, comprising of all the instructions which are supported
by its hardware. This includes the following types of instructions:
• Data Transfer – LOAD, STORE
• Arithmetic Operations – ADD, SUBTRACT
• Comparison Operations - =, <, ≤
• Logical Operations – AND, OR, NOT, XOR
• Branching – conditional or unconditional
• Logical – shift bits right or left
• Halt
Format of a machine code instruction

Operation Operand
Code
Basic Addressing
Machine Mode
Operation
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

The number of bits allocated to the operation code (opcode) and the operand will vary according to
the architecture and word size of the particular processor type. The above example shows an
instruction held in one 16-bit word. In this particular machine, all operations are assumed to take
place in a single register called the accumulator. In more complex architectures, each instruction
may occupy up to 32 bits and allow for multiple operands – including load from memory address x
into register y.
Addressing Modes: There are a number of addressing mdoes which are shown in the two binary
digits which talk about the addressing mode. One of these modes is immediate addressing, where
the operand is the actual numerical value to be operated on. In direct addressing, the operand holds
the memory address of the value to be operated on. Other addressing modes include Register
Addressing where the register contains the value. There is also indirect addressing, where the
operand will contain the memory address of a memory address where the number to operate on is
stored.
Assembly Code: Assembly code directly makes use of this system, representing the system with:
Opcode AddressingMode Operand
Though the system makes use of mnemonics for the opcode as opposed to directly using the binary.
Additionally, the addressing modes make use of characters such as brackets, a ‘#’ and a lack of
anything to indicate the addressing mode being used, while the operand would be represented in
denary (or sometimes hex) instead of binary.
Input-Output Devices
Barcodes
There are two main types of barcodes, QR (Quick Response) codes – which can store far more
information than 1D barcodes and 1D barcodes, such as those found on products, which are made
of differing thicknesses and patterns of black and white rectangles.

Barcode Readers: There are a few types of barcode readers available, including pen-type readers,
laser scanners, CCD readers and camera based readers.
In Pen-type readers, a light source and a photo diode are placed next to each other in the tip of a
pen. To read a barcode, the tip of the pen is dragged across all the bars at an even speed. The photo
diode measures the intensity of the light returning (I guess therefore it can’t be a photodiode – since
this would simply measure if light was coming back…) and therefore, due to the different reflectivity
of white and black (black absorbs more light than white) can measure the widths of the bars and
spaces in the barcode. The simplest systems make use of a specific thickness with black meaning 1,
and white meaning 0. However, there are also more complex alphabetic system, such as the UPC
(universal product code) alphabet, which has an entirely different pattern for each number. Pen-
type scanners are the most durable type of scammers, however, they most come in contact with the
barcode, so cannot be used for many applications. Additionally, it is sometimes challenging to use
them, as one has to move at a very constant speed.
In Laser Scanners, the system is the same, however it uses a line of laser light with an array of light
sensors. This is much faster and they are reliable and economical for low-volume applications, such
as in supermarkets.
In CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) readers, there is a large array of tiny light sensors lined up in a row
at the head of the reader, relying on the fact that there is anyway light that the white parts would
reflect. Therefore, in the same way, the pattern could be found, and the barcode number be found.
In Camera Based Readers, a camera is used to take an image of the barcode. From here, there is a
use of image processing tools to locate a barcode, reorientate and deal with any issues of alignment
in all three axes, and then measure the thicknesses of black and white bars. Hence, the method
could be used when the code is damaged or poorly printed. This is generally also much cheaper than
other methods, as one could even use the hardware on a smartphone.

Digital Cameras
A digital camera makes use of a CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) sensor
comprising of millions of tiny light sensors arranged in a grid. When the shutter opens, the light
enters the camera and projects an image onto the the sensor at the back of the lens (which focuses
the light). Each sensor measures the colur and the brightness of the light which is reaching it, before
sensing the information to a microcontroller which can recombine the readings of all of these
sensors into a complete image.
Some cameras (tend to be higher end) make use of a CCD sensor, since they produce a far higher
quality image, however taking up far more power, and being more expensive, since there are fewer
nodes between the individual sensors and the analogue-digital converters.

RFID
An RFID tag is useful, as, as opposed to barcodes they can be read from over 300 metres away, as
well as being able to transfer more information, passing information between the transmitter and
the receiver wirelessly. The RFI chip consists of a small microchip transponder and an antenna. Since
so little is required, the tag can be very small, even the size of a grain of rice. There are two types of
tags, active tags and passive tags. Active tags also contain a battery to power the tag so it actively
transmits a signal for a reader to pick up. This means that they can also be picked up from further
away. Passive tags instead make use of a radio wave emitted from a reader in order to proved
sufficient electromagnetic power to the card using the antenna. Once powered, the transceiver
inside the RFID tag can send the data to the receiver. These are much smaller, and cheaper, and are
generally far more used, from everything from credit cards to oyster cards.

Laser Printer
A laser printer makes use of powered ink stored in a toner. The printer generates a bitmap image of
the printed page and using a laser unit and a mirror, draws a negative, reverse image onto a
negatively charged drum. The laser light causes the affected areas of the drum to lose their charge.
The drum then rotates past a toner hopper to attract charged toner particles onto the areas which
have not been lasered. Then the ink is bonded to the paper using heat and pressure.
Laser printers are affordable and are largely used when the volume of printing is high. They are also
generally very fast, though colour laser printers (which use cyan, magenta and yellow as well as
black) require the same process to be repeated 4 times for each colour take more time. Additionally,
the quality of a laser printer is generally lower than the quality which can be achieved using an inkjet
printer.

Storage Devices
A secondary storage device is needed because the other memory RAM, which is the memory that is
directly accessed by the processor loses its contents when the computer’s power is turned off. In
order for the computer to be able to store any data for extended periods of time therefore, there
must be another place where the data could be stored more permanently, and this is generally the
hard disk, though today, there has been a switch towards Solid State Drives (SSDs).
Hard Disk: A hard disk uses rigid rotating platters coated with magnetic materials. The iron particles
on the disk are polarised to be either north or south state – representing 0s or 1s. The disk is
separated into concentric circles, and each track is subdivided into sectors.
The disk spins very quickly at speeds up to 10,000 RPM, allowing the drive head to move across the
disk to access different sectors, using a magnet to read and write data to the disk. Finally, the hard
disk likely makes use of a number of platters, each with its own drive head in order to increase the
amount of data which could be read from a single hard disk, without vastly increasing the disks size.
As opposed to Solid State drives, which are much faster, since they use a number of flash ships, hard
drives generally have very large capacities, allowing people to store all required information on
them comfortably. Additionally, they tend to be very cheap.
Optical Disks: Optical Disks (CD ROMs, DVDs and Blu-Ray disks) make use of a high powered laser to
burn sections of its surface, making it less reflective at those points. Hence a laser at a lower power
is used to read the disk by measuring how much light is absorbed and how much reflected by that
part of the disk. Reflective and non-reflective areas are read as 1s and 0s respectively. There is
generally only one track on an optical disk, generally arranged in a spiral.
CD ROMs have a max storage space of 650MB, while a Blu Ray can store around 50GB, since it uses a
much shorter wavelength laser, meaning the thickness of the track is reduced.
Rewritable compact disks use a laser and a magnet to heat a spot on the disk and then set its state
to become a 0 or 1 before it cools again.
A DVD-RW makes use off a phase change alloy that can change between amorphous and crystalline
states by changing the power of the laser beam.
Optical storage is very cheap to produce and can be easily and safely distributed. However, it is
easily damaged by excessive sunlight or scratches.
Solid State Drives (SSDs): SSDs make use of an array of chips arranged on a board, making use of a
large number of NAND flash memory cells and a controller that manages the memory. The cell
works by delivering a current along the bit to lead to electrons going to the floating gate. Hence, this
floating gate can be measured to find if it is a 0 or 1.
Data is stored in pages (of around 4KB) grouped in blocks. Flash memory cannot be overwritten
instead requiring the old data to be removed before the new data can be written to the same
location. However, the individual pages cannot be erased, requiring instead that the entire block be
erased. Hence, the rest of the data needs to be copied to another block before erasing the block and
then moving the required data back.
Solid State Drives tend to have much lower capacities than Hard Disks as well as being much more
expensive, though costs of SSDs are beginning to reduce over time. They are much faster than HDDs
(lower latency), with the read/write speeds being almost double as fast.

4.8 – Consequences and Uses of Computing

Much of this chapter appears to be common sense and a general knowledge and reading of
technology.
Developments in Computer Science and the Digital Technologies have dramatically altered the shape
of communications and information flows in societies, enabling massive transformations in the
capacity to:
• Monitor behaviour
• Amass and analyse personal information
• Distribute, publish, communicate and disseminate personal information.
Computer scientists and software engineers therefore have power, as well as the responsibilities
that go with it, the algorithms that they devise and the code that they deploy should have some
positive impact on the society – embedding moral and cultural values.
One problem that came to one computer scientist, which will be used as a case study, is Edward
Snowden, when he found that the NSA (National Security Agency) was illegally (and immorally) using
software to spy on people. He faced the moral issue of betraying his countries and risking exposing
national secrets versus serving the moral good – telling the population and turning against the NSA.
Edward Snowden
• Revealed information to Guardian journalist in April 2013
• Handed over informayion about a program called PRISM, which allowed the NSA to get
information from the world’s largest Internet companies, including Facebook, Google,
Yahoo, Microsoft, Apple, YouTube, AOL and Skype.
• Included information showing NSA employees how to use the surveillance capabilities and
how to misuse the capabilities.
• Further information showed the actions of the NSA
• Tapping of internet servers, satellites, underwater fibre-optic cables, local and
foreign telephone systems and personal computers
• Tapped individuals from people suspected of terrorist activities to private citizens
from the US, to other citizens and even diplomats in UK and Europe (Angela Merkel
and Nicolas Sarkozy were allegedly hacked).
• Also got metadata from all calls from all calls to / from the USA
• In one month in 2013 – collected data on more than 97 billion emails and
124 billion phone calls.

Cyber-Attacks
• ESTONIA
• In 2007, Estonia suffered a series of cyber-attacks which swamped websites of
organisations including the Estonian Parliament, banks, ministries, newspapers and
broadcasters. This was one of the largest cases of state-sponsored cyber warfare
every seen, sponsored by Russia in retaliation for the relocation of the Bronze
Soldier of Tallinn, an elaborate Soviet-era grave marker, and war graves in Tallinn.
• In 2008, an ethnic Russian Estonian national was charged and convicted of the
crime.
• SONY PICTURES
• In June 2014, the North Korean government threatened action against the US
government if the movie ‘The Interview’ was released.
• In November, Sony Pictures computers were hacked by the ‘Guardians of Peace’, a
group believed by the FBI linked to the North Korean government.

Challenges of the Digital Age

Economic impact of the internet
• When Tim-Berners Lee created the World-Wide Web, he had intended it all to be free, with
no intension to create money for himself or anyone else.
• However, according to many people, it simply created a new small group of companies
which have accumulated huge wealth at the expense of a number of other small regular
companies – therefore, leading to a number of people losing their jobs.
• Amazon
• Started as an online bookstore in 1994
• Diversified into DVDs, software, video games, toys, furniture, clothes and thousands
of other products
• In 2013, company turned over $75 bn in sales.
• Now accounts for 65% of all digital purchases of book sales.
• Now fewer to 4,000 bookshops – 1/3 less than 2005
• Fewer people in jobs
• Where bookshop employs 47 people per $10 bn Amazon employs 14
• eBay
• 41,000 trading goods worth $7.2 mn in 1995
• 162 mn users worth $227.9 bn in 2014
• Destruction of Jobs
 • 2013 paper by Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne
• 47% of total US employment is at risk
• The Future of Employment: how susceptible are jobs to computerisation
• Examined 700 individual occupations
• In the 10 jobs that have a 99% likelihood of being replaced by software and
automation within the next 25 years, Frey and Osbourne include tax
preparers, library assistants, clothing factory workers, and photographic
process workers.
• In fact, jobs in photographics industries have already all but
vanished
• In 1989 – Kodak employed 145,000 people – market cap of $31 bn
• In 2013, the company filed for bankruptcy.
• INSTAGRAM
• Meanwhile, Instagram boomed – 25,000 people
downloaded the app on 6th October 2010
• A month later, it had a million users.
• By early 2012, it had 14 mn users and by November, 100 mn
users, with the app hosting 5bn photos.
• When it was sold for $1bn in 2012 – still had only 13 full-
time employees.
• User-Generated Content
• Sites like YouTube have taken money (and jobs) away from the traditional
movie industries.
• TROLLS
• Trolls, Cyber-Bullying and Misogyny has become a fact of everyday life on the
internet.
• 2010-2011 Arab Spring
• Originally served a good purpose – allowing people to rise up against
tyrannical regimes
• However, began to provoke hatred and serves an anonymous place where
people can use religious hatred.
• Feminist writers and journalists receive hundreds of death threats and rape threats.
• Savage bullying on various social networking sites have led to multiple (many of
them teen) suicides.

4.9 – Fundamentals of Communications and Networking

4.9.1 - Communications
Data communication involves sending and receiving data from one computer or device to another.
Data communication applications include e-mail, supermarket electronics point of sale terminals,
cash dispensers, cell phones and voice over IP.
Data communications also takes place within the CPU and between the CPU and its peripheral
devices, for example, data and addresses along the data and address bus between the processor and
memory, and data is transferred between memory and storage and other peripheral devices.

4.9.1.1 - Communication Methods

Serial Transmission
• Bits are sent via an interface one bit at a time over a single wire from the source to the
destination.
• Very high transfer rates are possible
• Fibre-Optic (using light) – 50Mbps to 100Gbps
• Much cheaper than serial transmission due to the reduction in number of wires required.
• There is no ‘crosstalk’ – where there is a skew leading to blurring of simultaneous transmission
in parallel transmission. This becomes even more pronounced when the signal frequency or the
length of communication increases.
• Much more reliable over greater distances.
• Signal frequency can be much higher than with parallel transmission, resulting in a higher net
data transfer rate even though less data is transferred per cycle.
Parallel Data Transmission
• Several bits are sent simultaneously over a number of parallel wires.
• The method is used inside the computer (using the various computer buses) and for very short
distances of up to a few metres.
• Parallel transmission will transmit data more quickly than serial transmission – however there is
the possibility of skew – where bits sent at the same time may reach at different times – hence
only used for short distances.
Synchronous Transmission
• In synchronous transmission, data is transferred at regular intervals which are timed by a
clocking signal, allowing for a constant and reliable transmission for time-sensitive information.
• Generally used by parallel transmission, for example in the CPU

Asynchronous Transmission
• Using asynchronous transmission, one character is sent at a time, with each character being
preceded by a start bit and an end bit.
• The start bit alerts the receiving device and synchronises the clock inside the receiver ready to
receive the character – ensuring the baud rate at the receiving end is the same as the sender’s
baud rate.
• A parity bit is also included to check against incorrect transmission, thus for every character, 10
bits are required – start bit, parity bit and end bit.
• The start bit can be either a 0 or a 1, with the end bit being the other one.

• This method is generally used by computers when communicating with peripherals.

4.9.1.2 - Communication Basics

Bit Rate: The speed at which data is transmitted serially, measured in bits per second.
Baud Rate: The rate at which the signal changes in voltages.
In baseband mode of operation, the bit rate is equivalent to the baud rate. However, with higher
bandwidths, more than one bit can be coded into a signal and the bit rate will be higher than the
baud rate – by making use of a number of different frequencies of the wave.
Bandwidth: The bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.
It is usually expressed in bits per second (bps) – since there is a direct proportionality between
bandwidth and bit rate – the higher the bit rate, the higher the bandwidth.
Latency: Latency is the time delay between the moment the first byte of a communication starts and
when it is received at its destination. It is a function of how long it takes information to travel at the
speed of light from source to destination.
Protocol: A protocol is an agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. This
includes a number of things including:
• Physical Connections and Cabling
• Mode of transmission (serial or parallel)
• Speed
• Baud and bit rate
• Data format
• Parity
• Error detection and correction

4.9.2 -Networking
LAN (local area network): A LAN consists of a number of computing devices on a single site
connected together by cables, connecting a number of PCs, printers and scanners and a central
server. Users can communicate with each other as well as sharing data and hardware devices such
as printers. LANs can transmit data very fast but only over a very short distance and there is a limit
to the number of computers that can be connected to a single LAN.

4.9.2.1 - Network Topology

Bus Topology

• In a Bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable, with the ends of the cable
connected to a computer or a terminator.
• Data is transmitted in one direction only at any one time – where all the traffic has equal
transmission priority.
• A device wanting to communicate with another device sends a broadcast message onto the wire
that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient can accept and process the message,
with the system using the system of Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detect
(CSMA/CD).
• Inexpensive to install as it requires less cable than a star topology and does not require any
additional hardware.
• New devices can be easily added without disrupting the network.
• Well suited to small networks not requiring high speeds.
• If the main cable fails, the whole network will go down.
• Limited cable length and number of stations
• The performance of the system will degrade with heavy traffic.
• There is a relatively slow security, where all the computers on the network can see all data
transmissions.
Star Topology

• A star network has a central node which may be a switch, hub or computer which acts as a
router to transmit messages
• A hub simply transmits all the messages received from one line to all other lines, whereas a
switch or router can be more clever, saving where the computer is coming from (using the MAC
address) and only sending the messages to the specific computer that it should be sent to.
• MAC Address: Every computer device has a Network Interface Card (NIC), which would
have a unique media access control address (MAC address) which is assigned and hard-
coded into the card by the manufacturer and it uniquely identifies the device.
• If one cable fails, only one station is affected, so it is easy to isolate faults
• Consistent performance even when the network is being heavily used
• Performance is better than bus network
• No problems with collisions of data
• Messages are more secure
• Easy to add new stations without disrupting the network
• Different stations can communicate with the switch using different protocols.
• More costly, because more cables are required, as well as a central hub or server.
• If the central device fails, the entire network will go down.
Physical vs Logical Topology
The physical topology of a network is the actual design layout, which describes the wiring scheme.
The logical topology is the path in which the data travels and describes how components
communicate across the physical topology

4.9.2.2 - Types of Networking Between Hosts

Client Server Networking
• In a client-server network, one or more computers known as clients are connected to a powerful
central computer known as the server. Each client may hold some of its own files and resources
such as software, and can also access resources held by the server.
• In a large network, there may be several servers, each performing a different task.
• In a client-server network, the client makes a request to the server which then processes the
request
• The security is better, since all files are stored in a central location and access rights are
managed by the server.
• Backups are done centrally so there is no need for individual users to back up their data.
• Data and other resources can be shared.
• It is expensive to install and manage
• Professional IT staff are needed to maintain the servers and run the network.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
• In a P2P network there is no central server. Individual computers are connected to each other,
either locally or over a wide area network so that they can share files.
• Generally, most used (legally) in small local area networks because.
• It is cheap to set up
• It enables users to share resources such as a printer
• It is not difficult to maintain.
• P2P Problems
• Has been widely used for online piracy – impossible to trace the files which are illegally
downloaded.
• Piracy Sites attracted 53 billion visits each year.
• 432 million unique Web users actively searched for content that infringes copyright.

4.9.2.3 - Wireless Networking

Wi-Fi
• Local area wireless technology that enables you to connect to a device such as a PC.
• Via a Wireless Network Access Point (WAP)
• Generally, has a range of about 20 metres indoors, and more outdoors.
• In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed to establish international standards for interoperability
and backward compatibility.
• The alliance consists of a group of several hundred companies around the world, and
enforces the use of standards for device connectivity and network connections
• Components Required
• The computer requires a Wireless Network Interface Controller.
• Combination of computer and interface controller is called a station.
• All stations share a single radio frequency communication channel.
• In order to connect to the internet, the WAP usually connects to a router, but it can
also be an integral part of the router itself.
• Security
• Security protocols used to secure wireless networks include Wi-Fi Protected Access
(WPA) and Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2)
• WPA2 is built into wireless network interface cards, and provides strong encryption of
data transmissions, with the generation of a 128-bit key for each packet being sent.
• Each Wireless Network makes use of a password to prevent unauthorised people from
joining the network.
• One can recognise a specific network using the correct SSID (Service Set
Identifier)
• Whitelists
• Some people can use MAC address whitelists to control who is allowed on the
network – based on the devices MAC address.
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance)
• Protocol for carrier transmission in Wireless LAN networks.
• Prevents collisions before they happen – a collision results in the data being lost
• CSMA/CD (Collision Detect) deals with detecting when collisions occur.
• Prior to transmission, a node first listens for signals on the wireless network is transmitting. If a
signal is detected, it waits for a period of time for the node to stop transmitting and then listens
again.
• With RTS / CTS (Request to Send / Clear to Send)
• Optionally used when determined that no other node is transmitting.
• Counteracts the problem of hidden nodes
• Nodes which the WAP can hear but not the node that is transmitting.
• It involves sending a signal directly to the WAP alone before hearing a signal from the
WAP that the node can send the signal

4.9.3 - The Internet

• Structure of the internet
• Each continent uses backbone cables connected by trans-continental leased lines fed
across the sea beds.
• ISPs connect directly to this backbone and distribute the internet connection to smaller
providers.
• URL
• Uniform Resource Locator is the full address for an internet resource - specifies the
location of a resource on the internet
• Made up of: Method, Host, Location, Resource
• Internet Registries and Registrars
 • Registries required to ensure that a particular domain name is only used by one
organisation, and they hold records of all existing website names and the details of those
domains are available to purchase.
• 5 global organisations governed by ICANN
• Allocate IP addresses and keep track of which addresses a domain is associated with
as part of the DNS
• Domain Names and the Domain Name System (DNS)
• Domain name identifies the area or domain that an internet resource resides in.
• Structured into a hierachy of smaller domains.
• Each had one or more equivalent IP addresses.
• FQDN
• Domain name that includes the host server name - properly identifies exactly which
website to visit.
• IP addresses
• IP address is a unique address that is assigned to a network device.
• Indicates where a packet of data is to be sent or has been sent from.
• Routers can use this address to direct the data packet accordingly.
• PACKET SWTICHING AND ROUTERS
• Packet switching is a method of communicating packets of data across a network on which
other similar communications are happening simultaneously.
• Data transmitted across a network is broken down in more manageable chunks called
packets.
• Size of each packet in a transmission can be fixed or variable.
• Each packet has a header and a payload
• Most may also use a section with a checksum or Cyclical Redundancy Check.
• Header contains information for the packets to be reassembled
• Number of items in sequence
• Item number in sequence.
• Protocol being used with the packet.
• Also includes a TIME TO LIVE (TTL) or HOP LIMIT, after which point the data
packet expires.
• ROUTING PACKETS ACROSS THE INTERNET
• Success of packet switching relies on the ability of packets to be sent from sender to
recipient along entirely separate routes from each other.
• Can be easily reassembled at the receiving end
 • Routers
• Routers are used to connect at least two networks.
• Routers use routing tables to store and update the locations of other network
devices and the most efficient routes to them.
• The routing algorithm used to decide the best route can become a bottleneck in
network traffic since the decision making process can be complicated.
• Gateway
• Routing packets from one another requires a router if the networks share the same
protocol.
• Where these protocols differ between networks, a gateway is used rather than a
router to translate between them.
• All the header data is stripped from the packet, in the format of the new network.
• 4.9.3.2 - Internet Security
• FIREWALL
• Firewall is a security checkpoint designed to prevent unauthorised access
• Can be implemented in both hardware and / or software.
• Firewall consists of a separate computer containing two NICs, with one connected to
the internal network and one connected to the external network.
• Each data packet that attempts to pass through the two NICs is analyses
against rules (packet filters), then accepted or rejected.
• May also act as a proxy server.
• PACKET FILTERING
• Also known as static filtering - contros access according to network admin rules and
policies
• Looks at source and destination IP addresses - check if they are on a whitelist and /
or blacklist.
• Can also be based on the protocols and the port numbers it is trying to access.
• Certain protocols use certain ports - eg Telnet uses port 23.
• Can be denied or rejected.
• Stateful Inspection
• Rather than relying on the IP addresses, protocols and port numbers to govern
packet's safe passage, stateful inspection or dynamic filtering can examine the
contents of a data packet to better assess it for safety.
• Can see if things are a response
• Can also make contextual rules based on the passage of previous packets.
• Proxy Server
 • Intercepts all packets entering and leaving a network, hiding the true network
addresses of the source from the recipient.
• Enables privacy and anonymous surfing.
• Can also maintain a cache of websites commonly visited.
• Encryption
• Symmetric Encryption
• Private Key Encryption
• Uses the same key to encrypt and decrypt data - therefore key must also be
transferred.
• Key can be intercepted.
• Assymetric Encryption
• Uses two separate, but related keys.
• One key, known as public key.
§ People encrypt using this.
• Other key, known as private key.
§ Data can be decrypted using this key.
• However, the data can be encrypted using a public key and sent by a malicious
third party impersonator pretending to be you.
§ Data can be digitally signed.
• Digital Signatures
• Sender creates a message with a checksum. Encrypts with his own private key -
therefore, the other person can test who the person is by decrypting with the
persons public key (and recalculating the checksum and checking it is the same as
expected).
• Data and time can also be included in the original message.
• However, digital signatures could be created using a bogus private key claiming to
be that of a trusted individual.
• Therefore, a digital certificate verifies that a sender's public key is formally
registered to that particular sender.
§ A certificate is issued by official certificate authorities, such as Symantec
or Verisign and verifies the trustworthiness of a message sender or
website.
§ Certificate allows the holder to use the Public Key Infrastructure.
• Worms, Trojans and Viruses
• All types of malware or malicious software.
• Viruses and Worms
 • Have the ability to self-replicate by spreading copies of themselves.
• Worm is a sub-class of virus, the difference between the two is that viruses
rely on other host files to be opened to spread.
§ Worms spread themselves - replicate without user interventions.
§ Once a virus is in memory, any other uninfected file that runs, becomes
infected when it is copied into memory.
§ Worm generally enter computer through a vulnerability.
• Trojans
• Trojan is generally a part of the other programs.
• They open a backdoor to your computer systems that the trojan creator can
exploit.
• This can be order to harvest your personal information or to use your
computer power and network bandwidth.
• Trojans cannot self-replicate.
• System Vulnerabilities
• Malware exploits vulnerabilities in our systems, be they human error or software
bugs.
• How to protect against it
• Firewall
• Being aware of administrative rights.
• Improve code quality
§ Often buffer overflow is used - when program accidentally writes values
to memory locations too small to handle them.
§ Can take advantage of this by forcing the program to write something to
memory, which may consequently alter its behaviour.
• Be aware of Social Engineering
§ Therefore education
§ Spam filtering
• Regular OS and antivirus software updates will also help to reduce the risk of
attack
• Virus checkers.
• 4.9.4 - TCP / IP
• TCP / IP stack is a set of networking protocols that work together as four connected layers,
passing incoming and outgoing data packets
• Application layer
 • Application layer sits at the top of the stack and uses protocols relating to the
application being used to transmit data over a network.
• Chooses the appropriate higher-level protocol for the communication, such as
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), POP3, and FTP.
• Transport layer
• Transport layer uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to establish an end-
to-end connection with the recipient computer.
• Data split into packets and labelled with a port number, the total number of
packets and the port number.
• Network layer
• Network layer, or internet layer, adds the source and destination IP addresses.
• Routers act on the network later and will use these IP addresses to forward
the packets onto the destination.
• Socket specific (IP address + port together) to which device the packet must
be sent to and the application being used on that device.
• Link layer
• Link layer is the physical connection between network nodes and adds the
Media Access Control (MAC) address, identifying the NICs of the source and
destination devices.
• These means that once the packet finds the correct network using the IP
address.
• Can then locate the exact device.
• Unless two computers on the same network, destination MAC address will be
the MAC address of the first router that the packet is sent to.
• At receiving end, the MAC address is stripped off by the link layer, which
passes the packets onto the network layer.
• MAC Addresses
• MAC address is a unique 12-digit hex code that is hardcoded on ever NIC during
manufacture.
• Well known ports

Server Port Number Protocol

20 FTP
21 FTP
22 SSH
23 Telnet
25 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
80 HTTP
110 POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3)
 143 IMAP (Interim Mail Access Protocol)
443 HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
• FTP
• FTP is a simple method to transfer files across the Internet.
• Works as a very high level protocol in the Application Layer.
• Using a client on top of the protocol, user actions can generate the FTP commands
automatically.
• Moet FTP sites require a username and password to be used, but some are
configured to allow anonymous use without the need for any login information.
• SSH
• Used for remotely accessing and managing a computer.
• Replace telnet, which used no encryption.
• Similar to MS-DOS commands.
• Can use SSH with other application level protocols which means that you can create
a 'tunnel' through which HTTP, POP3 or SMTP requests can operate. This means that
an HTTP GET can be sent securely and bypass any network restrictions which have
been imposed.
• Mail Server
• Mail server acts as a virtual post office for incoming and outgoing email.
• Servers route mail according to its database of local network user's email address.
• POP3 is responsivble for retrieving emails from a mail server that temporarily stores
incoming emails.
• When retrieved, they are transferred to a local computer and deleted server.
• Therefore, only accessible on one device.
• IMAP stores emails on the server.
• SMTP is used to transfer outgoing emails from one server to another or from the
email client to the server.
• Web Servers
• Web server hosts website and handles client requests - using HTTP to send content
to users who want to view pages of the website.
• Stored as text filed (HTML, CSS and JavaScript)
• Rendering web pages
• When HTTP response is received, it is parsed to fit a hierachical model.
• HTML broken down into Document Object Model (DOM) tree.
• CSSDOM for css and related to HTML tags.
• Further requests for any required images or other resources must be used.
 • Lastly, JavaScript is parsed and executed as required or event handlers
established.
• IP address (4,9.4.3 - 4.9.4.9)
• Unique numerical address used to identify a host computer or network node trying to
communicate over IP on the Internet.
• Two standards
• IPv4 (1983)
• 4 Billion addresses
• 32 Bits
• IPv6 (1999)
• 128 Bits
• Written in dotted decimal - each part represents a 8-bit binary pattern (uptil 255)
• Reserved Ips
• 127.x.x.x
• x.x.x.0 - Network Identifier
• x.x.x.255 - Reserved as the broadcast address on that subnet where data is sent to
all hosts.
• x.x.x.1 - Generally the router.
• Network ID and Host ID (IP address is split into these parts)
• Classless addressing
• Which class this was a member of, determined the number of bits used for the
network id
• Eg, class A had 7 bits of network ids.
• Classful addressing
• Defines the number of bits in the subnet mask
§ Eg. 103.27.104.92/24
§ Therefore first 24 bits are of the network id and the rest are the host id.
• Subnet Masking
• Subnet Mask is used in conjunction with an IP address to identify the two unique
parts of the address.
• 255.255.255.0 therefore 24 bits for network id.
• ANDed with the IP address to separate network ID from the full ip address
• Subnetting
• Network admin of large organisation can create subnetwork segments to ease
the management of the system and improve efficiency.
 • Subnetting reduces the size of the broadcast domain, therefore improving
security, speed and reliability.
• Subnet ID is created by using the most significant bits of the host ID and altering
them.
• Public and Private IP addresses
• Public IP address is globally unique and can be addressed directly by any other
computer in the world.
• Company's web server or home internet router would require a public IP address.
• Within the local network, addresses can be private and the web server can forward
all data going through to the correct device.
• Therefore, uses Network Address Translation to convert from public address to
private address by the router.
• NAT
• When passing through a public address space - for example router.
• Eg, changing the IP address on packet to the public facing IP address.
• Also logs this request on a translation table - therefore when the response is
received, it looks this up in the table and returns the traffic to the correct
machine.
• Also offers an additional layer of security by automatically creating a firewall
between the internet and external networks.
• Port Forwarding
• Product of NAT
• When a public computer is attempting to communicate with a computer on the
private network, the NAT needs to forward all the responses to a specific private IP
address.
• Therefore, can forward all requests to a certain port to a certain private IP address.
• DHCP
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
• Used to automatically assign a dynamic IP address from a pool of available IP
addresses to a computer attempting to operate on the public network.
• Since IP addresses are in short supply.
• Allows computers to only use IP address when they are active and then return
it to the pool when done.
• Also provides the Subnet mask and other automatic configuration details.
• Client Server Model
• In client server model, client will send a request message to a server which should respond
with the data requested.
 • For example with an HTTP request
• API (APPLICATION PROGRAMMING INTERFACE)
• API is a set of protocols that governs how two applications should interact with one
another.
• An API sets out the format of requests and responses between a client and server
and enables one application.
• WebSocket Protocol
• Another example of an API
• WebSocket is a modern application layer protocol that facilitates a persistent
bi-directional communication channel between the client and the server over
a single line.
• Known as full-duplex communication
• Greatly reduced in size as they use much less header information.
§ All packets are accepted without any security checks.
• Web CRUD applications
• Create, Retrieve, Update, Delete
• Four fundamental operations of a content management system
• Related to the four main functions of databases
• INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE
• REST
• Representational State Transfer
• Style of systems design that relies upon HTTP request methods to interact with
online databases, via a web server.
• Client computer requires no knowledge of how the server is likely to fulfil the
request, how the data is stored or where it will gather the data.
• The separation allows any client or server to be updated and developed
independently of each other without any loss of functions.
• HTTP request methods
• Uses common standards of verbs or actions
§ GET, POST, PUT, PATCH, DELETE
• Json vs XML
• Javascript Object Notation vs Extensible Markup Language)
• They are the two methods for transfering data between the server and the web
application.
• Advantages of JSON vs XML
 • Easier for a human to read
• More compact
• Easier to create
• Easier for computers to parse (and therefore quicker)
• Thick vs Think Client Computing
• Refers to the level of processing that it does compared to the server it is connected to.
• More processing and storage that a server does, the thinner the client becomes.

+ -
Thin- Easy to set up, maintain Reliant on the server
Client
More secure Requires powerful and reliable
server - therefore expensive
Easier to update
Server demand and bandwidth
increased

Takes more battery on the client

Thick Robust and reliable More expensive client computers
Client required
Can operate without continuous
connection to server Software must be installed on all
client computers
Generally better for running more
powerful software applications Integrity issues with distributed
data

4.10 – Fundamentals of Databases

• Data Models and Entity Relationship Models
• Relational Databases
• Database design and normalisations
• SQL
• Client Server Databases - Concurrent access

• Entity Relationship Modelling

o Entities is a category of object, person, event or thing of interest to an organisation
about which data is to be recorded.
• Each entity can have a number of attributes
§ Characteristic of an entity.
o Entity description written as Entity1(Attribute1, Attribute2 … )
o Each entity needs to have an entity identifier which uniquely identifies the entity
• In a relational database, this is the primary key.
• This is underlined in the entity description
• Entity Relationship Diagrams
 o

• Concept of a relational database

o Relational Database is a collection of tables in which relationships are modelled by
shared attributes.
o Foreign Key: attribute that creates a join between two tables.
• Attribute that is common in both tables.
o Composite Primary Key: A primary key which consists of more than one attribute.
• Normalisation
o Why?
• Maintaining and modifying the database
• Faster sorting and searching
• Deleting records
o What?
• Process used to come up with the best possible design for a relational database.
• Organised such that
§ No data is unnecessary duplicated
§ Data is consistent
§ Structure of database is flexible enough to allow to enter as many or as few
items.
§ Structure should enable a user to make complex queries
• 1st
§ NO REPEATING ATTRIBUTES
• 2nd
§ NO PARTIAL KEY DEPENDENCIES
• 3rd
§ NO NON KEY DEPENDENCIES
• SQL
o

o Defining an updating tables

• CREATE TABLE name
• {
Att1 INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Att2 Varchar(100),
Att3 Date,
Att4 Currency
• }
• ALTER TABLE name
• ADD att5 VARCHAR(10)
• DROP COLUMN Att3
• MODIFY COLUMN Att3 VarChar(1) NOT NULL

o Client-Server Databases
• Many modern serves allow a service for a client-server operation.
• Advantages are:
1. Consistency of data as it is only stored in one place.
2. Expensive Resource can be made available to a large number of users.
3. Access rights can be managed centrally
4. Backup and recovery.
• PROBLEMS
1. People simultaneously updating things.
a. Methods of fixing this:
i. When an item is updated, the entire block is copied to local
memory area and when the record is saved, the block is
rewritten to the server.
ii. BUT, then people's changes can be lost
• Concurrency Fixes
1. RECORD LOCKS
• Technique of preventing simulataneous access to objects in a
database in order to prevent updates being lost or inconsistancies in
the data from arising.
• Record is locked whenever a user retrieves it for editing or updating.
 • PROBLEMS
• Deadlock - if people need to access two records
• Therefore other things can be used as well.
2. SERIALISATION
a. Transaction cannot start until the previous one has finished.
3. TIMESTAMP ORDERING
a. When a transaction starts, it is given a timestamp.
b. If two transactions attempt to affect the same object, the one with
the later timestamp is ignored.
c. Every object has a read and write timestamp
i. When completing an update - reading it sets the timestamp to
the correct timestamp
ii. When it writes, it can check if there is another transaction which
has read the record (is the write timestamp changed)
iii. Therefore, allows problems to be avoided.
4. COMMITMENT ORDERING
a. Transactions are ordered in terms of their dependencies on one
another as well as the time when they were started.
b. Can stop deadlock by blocking certain requests until others have been
completed.

4.11 – Big Data

What is Big Data?
Big Data is a term used to describe data whose volume is too large to fit on a single server and is
generally unstructured
It can be described in terms of:
1. VOLUME
2. VELOCITY
3. VARIETY

LACK OF STRUCTURE: This is the important part of the data, rather than its volume. This poses a
number of challenges, such as that it becomes harder to analyse the data while relational databases
are not appropriate because they require the data to fit into row and column format

Big Data collection and processing enables us to detect and analyse relationships within and among
individual pieces of information that previously we were unable to grasp.

How to deal with it:

Machine learning techniques are needed to discern patterns in the data and to extract useful
information from the data.

WHEN IT CAN NO LONGER FIT ON A SINGLE SERVER:

• Processing distributed across more than one machine
• Functional Programming is better than procedural programming

Why Functional Programming?

1. No side effects - it doesn't modify the state of the calling program in any way
2. They are stateless - the program's behaviour does not depend on how often a function is
called or in what order they are called.
 3. Supports higher order functions - allows things to be done very quickly and simply using
functional programming
4. Variables are immutable.
5. Code can be easily be made to work over more than one server.

FACT BASED MODEL

Alternative to relational data model
Data is never deleted, just immutable fact stored with timestamps - so always able to determine
what was in the past and what is in the future.
Each fact captures a single piece of information

GRAPH SCHEMA
Graphs can be used to represent connected data and to perform analyses on very large
datasets.
Can be used to easily graphically represent the data
Data is stored as nodes and relationships (arrows) while properties describe the stored data.

4.12 – Fundamentals of Functional Programming

• Function types
• First class objects
• Function Application
• Partial Application Function
• Composition of Functions
• Lists in Functional Programming

Programming Paradigms
Programming Paradigms are styles of programming - eg Procedural Programming, Object Oriented
Programming, Declarative Languages and Functional Programming

What is a function
A function is a mapping from a set of inputs (domain) to a set of possible outputs, known as the co-
domain
A function is a rule, that for each element in the domain, assigns a chosen value from the co-domain,
without necessarily using every member of the co-domain.

First Class Objects

First class objects are objects which may:
1. Appear in expressions
2. Be assigned to a variable
3. Be assigned to an argument
4. Be returned in a function call

Function Application
Function application means a function applied to the arguments of the function application.

Partial Function Application

A partial function application takes advantage of decomposing multi-argument functions into
smaller functions with fewer arguments.
Eg
Add :: int -> int -> int
Add x y = x + y

addSix :: int -> int

addSix = add 6

Higher-order functions
A function is higher-order if it takes a function as an argument or returns a function as a result or
does both.

What's special about functional languages?

STATELESSNESS: the value of a variable can never change - they are immutable.
NO SIDE EFFECTS: The only thing a function can do is calculate something and return a result, and it
is said to have no side effects. Function which is called twice with the same parameters will always
return the same result. (Referential Transparency)

Composition of Function
Two functions can be combined to get a single function - this is referred to as functional
composition.

Map
Map is a higher-order function which takes a list and the function to be applied to the elements of
the list as inputs and returns a list made by applying the function to each element of the old list.

Filter
Filter is higher-order function which takes a condition and a list and it returns elements in the list
which satisfy the condition.

Fold (REDUCE)
Fold function reduces a list of values to a single value by repeatedly applying a combining function to
the list values.
Foldl nmeans start from the left while Foldr means to start from the right.

Lists in Functional Programming

A list is a concatenation of a head and a tail. (head is the first element of the list and tail is the
remainder of the list) (Therefore the tail is list in itself effectively)

A list can be empty

A list can have a number of functions carried out on it:

1. Return head
2. Return tail
3. Test for empty list
4. Return length of list
5. Construct empty list
6. Prepend an item to list
7. Append item to list

4.13 – Systematic Approach to Problem Solving

1. Analysis
 • Before the problem is solved, it must be defined by the end user.
• Process may involve prototyping
• Requirements of system defined in specification
• Could cover
o Data
o Procedures
o Future
o Problems with existing system
• AGILE MODELLING
o Agile approach may be adopted, as the stages of software development may not
be completed in a linear sequence.
o Some analysis completed, then some design and implementation and visa versa.
o As opposed to waterfall approach.
o Throughout the process, feedback is got from the end-user - iterative process
during which changes are made for the next part of the system.
o PROTOTYPE
• Prototype built with user participation - check the UI
• Relies upon keeping the model simple and getting rapid feedback from the
users.
2. Design
• Processing: The algorithms and appropriate modular structure for the solution,
specifying modules with clear documented interfaces.
• Data Structures: How data will be held and how accessed.
• Output: Content, format, sequence.
• Input: Volume, frequency, documents used
• Security: How the data is to be kept secure from accidental corruption
• Hardware: Selected on configuration
3. Implementation
• Once the design has been agreed, the program can be coded and the entire system can
be decided.
• Can be create using an iterative agile based approach.
4. Testing
• Testing carried out at each stage of the development process.
• System needs to be tested in two ways
o With respect to the implementation
o Wrt to the user's requirements
• ACCEPTANCE TESTING
• Objectives are:
1. Confirm that the system delivered meets the original customer
specifications.
2. Find out whether any major changes in operating procedures will be
needed,
3. Test the system in the environment in which it will be run, with
realistic amounts of data,
4. UNIT TESTING -> MODULE TESTING -> SUB-SYSTEM TESTING -> SYSTEM
TESTING -> ACCEPTANCE TESTING
5. Evaluation
• EFFECTIVENESS, USABILITY and MAINTAINABILITY
• Evaluated after a waiting period (3-6 months)
• Focus on:
o Comparison of the system's actual performance with the anticipated performance
objectives
o Assessment of each aspect of the system against preset criteria
o Errors made during development
o Unexpected benefits and problems.