MATH4016 (ALGEBRA) 2021

Chapter 5: Introduction to Modules Theory

Dr. R. Kwashira

Office: MSB337
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Introduction to Ring Theory

Definition 1 (Ring). A ring (R, +, ·) is a set R together with two binary operations + : R×R −→ R
(addition) and · : R×R −→ R (multiplication) satisfying the following properties: For all a, b, c ∈ R
we have that

(a) (R, +) is an abelian group with identity 0,

(b) a(bc) = (ab)c,

(c) a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca left and right distribution over +.

Convention

If R ̸= {0}, then (R, ·) has identity element, that is, there is 1 ∈ R such that 1 · a = a · a = a ∀a ∈ R.
The element 1 ∈ R is called the identity of the ring R and R is called a ring with identity or ring
with unity.
For this course, the ring R will always be a ring with identity. A ring R is commutative if
ab = ba ∀a, b ∈ R.

Definition 2. Let R be a ring with unity. An element a ∈ R is a unit in R if it has a multiplicative

inverse in R, that is, a ∈ R is a unit if there exist a−1 ∈ R such that aa−1 = a−1 a = 1.

Definition 3 (Division Ring). A ring R with identity is called a division ring if every non-zero
element is a unit.

Thus a ring with unity is a division ring if ax = b and ya = b have a solution in R for every b ∈ R
and every 0 ̸= a ∈ R.

Definition 4 (Field ). A field is a commutative division ring, that is, both (R∗ , ·) and (R, +) are
abelian groups.

Definition 5 (zero divisors). The elements a, b ∈ R are called zero divisors if ab = 0 but a ̸=
0, b ̸= 0.

Definition 6 (Integral domain). An integral domain is a commutative ring R with identity such
that R has got no zero divisors.

Definition 7 (Characteristic of a ring R). If R is a ring with identity, then the characteristic of
R, denoted by char(R), is the smallest natural number n such that n · 1 = 0. If n · 1 ̸= 0 ∀n ∈ N
then we set char(R) = 0.

Proposition 8. If R is an integral domain, then char(R) = 0 or char(R) = p where p is a prime

number.
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Proof

Suppose that char(R) = n ̸= 0. If n is a composite number then we may write n = rs, 1 < r, s < n.
By the definition of characteristic of a ring R we have that r·1 ̸= 0, s·1 ̸= 0. But 0 = n·1 = (r·1)(s·1)
and the ring has got zero divisors which contradicts the fact that R is an integral domain.

Definition 9 (Subring). A subset S of a ring R is a subring if (S, +, ·) is a ring.

Examples

(1) Z is an integral domain.

(2) Q, R, C are fields.

(3) Zn is a commutative ring with unity.

Question: Is Zn an integral domain, division ring, field?

(4) Z[i] = {m + ni, m, n ∈ Z} is a subring of the the ring of complex numbers. The subring Z[i]
is called the ring of Gaussian integers. The units are {1, −1, i, −i}.

(5) Let R be a ring with unity. The set Mn (R) is s ring.

(6) Let A be an abelian group and let f : A −→ A be a group homomorphism (endomorphism).

The set {f : A −→ A} denoted by End(A) is a ring with addition and multiplication defined
by (f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a) and (f g)(a) = f (g(a)).
In general, R = End(A) is not a commutative ring.
Let R∗ = {f : A −→ A | f bijective}.
R∗ = (End(A))∗ is the automorphism group.

(7) Let G be a group, R be a ring with unity and let R(G) = {F : G −→ R | f (a) ̸= 0} for a finite
number of a ∈ G. Define addition and multiplication by

(i) (f + g)(a) = f (a) + g(a)

f (b)g(b−1 a).
P
(ii) (f g)(a) = b∈G

R(G) is called a group ring of G with coefficients in R.

Definition 10 (Ring homomorphism). Let R, S be rings. A mapping f : R −→ S is a ring

homomorphism if

(i) f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b),

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(ii) f (ab) = f (a)f (b).

A ring homomorphism is invertible if there exist g : S −→ R such that f g = 1S and gf = 1R . We

say f is a ring isomorphism.

(i) If f is one to one then f is a monomorphism.

(ii) If f is onto then f is an epimorphism.

(iii) If f is both one to one and onto then f is a ring isomorphism.

For any ring homomorphism f : R −→ S we have that Ker(f ) is a subring of R and Im(f ) is a
subring of S.

Definition 11 (Ideal ). Let R be a ring and let I ⊆ R. We say I is an ideal of R if and only if

(i) I is an additive subgroup of R,

(ii) rI ⊆ I and

(iii) Ir ⊆ I ∀r ∈ R

Remark

(i) I is a left (right) ideal if I satisfies (1) and (2) ((1) and (3)) respectively.

(ii) If R is commutative rI = Ir and I is just called ideal of R.

(iii) If 1 ∈ R then I = R since r · 1 = 1 · r = r ∀r ∈ R.

Lemma 12. If f : R −→ S is a ring homomorphism, then, Ker(f ) is an ideal of R.

Conversely, every ideal is the kernel of some ring homomorphism

Proof

Let f : R −→ S be a ring homomorphism. Then Ker(f ) ≤ R and for any x ∈ Ker(f ) and any
r ∈ R we have that f (rx) = f (r)f (x) = 0. Similarly, f (xr) = f (x)f (r) = 0.

Note
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(i) Every ring R has at least two ideals namely, {0} and R.

(ii) If R is a division ring, then the only ideals of R are {0} and R.

ˆ Let {0} =
̸ I ⊆ R and let 0 ̸= a ∈ I, b ∈ R.
Then the equation ax = b has a solution in R for all b ∈ R. So b ∈ I. Therefore I = R.

(iii) If R is a division ring and f : R −→ S is a ring homomorphism, then f is a monomorphism

or f ≡ 0.

ˆ Ker(f ) is an ideal of R so Ker(f ) = {0} or R.

If Ker(f ) = {0} then, f is a monomorphism, if Ker(f ) = R then f ≡ 0.

Definition 13 (Quotient (factor rings)). Let I be an ideal of a ring R and let a ∈ R be fixed.
the set a + I = {a + x | x ∈ R} is called the coset modulo I.

We define the quotient ring R/I with the below operations and properties:
Remark

(i) a + I = b + I if and only if a − b ∈ I ∀a, b ∈ R.

(ii) a + I = I if and only if a ∈ I.

(iii) (a + I) ⊕ (b + I) = a + b + I.

(iv) (a + I) ⊗ (b + I) = ab + I.

(v) 0 + I = I and (1 + I) are the unit elements of the quotient ring R/I.

Note that if I ⊆ R is an ideal, then the quotient ring R/I is well defined since I is a subgroup and
hence a normal subgroup of the additive abelian group R.
If R is commutative then R/I is commutative for any I (π : R −→ R/I, r 7→ r + I is a projection).

Definition 14. Let X ⊆ R be a subset of R. The ideal generated by X denoted by ⟨X⟩ is the
smallest ideal of R containing X. If X = {x} we say ⟨x⟩ is a principal ideal generated by x, that
is, Rx = {rx; r ∈ R}.

Definition 15 (Principal Ideal Domain (PID)). If all ideals in an integral domain D are principal
then, D is called a Principal Ideal Domain (PID).

ˆ R = Z then I = mZ = ⟨m⟩.

Definition 16. A proper ideal M of R is a maximal ideal if the only ideal of R that contains M
are M and R itself.
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Remark

(i) Let R be a ring with identity and let I ⊂ R be an ideal. Then there is a maximal ideal R
containing I

(ii) In a ring with unity, there are always maximal ideals.

(iii) If R is a commutative ring with unity, then the ideal M of R is maximal if and only if R/M
is a field.

Module theory

Modules are a generalization of the vector spaces of linear algebra. In this case, the scalars are
allowed to be from an arbitrary ring.
Definition 17. Let R be an arbitrary ring with unity (not necessarily commutative).
A left R-module (left module over R) is an abelian group M together with a scalar multiplication
map (R-module multiplication)
• : R × M −→ M that satisfies the following axioms:

(a) a • (m + n) = a • m + a • n,

(b) (a + b)m = a • m + b • m,

(c) (ab) • m = a • (b • m),

(d) 1 • m = m for all a, b ∈ R and all m, n ∈ M .

A right R-module is defined in a similar way.

Notation: left R-module(right R-module) are denoted by R M (MR ).

Definition 18 (Module homomorphism). Let R be a ring and let M, N be R-modules.

A function f : M −→ N is an R-module homomorphism if

(1) f (m1 + m2 ) = f (m1 ) + f (m2 ) for all m1 , m2 ∈ M and

(2) f (rm) = rf (m) for all r ∈ R and all m ∈ M .

Note
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(1) If M = N then f is an R-endomorphism.

(2) The set of R-module homomorphisms from M to N will be denoted by HomR (M, N ).

(3) When M = N we write EndR (M ) or simply End(M ).

(4) Elements of EndR (M ) are called endomorphism or linear transformations when R = F a field.

(5) If f ∈ EndR (M ) is invertible, then f is called an automorphism of M .

(6) The group of R automorphisms is denoted by AutR (M ).

(7) If f ∈ EndR (M, N ) then Ker(f ) ⊆ M, Im(f ) ⊆ N .

They are considered under the abelian group structure of M and N respectively.

Remark/Examples

(1) An R-module is called a vector space over R if R is a field.

(2) Modules over the ring Z are abelian groups (Show).

(3) If R is a commutative ring, then, any left R-module also has the structure of a right R-module
by defining a • m = m • a.

(*) We show that m • (ab) = (m • a) • b (axiom (c) for right R-module).

For any a, b ∈ R and any m ∈ M we have that
m • (ab) = (ab) • m = (ba) • m = b • (a • m) = b • (m • a) = (m • a) • b.

(4) Let ϕ be a ring anti-automorphism, that is, ϕ : R −→ R ; ϕ(ab) = ϕ(b)ϕ(a).

If R has an anti-automorphism then any left R-module has the structure of a right R-module
by defining m • a = ϕ(a) • m.
We only need to show that (ma) • b = m • (ab) (axiom (c) for right R-module).

(m • a) • b = ϕ(b) • (m • a)
= ϕ(b) • (ϕ(a) • m)
= (ϕ(b)ϕ(a)) • m
= ϕ(ab) • m
= m • (ab)

(5) Let R be an arbitrary ring and let Rop (”op”:opposite) be the ring whose elements are the
elements of R whose addition agrees with that of R but whose multiplication is given by
a · b = ba.
Then any left R-module is naturally a right Rop -module (and vice versa).
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Exercise:

If M is a left R-module, define a right multiplication of elements of Rop on M by m•a = a•m.

M is a right Rop -module.
Checking axiom (c) of right R-modules:
m • (a · b) = (a · b) • m = (ba) • m = b • (a • m) = b • (m • a) = (m • a) • b.

(6) Let ϕ : R −→ S be a ring homomorphism and assume that Im(ϕ) ⊆ Z(S).

If M is an S-module then M is an R-module by the action a · m = ϕ(a) ⋆ m.
Let a, b ∈ R, m, n ∈ M . Then
a · (m + n) = ϕ(a) ⋆ (m + n) = ϕ(a) ⋆ m + ϕ(a) ⋆ n M is an S − module,
(i)
= a·m+a·n R − module action,
(a + b) · m = ϕ(a + b) ⋆ m R − module action,
= (ϕ(a) + ϕ(b)) ⋆ m ϕ ring homomorphism,
(ii)
= ϕ(a) ⋆ m + ϕ(b) ⋆ m M is an S − module,
= a·m+b·m R − module action
(ab) · m = ϕ(ab) ⋆ m R − module action,
= (ϕ(a)ϕ(b)) ⋆ m ϕ ring homomorphism,
(iii) = ϕ(a)(ϕ(b) ⋆ m) M is an S − module,
= ϕ(a) ⋆ (b · m) R − module action
= a · (b · m) R − module action

(iv) 1 · m = ϕ(1) ⋆ m = 1S ⋆ m = m.

(7) If M and N are R-modules, then HomR (M, N ) is an abelian group via
(f + g)(m) = f (m) + g(m).
If R is a commutative ring then HomR (M, N ) is an R-module through (af )(m) = a(f (m)).
Note that the mapping af need not be R-module homomorphism unless R is commutative.
In the case when R is commutative, we have that, for all a ∈ R, r ∈ R, all f ∈ HomR (M, N )
(af )(rm) = a(f (rm)) definition of af
= a(r(f (m))) f, R−module homomorphism
= (ar)f (m) N, R − module
= (ra)f (m) R commutative
= r(af (m)) N, R − module
= r(af )(m) defintion of af.

ˆ Show that HomR (M, N ) is an R-module.

ˆ a(f + g)(m) = a(f (m) + g(m)) = a(f (m)) + a(g(m)) N is an R − module.

ˆ (a + b)f (m) = a(f (m)) + b(g(m)) N is an R − module.

((ab)f )(m) = (ab)f (m) definition of (ab)f.

ˆ = a(b(f (m))) N is an R − module.
= a(bf )(m) definition of bf.
ˆ (1f )(m) = 1f (m) = f (m).
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(8) EndR (M ) is a ring using composition of R-module homomorphisms as multiplication.

(9) If G is an abelian group, then, ϕ : HomZ (Z, G) −→ G defined by ϕ(f ) = f (1) is an isomor-
phism.

(i) Since G is abelian, then G is a Z-module.

(ii) Z is a Z-module.

(iii) HomZ (Z, G) is a Z-module.

ˆ λ(f + g)(z) = λ(f (z) + g(z)) = λ(f (z)) + λ(g(z)) G is a Z − module.

ˆ (λ + γ)f (z) = λ(f (z)) + λ(g(z)) G is a Z − module.

ˆ (λγ)(f (z)) = λ(γf (z)) G is a Z − module.

ˆ 1f (z) = f (z).
(iv) ϕ is a Z-module homomorphism since ϕ(f + g) = (f + g)(1) = f (1) + g(1) = ϕ(f ) + gϕ(g)
and ϕ(λf ) = (λf )(1) = f (1 · λ) = λf (1) = λϕ(f ).

(v) f ∈ Ker(ϕ) ⇔ ϕ(f ) = f (1) = 0.

Then f (λ) = f (1 · λ) = f (λ · 1) = λf (1) = 0 ∀λ ∈ Z ⇔ f ≡ 0.
hence ϕ is a monomorphism.

(vi) Let g ∈ G and let fg : Z −→ G be defined by fg (λ) = λg ∀λ ∈ Z.

Then fg ∈ HomZ (Z, G) and ϕ(fg ) = fg (1) = 1g = g. Thus ϕ is an epimorphism.

(vii) fg is a Z-module homomorphism:

ˆ fg (m + n) = (m + n)g = mg + ng,

ˆ fg (λm)(λm)g = λ(mg) = λfg (m).

(10) Let M be an R-module. Show that HomR (R, M ) ∼

= M as Z-modules via the map
ϕ : HomR (R, M ) −→ M ; ϕ(f ) 7→ f (1).

ˆ Show that, for any λ ∈ Z, r ∈ Z, f ∈ HomR (R, M ), (λf )(r) = λ(f (r)) is a Z-module
homomorphism.

ˆ Show that HomR (R, M ) is a Z-module.

ˆ Show that ϕ is a well define, Z-module homomorphism, that is one to one and surjective.
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Definition 19 (Definition 1: R-Algebra). Let R be a commutative ring with unity.

An R-algebra is a ring A which is also an R-module such that the multiplication map
A : A × A −→ A satisfies r ⋆ (ab) = (r ⋆ a) · b = a · (r ⋆ b), ∀a, b ∈ A, ∀r ∈ R.
⋆ is the action of R on A.
Definition 20 (Definition 2: R-Algebra). Let R be a commutative ring.
An R-algebra is a ring with unity together with a ring homomorphism f : R −→ A that satisfies the
following:

(i) f (1R ) = 1A ,

(ii) f (R) ⊆ Z(A) where Z(A) is the center of A.

The pair (A, f ) will also be called an R-algebra.

Theorem 21. Definitions 1 and Definitions 2 of an R-algebra are equivalent, that is, there is
a natural bijection between R-algebra structures on A according to Definitions 1 and R-algebra
structures on A according to Definitions 2.

Proof

(1) (⇐):
Suppose that f : R −→ A is a ring homomorphism defined by f (1R ) = 1A and f (R) ⊆ Z(A).
Define an action ⋆ : R × A −→ A by r ⋆ a = f (r) · a.
Now, for any r ∈ R and any a, b ∈ A we have that
r ⋆ (ab) = f (r)ab
= (f (r)a) · b
= (af (r)) · b f (R) ⊆ Z(A)
= a(f (r)b)
= a · (r ⋆ b).
(2) (⇒):
Let ⋆ : R × A −→ A be an R-module structure on A.
Define f : R −→ A by f (r) = r ⋆ 1A .
f is a ring homomorphism since, for any r, s ∈ R we have that:
f (r)f (s) = (r ⋆ 1A )(s ⋆ 1A ) = 1A · (r ⋆ (s ⋆ 1A )) = 1A ⋆ (rs ⋆ 1A ) = 1A · f (rs) = f (rs).
Now

f (1R ) = 1R ⋆ 1A = 1A
f (R) ⊂ Z(A) since ∀a ∈ A, r ∈ R, a · f (r) = a · (r ⋆ 1A ) = r ⋆ (a · 1A ) = (r ⋆ 1A )a = f (r) · a.

Definition 22 (R-Algebra homomorphism). Let A and B be R-algebras.

A map f : A −→ B is called an R-algebra homomorphism if

(i) f is a ring homomorphism and f (1A ) = 1B ,

(ii) f is an R-module homomorphism.

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Examples

(1) Let G be an abelian group, g ∈ G and let n ∈ Z.

Define multiplication as follows:

 g + · · · g (n terms) n > 0,
ng = 0 n = 0,
(−g) + · · · (−g) (n terms) n < 0.


Then G is a Z-module.

If G and H are abelian groups and f : G −→ H is a group homomorphism, then f is also a

Z-module homomorphism, since (if n > 0)

ˆ f (ng) = f (g + · · · + g) = f (g) + · · · + f (g) = nf (g)

ˆ f (−g) = −f (g).

(2) Let R be an arbitrary ring. Then Rn is both left and right R-module via scalar multiplications

ˆ r(b1 , · · · , bn ) = (rb1 , · · · , rbn ),

ˆ (b1 , · · · , bn )r = (b1 r, · · · , bn r).

(3) Let R be an arbitrary ring. The set of matrices Mm, n (R) is both left and right R-module via
left and right scalar multiplication of matrices.

(4) As a generalization, matrix multiplication maps

Mm (R) × Mm, n (R) −→ Mm, n (R) (A, B) 7→ AB,

Mm, n (R) × Mn (R) −→ Mm, n (R) (A, B) 7→ AB.

make Mm, n (R) into a left Mm (R)-module and a right Mn (R)-module.

(5) If R is a ring and I ⊆ R is a left ideal, then I is a left R-module.

(6) If R is a ring and I ⊆ R is an ideal of R, then the quotient ring R/I is both a left R-module
and a right R-module via the multiplication maps:

ˆ R × R/I −→ R/I; (a, b + I) 7→ ab + I,

ˆ R/I × R −→ R/I, (a + I, b) 7→ ab + I.
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(7) Let R and S be rings and let ϕ : R −→ S be a ring homomorphism with Im(ϕ) ⊆ Z(S) =
{a ∈ S : ab = ba ∀b ∈ S}.
If M is an S-module, then M is also an R-module with scalar multiplication given by
am = (ϕ(a))m ∀a ∈ R, m ∈ M .
Let a, b ∈ R and let m, n ∈ M . Then

(i) a(m + n) = ϕ(a)(m + n) = ϕ(a)m + ϕ(a)n = am + an.

(ii) (a + b)m = ϕ(a + b)m = (ϕ(a) + ϕ(b))m = ϕ(a)m + ϕ(b)m = am + bm.

(iii) (ab)m = ϕ(ab)m = (ϕ(a)ϕ(b))m = ϕ(a)(ϕ(b)m = a(bm)).

(iv) 1m = ϕ(1)m = 1S m = m.

Proposition 23. Let R be a ring and let M be an R-module. Then, for any a ∈ R, any m ∈ M
and any n ∈ Z, we have that

(1) a · 0M = 0M ,

(2) 0R · m = 0M ,

(3) (−a) · m = −(am) = a(−m),

(4) (na) · m = n(am) = a(nm).

Definition 24 (Submodule). Let R be a ring and M an R-module.
A subset N ⊆ M is said to be a submodule or an R-submodule of M if N is a subgroup of the
additive group of M that is an R-module using the scalar multiplication on M .
Lemma 25. A non-empty subset N of an R-module M is a submodule if for every r, s ∈ R and
n1 , n2 ∈ N , we have that rn1 + sn2 ∈ N .

If R is a field then a submodule is a linear subspace.

Examples

(1) If R is a ring, then R is an R-module and the submodules of R are the ideals of the ring R.

(2) If G is an abelian group, G is a Z-module and the Z-submodules are the subgroups of G.

(3) Let f : M −→ N be an R-module homomorphism. Then Ker(f ) and Im(f ) are R-submodules
of M and N respectively.
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(4) Let R ring of integers, that is R = Z and let I = 6Z be an ideal of R. We have that 6Z is a
Z-module.
The subset 12Z ⊆ 6Z is submodule of 6Z since for any x, y ∈ 12Z we have that x = 12q and
y = 12r for some q, r ∈ Z.
Then ax + by = a(12q) + b(12r) = 12(aq) + 12(br) = 12(aq + br) ∈ 12Z.

Proposition 26. Let R be a ring, M an R-module, and let N be a submodule of M . Then M/N ,
the quotient group of cosets of N , is an R-module.

We have that M/N is an additive abelian group and we define the action of R on M/N by (r; m +
N ) 7→ rm + N .
Define the coset operations as follows: for any r, s ∈ R and m + N ; l + N ∈ M/N ,

(i) (r + s)(m + N ) = r(m + N ) + s(m + N ) = (rm + N ) + (sm + N ),

(ii) r((m + N ) + (l + N )) = r(m + l + N ) = rm + rl + N = (rm + N ) + (rl + N ),

(iii) (rs)(m + N ) = (rsm + N ) = r(sm + N ),

(iv) If 1 ∈ R, then 1(m + N ) = 1m + N = m + N.

Definition 27 (Direct sum of modules). The external direct sum of the modules Mi for i ∈ I is
⊕i∈L Mi , with xi ∈ Mi such that xi = 0 for all except finitely many i.

(i) Addition defined by (xi ) + (yi ) = (xi + yi ),

(ii) Scalar multiplication is defined by r(xi ) = (rxi ).

For finite I, the direct sum corresponds to the direct product. If M, N are R-modules. Then

M ⊕ N = {(m, n) ; m ∈ M, n ∈ N } .

Example

Let M = Z2 and N = Z3 be Z-modules, then

M ⊕ N = Z2 ⊕ Z3 = {(0, 0); (0, 1); (0, 2); (1, 0); (1, 1); (1, 2)} .

Then Z2 ⊕ Z3 ∼
= Z6 .
Definition 28 (Internal Direct sum of modules). Let M be an R-module and let M1 , M2 be R-
submodules.
M is the internal direct sum of M1 and M2 if M = M1 + M2 and M1 ∩ M2 = {0}.

(i) Internal direct sum is isomorphic to external direct sum.

(ii) A direct decomposition of M is M1 ⊕ M2 where M ∼

= M1 ⊕ M2 .
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(iii) M is indecomposable if M ≇ M1 ⊕ M2 for M1 , M2 ̸= {0}.

Free Modules and Cyclic Modules

(i) Modules with bases are called free modules.

(ii) If M is a free module, then the rank of M is the number of elements in its basis as an R-module.

(iii) An R-module M is cyclic if there exists m ∈ M so that M = Rm, that is, M = ⟨m⟩.

Torsion

Definition 29. Let R be an integral domain(commutative ring without zero divisors) and let M be
an R-module:
An element x ∈ M is a torsion element if rx = 0 for some r ∈ R, r ̸= 0.

(i) The set MT of all torsion elements of M , is a submodule of M .

ˆ Show that for any n1 , n2 ∈ MT and any a, b ∈ R we have that an1 + bn2 ∈ MT .

(ii) MT is called the torsion submodule of M .

(iii) If MT = M , then M is called a torsion module.

(iv) If MT = {0}, then M is torsion free.

(v) M/MT is torsion free.

ˆ We show that MT is a submodule of M .

0 ∈ MT since a0 = 0 ∀a ∈ R.

ˆ Let x, y ∈ MT and let c, d ∈ R. Then ax = 0 and by = 0 for some 0 ̸= a, 0 ̸= b.

Now ab ̸= 0 since R is an integral domain and we have that ab(cx+dy) = bc(ax)+ad(by) =
0. So cx + dy ∈ MT .

ˆ Suppose 0 ̸= a ∈ R and a(x+MT ) = 0 ∈ (M/MT )T . Then ax ∈ MT and bax = b(ax) = 0

for some b ∈ R. Since ba ̸= 0 then x ∈ MT , that is, x + MT = 0 ∈ M/MT (if 0 ̸= a ∈ R
such that ax̄ = 0. Then ax ∈ MT and there exist 0 ̸= c ∈ R | cax = 0 ⇒ x ∈ MT ).

Definition 30 (Annihilator ). Let R be a ring and let M be an R-module.

The annihilator of m ∈ M denoted by Ann(m) is given by Annihilator(m) = {a ∈ R, | am = 0}.
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(i) Similarly, if X ⊂ M , the annihilator of X is given by Annihilator(X) = {a ∈ R, | ax = 0 ∀x ∈ X}.

(ii) If Ann(M ) = {0}, then M is called a faithful module.

(iii) If X = N is submodule of M , then Ann(N ) is an ideal of R.

ˆ Ann(N ) = {a ∈ R | an = 0 ∀n ∈ N.}.
Now, let a ∈ Ann(N ), n ∈ N and let x ∈ R. We have that (xa)n = x(an) = 0 and
(ax)n = a(xn) = an′ = 0, n′ = xn.

(iv) If R is a commutative ring and N = ⟨x⟩ is a submodule of M , then the ideal

Ann(x) = Ann(N ) = {a ∈ R | ax = 0}.
We show that Ann(x) ⊆ Ann(N ) and Ann(N ) ⊆ Ann(x).

ˆ Let a ∈ Ann(x). Then xa = 0 and for any n′ ∈ N, n′ = rx for some 0 ̸= r ∈ R. Then

an′ = a(rx) = (ar)x = (ra)x = r(an) = 0. Thus a ∈ Ann(N ).
Let a ∈ Ann(N ). Then an = 0 ∀n ∈ N . But n = rx for some 0 ̸= r ∈ R.
Thus 0 = a(rn) = (ar)x = (ra)x = r(ax) ⇒ ax = 0 since R has no zero divisors.
Therefore a ∈ Ann(x).

Examples

(1) Let G be an abelian group. Then G is a Z-module and for any g ∈ G we have that
Ann(g) = {n ∈ Z | ng = 0} = ⟨p⟩ for a prime p and o(g) = p if o(g) < ∞ and p = 0 if ⟨g⟩ is
infinite cyclic.
Question: Why is that Ann(g) = ⟨p⟩ for some prime p and not any n ∈ Z?. Check the
definition of characteristic of a ring R.

(2) Let M = ⟨m⟩ be an R-module.

Show that M ∼
= R/Ann(m).

ˆ Define f : R −→ M by f (1) = m.
Show that f is a well defined ring homomorphism that is onto and Ker(f ) = Ann(m)
and apply the First Isomorphism Theorem.

Exact sequences

Definition 31 (Exact sequence). Let R be a ring and let M1 , M2 be R-modules.

A sequence of module homomorphisms
f1 f2
M1 −→ M2 −→ M3

is exact if im(f1 ) = ker(f2 ).

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Definition 32. Let R be a ring, and let n ∈ N, n ≥ 3.

A sequence
f1 f2 fn−1
M1 −→ M2 −→ · · · −→ Mn
of R-modules M1 , · · · , Mn and R-module homomorphisms fi : M i −→ Mi+1 for i = 1, · · · , n − 1 is
called exact at position i ∈ {2, · · · , n − 1} if im(fi−1 ) = ker(fi ).
It is called exact if it is exact at every position i ∈ {2, · · · , n − 1}.

Examples : Exact sequences with few modules

i f
(1) A sequence 0 −→ M −→ N is exact if and only if ker(f ) = 0, that is, if and only if f is
injective.

ˆ 0 = im(i) = ker(f ). Thus f is injective.

g j
(2) A sequence M −→ N −→ 0 is exact if and only if im(g) = ker(j) = N , that is, if and only if
g is surjective.

(3) The sequence 0 −→ M −→ 0 is exact if and only if M = 0.

f
(4) By item (1), the sequence 0 −→ M −→ N −→ 0 is exact if and only if f is injective and
surjective, that is, if and only if f is an isomorphism.

Definition 33 (short exact sequence). An exact sequence of the form

f g
0 −→ M1 −→ M2 −→ M3 −→ 0

is called a short exact sequence.

There are two main sources for such short exact sequences:

(i) For any R-module homomorphism φ : M −→ N the sequence

i φ
0 −→ ker(φ) −→ M −→ im(φ) −→ 0

is exact, where the first map is the inclusion of ker(φ) ⊆ M .

(ii) For any submodule N of an R-module M the sequence

0 −→ N −→ M −→ M/N −→ 0

is exact, where the first map is again the inclusion, and the second, the quotient map.

Lemma 34 (splitting and gluing sequences). (1) Splitting:

If
f1 f2 f3
M1 −→ M2 −→ M3 −→ M4 (A)
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is an exact sequence of R-modules, the two sequences

f1 f2 i f3
M1 −→ M2 −→ N −→ 0 and 0 −→ N −→ M3 −→ M4 (B)

are also exact, where N = im(f2 ) = ker(f3 ), and the middle map in the second sequence is the
inclusion of ker(f3 ) in M3 .

(2) (Gluing) Conversely, if

f1 f2 i f3
M1 −→ M2 −→ N −→ 0 and 0 −→ N −→ M3 −→ M4 (B)

are two exact sequences, with N ⊆ M3 a submodule and the middle map in the second sequence
the inclusion, the sequence
f1 f2 f3
M1 −→ M2 −→ M3 −→ M4 (A)

is also exact.

Proof

(1) The first sequence of (B) is exact at M2 since im(f1 ) = ker(f2 ), and exact at N as N =
im(f2 ) = ker(f3 ).
The second sequence of (B) is exact N as the middle map is an inclusion, and exact at M3
since N = ker(f3 ).

(2) The sequence of (A) is exact at M2 since im(f1 ) = ker(f2 ). Moreover, in (B) exactness of
the first sequence at N and of the second sequence at M3 means that im(f2 ) = N = ker(f3 ),
which implies that (A) is exact at M3 .

Note : (Splitting an exact sequence into short ones)

(a) Every exact sequence

f1 f2 fn−1
0 −→ M1 −→ M2 −→ · · · −→ Mn −→ 0 (⋆)

(for simplicity with zero modules at the end) can be split up into short exact sequences
fi
0 −→ ker(fi ) −→ Mi −→ im(fi ) −→ 0, for i = 2, · · · , n−1, where M1 = ker(f2 ) and Mn = im(fn−1 ).

Conversely, such short exact sequences with M1 = ker(f2 ), Mn = im(fn−1 ), and im(fi−1 ) =
ker(fi ) for i = 3, · · · , n − 1 can be glued back together to the long exact sequence (⋆).

(b) (Exact sequence of a homomorphism)

Let f : M −→ N be a homomorphism of R-modules.
There are then short exact sequences
f
0 −→ ker(f ) −→ M −→ im(f ) −→ 0 and 0 −→ im(f ) −→ N −→ N/im(f ) −→ 0
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and hence we get a glued exact sequence

f
0 −→ ker(f ) −→ M −→ N −→ N/im(f ) −→ 0.

The module N/im(f ) is called cokernel of f denoted by coker(f ).

f g
Theorem 35 (Split exact sequence Theorem). Let R be a ring and 0 −→ M1 −→ M −→ M2 −→ 0
a short exact sequence of R-module homomorphisms.
Then the following conditions are equivalent:

(i) There is an R-module homomorphism h : M2 −→ M with gh = 1M2 ;

(ii) There is an R-module homomorphism k : M −→ M1 with kf = 1M1 ;

(iii) The given sequence is isomorphic (with identity maps on M1 and M2 ) to the direct sum and we
i1 π2
have a short exact sequence 0 −→ M1 −→ M1 ⊕M2 −→ M2 −→ 0; in particular M ∼ = M1 ⊕M2 .

ˆ An exact sequence that satisfies the equivalence conditions of the Split exact sequence
Theorem is split or is a split exact sequence.

Examples

(1) Let p and q be distinct primes. Then we have short exact sequences
f g
0 −→ Zp −→ Zpq −→ Zq −→ 0 where f (m) = qm ∈ Zpq and g(n) = n(mod q).

ˆ Let p = 5, q = 3.
f g
We have a short exact sequence 0 −→ Z5 −→ Z15 −→ Z3 −→ 0
where im(f ) = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12} , ker(g) = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12}.
Thus im(f ) = ker(g).

f g
ˆ Exercise : Do a similar analysis for 0 −→ Z3 −→ Z15 −→ Z5 −→ 0.

(2) Exercise : Let p be a prime.

f g
Show that 0 −→ Zp −→ Zp2 −→ Zp −→ 0 is exact.(⟨p⟩ ≤ Zp2 )

Definition 36. Let N and H be groups. An extension of N by H is a group G such that:

(i) G contains N a s a normal subgroup

(ii) G/N ∼
= H.
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Note
θ π
For G to be an extension of N by H means that there is an exact sequence 1 −→ N ,→ G ↠ H −→ 1.
ker(π = im(θ)).
The extension G of N by H is a split extension if there is a homomorphism α : H −→ G such that
πα = 1H .

Construct new exact sequences from old ones : Digram chasing.

ˆ Consider two short exact sequences such that one of them can be mapped to the other by a
sequence of homomorphisms.
Lemma 37. Let all modules be right R-modules and let all homomorphism be R-module homomor-
phisms.
Let
f g
0 A M W 0
α µ ω
h k
0 B N X 0

be a commutative diagram, that is µf = hα and ωg = kµ with exact rows and let α, µ, ω be

monomorphisms. Then µ is an isomorphism if and only if α and ω are both isomorphisms.

Proof

Assume that α, ω are monomorphisms and assume that µ is an isomorphism.

We show that α and ω are isomorphims. It remains to show that α and ω are surjective since they
are monomorphisms.

(i) We show that α is surjective.

ˆ Let b ∈ B then h(b) ∈ N . Since µ is surjective, then, there is m ∈ M such that
ωg(m) = kµ(m) commutative diagram
µ(m) = h(b). Thus, = kh(b) µ(m) = h(b)
=0 row 2 is exact).
Since ω is a monomorphism, we have that, ωg(m) = 0 ⇔ g(m) = 0. Thus, m ∈ Ker(g) =
Im(f ). Then, there exist a ∈ A with f (a) = m.
Hence we have that hα(a) = µf (a) = µ(m) = h(b).
So, h(α(a)−b) = 0 and h is a monomorphism implies that α(a) = b. Thus, α is surjective
and hence an isomorphism.
(ii) We show that ω is surjective.
ˆ Let x ∈ X be given. There is n ∈ N with k(n) = x so, there is m ∈ M with µ(m) = n.
Thus, ωg(m) = kµ(m) = k(n) = x and ω is surjective.

Conversely, let α and ω be two isomorphisms. We show that µ is an isomorphism.

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ˆ Let n ∈ N . Then, there is w ∈ W with ω(w) = k(n). Consequently, there exist m ∈ M with
g(m) = w and this implies that kµ(m) = ωg(m) = ω(w) = kn. Therefore, k(n − µ(m) = 0)
and there exist b ∈ B with h(b) = n − µ(m) ⇒ ∃b ∈ B with h(b) = n − µ(m). This implies
that ∃a ∈ A with α(a) = b ⇒ µf (a) = hα(a) = h(b) = n − µ(m) ⇒ µ(f (a) + m) = n.
Thus, µ is surjective and consequently an isomorphism.