Effects of Integral and Derivative Control Action on System Performance:

Here we consider only simple systems, so that the effect of integral and derivative control action
on system performance can be clearly seen.
Integral Control Action:
1
In the proportional control of a plant whose transfer function does not possess an integrator ,
𝑠
there is a steady-state error, or offset, in the response to a step input. Such an offset can be
eliminated if the integral control action is included in the controller.

Figure: (a) Plots of e(t) and u(t) curves showing nonzero control signal when the actuating error
signal is zero (integral control); (b) plots of e(t) and u(t) curves showing zero control signal when
the actuating error signal is zero (proportional control)

Proportional control of Systems:

Figure: Proportional Control System

We shall show that the proportional control of a system without an integrator will
result in a steady-state error with a step input. We shall then show that such an error
can be eliminated if integral control action is included in the controller.
Consider the system shown above, let us obtain the steady state error in the unit
step response of the system, Define

Such a system without an integrator in the feedforward path always has a steady-
state error in the step response. Such a steady-state error is called an offset.

Figure: Unit-step response and offset

Integral Control of Systems:

Figure: Integral Control System

Consider the above system, the controller is an integral controller. The closed loop
transfer function of the system is,

Integral control of system eliminates the steady state error in the response to step input.

Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional Control): Let’s discuss the effect

of torque disturbance occurring at the load element. Consider the system below.
The proportional controller delivers torque T to position the load element, which consists
of moment of inertia and viscous friction. Torque disturbance is denoted by D.
Assumption, 𝑅(𝑠) = 0
The transfer function,
𝐶(𝑠) 1
= 2
𝐷(𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝

Figure: Control system with a torque disturbance

𝐸 (𝑠 ) 𝐶 (𝑠 ) 1
=− =− 2
𝐷 (𝑠 ) 𝐷 (𝑠 ) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝

The steady state error due to step disturbance torque of magnitude 𝑇𝑑 is given by,
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝐸 (𝑠)
𝑠→0

−𝑠 𝑇𝑑 𝑇𝑑
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim = −
𝑠→0 𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑠 𝐾𝑝
The steady-state output due to the step disturbance torque is
𝑇𝑑
𝑐𝑠𝑠 = −𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐾𝑝
The steady-state error can be reduced by increasing the value of the gain 𝐾𝑝 . Increasing
this value, however, will cause the system response to be more oscillatory.
Response to Torque Disturbances (Proportional-Plus-Integral Control):

• To eliminate offset due to torque disturbance, the proportional controller may be

replaced by a proportional-plus-integral controller.

• If integral control action is added to the controller, then, as long as there is an error
signal, a torque is developed by the controller to reduce this error, provided the
control system is a stable one.

Figure: Proportional-plus-integral control of load element consisting of moment of

inertia and viscous friction.
The closed loop transfer function:
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠
=
𝐷(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝
𝐽𝑠 3 + 𝑏𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑠 +
𝑇𝑖
In the absence of ref. input i.e. 𝑟(𝑡 ) = 0, the error signal,
𝑠
𝐸 (𝑠 ) = − 𝐷(𝑠)
𝐾𝑝
𝐽𝑠 3 + 𝑏𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑠 +
𝑇𝑖
If this control system is stable—that is, if the roots of the characteristic equation
𝐾𝑝
𝐽𝑠 3 + 𝑏𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑃 𝑠 + =0
𝑇𝑖
Have negative real parts. Then
−𝑠 2 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠𝐸 (𝑠) = lim =0
𝑠→0 𝑠→0
3 2
𝑘𝑝 𝑠
𝐽𝑠 + 𝑏𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑠 +
𝑇𝑖
Important to Note: The proportional control action tends to stabilize the system, while
the integral control action tends to eliminate or reduce steady state error in response to
various inputs.

What will happen if the Controller were an Integral Controller like in the below figure ?

then the system always becomes unstable, because the characteristic equation
𝐽𝑠 3 + 𝑏𝑠 2 + 𝐾 = 0
will have roots with positive real parts. Such an unstable system cannot be used in
practice.

Derivative Control Action:

• Derivative control action, when combined with a proportional controller, offers high
sensitivity and early corrective action, allowing for early correction of actuating
errors, thus enhancing system stability.
• Derivative control adds damping to a system, allowing for larger gain K values and
improved steady-state accuracy.
• Derivative control, which operates on the rate of change of the actuating error, is
not used alone but is typically combined with proportional or proportional-plus-
integral control action.
Proportional Control of Systems with Inertia Load:

Figure: (a) Proportional control of a system with inertia load; (b) response to a unit-step input.
Closed Loop transfer function,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑃
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐾𝑃
Characteristic equation,
𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑃 = 0
Roots → Imaginary, response to unit step input oscillates.
So, the addition of derivative control is required to stabilize the system.

Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control of a System with Inertia Load:

Figure: (a) Proportional-plus-derivative control of a system with inertia load; (b) response to a
unit-step input
Closed loop transfer function,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝
The characteristic equation
𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 = 0

now has two roots with negative real parts for positive values of 𝐽, 𝐾𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑑 .
Thus, derivative control introduces a damping effect.

Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control of Second-Order Systems:

A compromise between acceptable transient-response behavior and acceptable steady-
state behavior may be achieved by use of proportional-plus-derivative control action.

Figure: Control System

Closed loop transfer function,

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑑 𝑠
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐽𝑠 + (𝐵 + 𝐾𝑑 )𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝
Steady state error for unit-ramp input is
𝐵
𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐾𝑝
Characteristic equation,
𝐽𝑠 2 + (𝐵 + 𝐾𝑑 )𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 = 0
The effective damping coefficient of this system is thus 𝐵 + 𝑘𝑑 rather than B. Since the
damping ratio 𝜁 of this system is
𝐵 + 𝐾𝑑
𝜁=
2√𝐾𝑝 𝐽
STEADY-STATE ERRORS IN UNITY-FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS:

Steady-State Errors:

Figure: Control System

The closed-loop transfer function is,

Static Position Error Constant:

The steady state error of the system for a unit step input is,
1 1 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim =
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑠 1 + 𝐺(0)
The static position error constant 𝐾𝑝 is defined by,
 𝐾𝑝 = lim 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺(0)
𝑠→0

Thus the steady state error in terms of static position error constant 𝐾𝑝 ,
1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐾𝑝

Static Velocity Error Constant 𝑲𝒗 :

The steady-state error of the system with a unit-ramp input is given by,
 • The term velocity error is used here to express the steady-state error for a ramp
input.
• The dimension of the velocity error is the same as the system error. That is,
velocity error is not an error in velocity, but it is an error in position due to a ramp
input.
For a type 0 system,
𝑠𝐾(𝑇𝑎 𝑠 + 1)(𝑇𝑏 𝑠 + 1) … …
𝐾𝑣 = lim
𝑠→0 (𝑇1 𝑠 + 1)(𝑇2 𝑠 + 1) … …

Figure: Response of type 1 unity feedback system to ramp input

Static Acceleration Error Constant 𝑲𝒂 :
The steady-state error of the system with a unit-parabolic input (acceleration input),
which is defined by,
Summary:

Table: Steady-State Error in Terms of Gain 𝐾