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 ONLY STUDY GUIDE FOR

Psychology of Education

CONTENT

Page

Foreword V
The purpose and format of this study guide V
Introductory unit 1 V
The prescribed book VII
Purpose and overview of the module VII

LEARNING UNIT 1: Introduction to the adolescent –

development and learning 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Unit 1.1 2
1.3 Units 1.3 to 1.6 4
1.4 Unit 1.3 5
1.5 What is Psychology of Education? 6
1.6 Structure of the subject field Psychology of Education 8
1.7 Who are the most important educational psychologists? 15
1.8 The teacher’s roles and responsibilities 17
1.9 Conclusion 18

LEARNING UNIT 2: The physical development of the

adolescent 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Unit 2.1 19
2.3 Unit 2.2 24
2.4 Conclusion 27

LEARNING UNIT 3: The cognitive development of the

adolescent 29
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Unit 3.1 30
3.3 Unit 3.2 34
3.4 Unit 3.3 36
3.5 Unit 3.4 37
3.6 Conclusion 39

PED3701/1/2020–2022 (III)
LEARNING UNIT 4: The social development of the
adolescent 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Unit 4.1 42
4.3 Unit 4.2 45
4.4 Unit 4.3 47
4.5 Unit 4.4 49
4.6 Unit 4.5 50
4.7 Conclusion 53

LEARNING UNIT 5: The emotional, moral and spiritual

development of the adolescent 55
5.1 Introduction 55
5.2 Unit 5.1 55
5.3 Unit 5.2 57
5.4 Unit 5.3 60
5.5 Conclusion 62

LEARNING UNIT 6: Developmental challenges of the

adolescent 63
6.1 Introduction 63
6.2 Unit 6.1 63
6.3 Unit 6.2 65
6.4 Unit 6.3 66
6.5 Conclusion 68

LEARNING UNIT 7: Social concerns in adolescence 69

7.1 Introduction 69
7.2 Unit 7.1 69
7.3 Unit 7.2 71
7.4 Unit 7.3 73
7.5 Unit 7.4 75
7.6 Conclusion 76

LEARNING UNIT 8: Motivation, teaching and learning 77

8.1 Introduction 77
8.2 Unit 8.1 77
8.3 Unit 8.2 83
8.4 Unit 8.3 83
8.4 Conclusion 104

References 105
 Foreword

Adolescent – In this module the term ‘‘adolescent’’ refers to learners in the Intermediate
Phase (Grades 4–9) and learners in the Further Education and Training Band
(Grades 10–12).

Dear Student

Welcome to this module in the Department of Psychology of Education. In this

module the focus is on adolescent development and learning. We hope that
you find this module interesting and valuable and that you will soon be able
to apply your theoretical knowledge in practice. It is important for you as a
student teacher to obtain information on adolescent development and learning.

The prescribed book and the study guide cover the module contents in full. It is
therefore essential to study the study guide and the prescribed book together.

The purpose and format of this study guide

The purpose of the study guide is to guide you systematically in your study of
the information in your prescribed book. The study guide has been structured
in such a way that you should work from your study guide to your prescribed
book. It will guide you by pointing out which sections in your prescribed book
must be prepared for the examination (“Study sections”), because you do not
have to study every section of the book for the examination. Although you do
not have to study the other sections of the prescribed book for the examination,
they usually provide useful and interesting background information on the topic
or they put the topic in context. In order to improve your understanding of the
information to be studied, we therefore suggest that you read the prescribed
book as a whole.

A second purpose of this study guide is to provide content of the module that
is not covered in the prescribed book. First of all, the introductory unit
must be studied and secondly the additional information (including the
feedback after activities) given in the units.

Introductory unit 1
The purpose of this unit is to give you the necessary background for your
studying of the module Psychology of Education. It is therefore important
that you first study the introductory unit 1 before commencing with the rest
of the units.

While the units will lead you in your study of the prescribed book, the
introductory unit 1 stands apart from the prescribed book and must be
studied as such for the examination.

PED3701/1 (V)
FOREWORD

The units in the study guide are numbered according to the chapters in the
prescribed book. For example, learning unit 3 leads you in your study of chapter
3 of the prescribed book. Each unit guides you by means of the following:

 Introduction

All the units in the guide start with an introduction to the specific chapter,
telling you what to expect in this chapter of the prescribed book so that you
know what aspect/s of the adolescent you are going to study.

 Sections of the prescribed book you have to study for the examination

Please note that we tell you which sections of the prescribed book you should
study for examination purposes. Although you do not have to study the
other sections of the prescribed book for the examination, we advise you
to read through the whole book.

In each unit you will find tables indicating the “study sections” – sections
that you should study in Gouws (2019) for the examination. In the tables
we give the section number and heading as it appears in the prescribed
book, and we add a few notes to guide you. We also clearly indicate if you
must study a figure, a table or block for examination purposes, by giving
the heading as it appears in the prescribed book. If a section is mentioned
in the table as a “study section”, it means that you must study the whole
section under the specific heading, unless otherwise indicated. Sections that
need not be studied for the examination are not mentioned in the tables.

 Additional information to study for the examination

It is also important to note that additional information that you need to

study for the examination will be added in the study guide. The additional
information will be clearly indicated to you under the heading: Additional
information to study.

 Activities

Activities have been included at regular intervals throughout this study

guide. Their purpose is to give you an opportunity to think about that
section, to form a personal opinion or attitude or to test your knowledge
and insight into the section that you have studied. Activities are therefore
important tasks that must be completed if you are to master the learning
content. At the end of each activity we have provided feedback on how
you should have answered the questions. Please note that the feedback
also gives additional information that you must study for examination
purposes. Furthermore, please note that you must not send your answers
to us for marking or comments. We suggest that you compare your answers
to our feedback and keep your answers in your own notebook or electronic
document. These activities provide an opportunity for you to work through
the contents, and assist you when it comes to preparing for the assignments
and examination for this module.

We will also refer you to log onto myUnisa to do an activity. Here you need
to add your contributions on the online Discussion forum. Participation in
these forums allows you to become actively part of the learning community.

(VI)
 Foreword

You enrich your own knowledge by learning about the multiple realities of
others. Feedback on these activities will be given in the discussion forum.

The prescribed book

The prescribed book for the module Psychology of Education is:

Gouws, E. (2019). The Adolescent. Unisa custom edition. Cape Town: Pearson.

Your prescribed book was selected as a guide to support your entire degree
and will be of use to you even when you are a qualified and practising teacher.
From now on we will refer to the prescribed book as Gouws (2019).

Purpose and overview of the module

The purpose of this module is to explore adolescents in their totality as
individuals and it focuses on the nature of development (physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, moral and spiritual) and learning. The module considers
learning challenges, the understanding of learning, learning styles, motivation
and differences between learners. It focuses on the understanding that
assumptions about the nature of learners (their development) and learning
underpin all decisions made by classroom teachers.

A brief overview of the module is as follows:

Unit Main content

1  Introduction to the adolescent
2  Physical development
3  Cognitive development
4  Social development
5  Emotional, moral and spiritual development
6  Developmental challenges
7  Social concerns
8  Motivation, teaching and learning

An excellent way of arranging and studying your module content is to draw

a mind map of all the aspects included in a specific part of the work or of a
specific unit. A mind map ensures that you use both hemispheres of the brain
while you learn (language and visual representation).

You will come across new words (terminology) in this module. Some of the
terms may seem familiar, but you could find that they have a special meaning
in this context. To help you, you will find a multilingual glossary listing terms
and explanations at the back of your prescribed book.

We wish you every success with this journey.

Your lecturers

PED3701/1 (VII)
FOREWORD

The specific outcomes and assessment criteria for this module are outlined in
Table 1.

Specific outcomes and assessment criteria

Specific outcome Assessment criteria
Understand the key ideas  Discussions reflect an understanding of
and debates about psychol- psychology of education from a range of
ogy of education with a fo- theoretical perspectives.
cus on the adolescent.  Arguments show that relevant policies are
contextualised and interpreted against the
range of theoretical perspectives.
 The role of context is argued through
an understanding of theory and the
interpretation of a range of given case
studies.
Discuss and explain devel-  The physical development of the adolescent
opmental milestones during and the importance of a healthy lifestyle
adolescence. are explained.
 The cognitive development of the adolescent
is explained.
 Adolescents’ social development is critically
discussed.
 The emotional, moral and spiritual
development of the adolescent are critically
discussed and explained.
Adopt a variety of roles  Identify and assist learners with
and strategies in response developmental challenges such as eating
to different learner needs, disorders and emotional disturbances.
developmental challenges  Identify and assist learners with social
and social concerns. issues such as teenage pregnancy and
alcohol and substance abuse.
Justify varied strategies for  Selections of different strategies for
effective classroom prac- engagement are justified by appropriate
tice that are informed by reference to theory, policy, observed
considerations related to practice and personal experience in order
adolescent learning and in to achieve the following:
ways that are appropriate  Select and use teaching and learning
for different purposes and strategies appropriate to the subject, phase
contexts. and topic and appropriate to the learners
in their classes
 Select and use teaching and learning
strategies which motivate learners to meet
those demands and to take initiative
 Accommodate differences in learning style,
multiple intelligences, pace and ability
in the planning and use of teaching and
learning strategies.

(VIII)
 1
9: LEARNING UNIT

Introduction to the adolescent –

development and learning

1.1 Introduction
The purpose of the module in Psychology of Education is to explore adolescents
in their totality as individuals and focuses on the nature of their development
(physical, cognitive, social, emotional, moral and spiritual) and the way in which
they learn. The module further considers challenges that adolescents are facing
with regard to nutrition, underachievement and emotional disturbances as well
as problems that may arise regarding sexual behaviour, substance abuse and
the overuse of media and technology.

As far as learning is concerned, you will be introduced to the understanding

of learning, learning styles, motivation and learner diversity. Individuals, and
more specifically adolescents, differ with regard to many aspects in themselves
and their environment.

This unit introduces you to an understanding of the field of Psychology of

Education and more specifically to the life world of the adolescent.

This unit will enable you to

 describe the beginning and end of the period of adolescence

 understand the changes and diversity in society that adolescents are
confronted with
 know what Psychology of Education is all about – that is, incorporating
scientific knowledge of human development and the teaching and learning
processes
 explain the structure of the subject (Psychology of Education), which includes
information on how learning takes place, and for this module, specifically
refers to the adolescent stage and how learners vary with regard to their
development and learning styles
 know who the most important educational psychologists of the 20th century
are and to briefly refer to each one’s contribution
 realise the roles and responsibilities of teachers

The content of this unit consists of two parts in Gouws (2019):

1.1 The period of adolescence

1.2 The adolescent in a changing and diverse society

And four sections with additional information that is not included in the
prescribed book but forms part of your study content:

1.3 Psychology of Education

PED3701/1 1
 1.4 Structure of the subject field Psychology of Education
1.5 The most important educational psychologists
1.6 Teachers’ roles and responsibilities

1.2 Unit 1.1

This unit introduces you to the life stage of adolescence and how it can be
demarcated. It also makes you aware of the many challenges that adolescents
are confronted with in this time in history and the ethnic and cultural diversity
in the South African society that our adolescents find themselves in. There
are many individual differences between adolescents from various cultures
or communities. Although these differences are not explored in detail in this
unit, we would like you to be aware of the existence of the complex diversities
in our South African society.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the term “adolescence” and the adolescent in
a diverse society.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
1.2 The period of When puberty starts (the start of
adolescence biological changes that lead to sexual
maturity), it is the beginning of ado-
lescence, but the end of this period
is not easy to define. Some criteria to
demarcate for the end of adolescence
are given in this section.
1.3 The adolescent in Adolescents experience many chang-
a changing and es in themselves (physically, cogni-
diverse society tively, emotionally, spiritually, etc.).
In addition, adolescents’ environ-
ments are also changing, and present
many challenges with regard to pro-
gression in technology, the influence
of social media and the availability of
drugs. They also live in a diverse so-
ciety with different cultures, house-
holds, languages and more.

(b) Activities and additional information to study

First study the additional information and then complete the activity to test
your knowledge and insight, before you study our feedback. Please remember
that the feedback also provides additional information that you must study for
examination purposes.

2
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

Additional information with regard to diverse teaching and learning

South Africa has a diverse population where the belief systems and traditions of
the majority of people with an African worldview differ from those of Western
orientation. The crux of this is that people from such a diverse country, as South
Africa should learn to respect each other and acknowledge the contributions
all of the many cultures and ethnic groupings can bring to the table. This kind
of respect should be taught at school.

Teachers need to help learners to become self-aware and sensitive to their own
cultures, beliefs and customs, as well as their influence on others. Learners
need to have respect for the cultures, beliefs and customs of others to “work
towards eradication of all forms of discrimination, and inequality” (Gous &
Roberts (eds) 2015:133–134). Unfortunately, inequality is part of the South
African society in the form of poverty, unemployment, malnutrition, hunger,
abuse, as well as vulnerable and orphaned children, to name a few. Many of
these issues are related to the HIV/AIDS pandemic (Ferreira, Maree & Stanz
2016:5).

Donald, Lazarus, and Moolla (2014) indicate three important aspects to

accommodate diversity in a curriculum, namely: i) Flexibility, where learners
with different learning styles and abilities are catered for, as well as catering
for learners from different backgrounds, cultures and language ability; ii)
Relevance, where cultural beliefs, traditions and life experiences of all learners
are taken into consideration; and iii) Respect, with teachers being role models
of respect for learners of all cultures, races, social classes, and religions in order
for learners to respect each other. It should be broadened out to the community
where parents, community leaders and elders should be consulted for decision
making at school, but also for assistance of learners and teachers.

Teachers need training to assist their learners with challenges like those
mentioned above. In a diverse society like South Africa, training needs to be
in line with diversity in terms of language, culture, religion, ethnicity, values
and norms. Teachers must be able to distance themselves from their own
backgrounds and assist learners from different backgrounds without judging
them. They need knowledge of the diversity in backgrounds in their classroom
to positively engage with all learners.

1.1
Activity based on the adolescent in a changing and diverse society (1.2)

Imagine you have been a teacher at a school for a few years. The principal asks
you to address a group of new teachers to inform them about the challenges
regarding the adolescents attending your school. You must tell them about the
changes in society and the diversity that adolescents and their teachers have
to cope with. Give the teachers a few ideas of how to cope with the situation.
Name the points that you will use when you are giving your talk.

PED3701/1 3
 FEEDBACK
As a teacher helping your colleagues, you should be able to deal with the
following issues. The following are examples of points that you can discuss
(you can add to this, after studying section 1.2 in the prescribed book):

 The poverty phenomenon in South Africa affects the physical development

of learners in a negative way and teachers should be able to identify such
problems and know how to deal with it.
 A large proportion of households do not offer sufficient cognitive stimulation
for adolescents and this has a negative effect on their mental development.
Teachers should be able to offer such stimulation in the classroom to overcome
the backlog created at home.
 Children grow up in a world of technology and get most information outside
the school in a visual format. Technology can be useful in supporting
adolescents with learning problems provided that teachers take the initiative
to apply technology successfully in their classrooms.
 Language as a medium of instruction poses a serious problem in South
African schools since a lot of the learners are taught in English although it
is not their home language. Well-known educational psychologists such as
Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner have emphasised the importance of language
in the cognitive development of learners and their ability to understand
learning material. Teachers should be able to find creative ways to overcome
this problem effectively.
 Many behavioural problems such as delinquency, alcohol abuse, drug abuse
and bullying occur in a group context and some learners participate because
they do not know how to handle group pressure. Teachers should be able
to assist adolescents who display behavioural problems.

1.3 Units 1.3 to 1.6

The following four sections (1.3–1.6) are not covered in your prescribed book.
You need to study the whole of sections 1.3 to 1.6. To guide you through these
sections we include a table indicating the different sections.

Study the sections as indicated in the table. It will enable you to understand
the field of Psychology of Education.

Section Heading of units Notes for guidance

number
1.3 What is Psychology In this section you learn about Psy-
of Education? chology of Education. It is a scientific
subject about how individuals de-
velop and how they learn. It is there-
fore a subject of critical importance
for teachers (or students who will
become teachers).

4
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

1.4 Structure of the Always remember the two main

subject field Psychol- elements in this field: How individu-
ogy of Education als develop and how learning takes
place.
1.4.1 Child and adoles- A holistic view of the developing ado-
cent development lescent is important because develop-
ment or change in one area always
have consequences for the other
areas of development. The different
areas are briefly pointed out and are
illustrated in figure 1.1.
1.4.2 Learning The learning event is first of all
determined by certain conditions
(cognitive and emotional). After the
event, there are certain outcomes
(remembering or forgetting) that can
be assessed by various methods. See
figure 1.2 for a diagrammatic repre-
sentation of the learning event.
1.4.3 Individual A great challenge to teachers is to
differences accommodate learners who differ
with regard to many characteristics –
these aspects are listed in this sec-
tion. You can even add more aspects
of potential differences.
1.5 Educational The most important educational
psychologists psychologists are named and their
contributions are briefly referred to.
1.6 The teacher’s roles Teachers must be aware of their
and responsibilities learners’ level of development, their
existing knowledge and each indi-
vidual’s abilities and styles of learn-
ing. They must use their knowledge
of how learning takes place according
to various important theorists and
create an inclusive classroom, accom-
modating all learners. In doing so,
they will be respectable role models.

1.4 Unit 1.3

Psychology of Education
You will find in the literature that the terms “Psychology of Education”
and “Educational Psychology” are both used to describe the same field
of study. For the purpose of our module, we prefer the term Psychol-
ogy of Education. From now on Psychology of Education also implies
Educational Psychology.

PED3701/1 5
 Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

Share your own understanding of what Psychology of Education is in Discussion

forum 1 for this module. Did you notice that most definitions relate to child
development and learning?

1.5 What is Psychology of Education?

According to Woolfolk, Hughes and Walkup (2013:4), Psychology of Education
has been defined as “ … the study of how psychological theories and research
inform and support the work of educational professionals working across the
whole range of teaching and learning settings, including child development”.
O’Donnell and Levin (2001:73) define Psychology of Education as “the
development and application of psychological principles to education, as well
as the adoption of psychological perspectives on education”. From the above
it is evident that Psychology of Education focuses on child development and
the way in which children learn.

The nature and scope of Psychology of Education are as follows:

 It applies psychological findings in education.

 It enables teachers to perform their role in an effective manner in order to
make the learning and teaching process a productive one.
 It is the scientific study of an individual’s life stages from birth to death.
 It is a key component in the teaching and learning process.

Source: Chauhan 2013; Woolfolk, Hughes, Walkup 2013

Psychology of Education should not be seen as a subject field that continuously

borrows content from Psychology. A large amount of content is generated within
the subject field by research in an educational environment.

The South African National Qualifications Framework Act (67/2008): Revised

policy on the minimum requirements for teacher education qualifications
(Government Gazette, 2015:10) requires teachers to have knowledge of learners
(their development) and knowledge of the way in which they learn. The
development of learners and school learning fall clearly within the boundaries of
Psychology of Education. Specific requirements for teachers such as a sensitivity
to the needs of learners and an awareness of differences amongst learners
emphasise the importance of psychological knowledge for teachers.

It is not only the South African policy on teacher education that requires you
as a student to have knowledge on child development and learning. Similar
recommendations for psychological content in teacher education can also be
found in European countries. The German Psychological Society, for example,
proposes a core curriculum for teacher education into four areas, namely learning
and instruction, child development in social contexts, educational assessment,
and intervention and counselling. In England teachers are trained to inspire,
motivate, and challenge learners; promote good progress and outcomes amongst
learners; adapt teaching to respond to the strengths and needs of all learners;
make accurate and productive use of assessment and to manage behaviour
effectively to ensure a good and safe learning environment. In the United

6
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

States of America, the National Academy of Education considers learning and

development in social contexts and assessment as important aspects relevant
to teacher training programmes. The requirements of The National Council for
the Accreditation of Teacher Education in America are very similar. They expect
prospective teachers to have knowledge of child development, learning, school
and family contexts, assessment, language acquisition, and cultural influences
on learning (Lohse-Bossenz, Kunina-Habenicht & Kunter 2013:1545–1546).

A number of scientific articles have appeared on the development and the

content of Psychology of Education. Nolen (2009: 279–289) selected Psychology
of Education journals with a high impact factor. The impact factor score is a
measure of the relative importance of a journal within the science and social
science literature. The score consists of the number of citations received in the
current year to articles published in the two preceding years divided by the
number of articles published in the same two years. For example, if a journal
has an impact score of 9 in 2008, it means that articles published in that journal
during 2006–2007 were cited on average 9 times during 2008. Six journals with
the highest impact scores were selected. These journals were:

Educational Psychologist impact score 26.31

Journal of Psychology of Education impact score 18.32
The Journal of the Learning Sciences impact score 17.77
Psychology of Education Review impact score 16.21
Contemporary Psychology of Education impact score 11.55
Learning and Individual Differences impact score 5.50

In total 758 articles were analysed and the four prominent content areas were
identified. They were classroom achievement, learning and memory, affective
variables (especially motivation) and cognition/reasoning.

Mitchell and McConnell (2012:136–147) focused on only one journal in their

research, namely, Educational Psychology Review. All of the articles published
in this journal from 1995 to 2010 were reviewed. In total there were 440
articles. For each article, the title, topic, abstract, key words, theoretical base,
characteristics of participants and the central issue(s) were recorded. The
most prevalent theoretical perspectives of the articles were cognitive and
social cognitive in nature. The topic category that occurred most frequently
was individual differences. This category included aspects such as academic
achievement, creativity, gender differences, motivation, self-efficacy and test
anxiety. Of the topics within the individual differences category, the most
frequently occurring one was motivation. According to the authors this is not
surprising, as motivation has been a much-studied topic in Psychology of
Education. The second most frequently occurring topic category was academic
subjects, especially Reading and Mathematics. The third most common topic
category was cognitive processes such as attention, comprehension, memory,
reasoning, metacognition and transfer.

Another source that can shed light on the content of Psychology of Education is
textbooks. Different textbooks accentuate different aspects of child development
and learning, but a broad overview of the subject can be obtained by studying
the content of prominent textbooks such as those by Slavin (2009), Eggen and
Kauchak (2013), and Woolfolk and Hoy (2016).

PED3701/1 7
 1.6 Structure of the subject field Psychology of Education
Two main components can be identified namely child and adolescent
development and learning. Teachers cannot teach effectively without knowing
the human characteristics of the learners in their class and the way in which
they learn. Teachers will not be able to explain content effectively if they are
not knowledgeable of the way in which learners think and reason when they
are confronted with new learning material.

With the information on training programmes, scientific articles and textbooks,

the following structure of the subject field Psychology or Education can be
presented (the structure is also illustrated in Table 1.1, after the discussions).

1.6.1 Child and adolescent development

Different aspects of child and adolescent development can be identified. These
different aspects can be distinguished but obviously they cannot be separated
from one another. Looking at the aspects of these areas separately will enhance
our understanding of the growth and development of the child, specifically in
our study of the adolescent. In reality, these areas are linked and interwoven and
they function as a whole. Development in one domain influences development in
others, and the same applies to problems. For example, an unwanted pregnancy
(physical) can cause scholastic problems for a girl (cognitive), which may lead
to serious social and emotional problems. It is therefore pedagogically unsound
to, for example, treat the physical or cognitive development of the adolescent as
an independent entity on the assumption that it is unrelated to other domains.
In studying one domain, one must never lose sight of its close ties with other
domains (Gouws 2015). Figure 1.1 shows the five areas of development in
relation to the whole child.

FIGURE 1.1
The areas of development of the whole child/adolescent

8
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

Physical development

Not only do boys and girls experience their bodies differently, but boys differ
amongst themselves with regard to their body image and how they experience
their physical development. The same happens with girls. Early and late physical
development of adolescent boys and girls can have social and emotional
consequences, which teachers should be aware of. This is also true of other
physical aspects such as sexual maturation, motor development and athletic
abilities.

Cognitive development

Cognitive development refers to the mental processes of learners and the way
in which they give meaning to their world. Intelligence, aptitude, thinking,
reasoning, problem solving and memory are typical cognitive aspects which
are relevant to the teaching profession.

Social development

Parents, teachers and their peers constitute the social life of the child to a large
extent. At first the parents are very important but during the adolescent years,
relationships with the peer group become more important. At this stage peer
pressure might become a problem.

Emotional, moral and spiritual development

Adolescents have a heightened emotionality and may have mood swings,

but during this period they become more mature and develop better control
over their emotional expressions. Moral development deals with their ability
to distinguish between right and wrong and to behave appropriately in a
particular situation. It also focuses on how children should be educated to
make responsible choices. Spiritual development takes place during adolescence
because adolescents evaluate adults’ behaviour compared to what these people
convey as their beliefs and values. Adolescents then develop their own belief
system and their own set of values.

1.6.2 Learning
We must always remember that learning is a lifelong process. Therefore, learning
is not completed by the end of adolescence. As you know, we all continue to
learn new things throughout our life. To obtain an overview of learning, it might
be helpful to distinguish between conditions of learning, the actual learning
event and the outcomes of the learning event. These aspects are shown in
figure 1.2 and are then discussed.

PED3701/1 9
 FIGURE 1.2
The learning event

 The conditions of learning

There are mainly two conditions of learning, namely cognitive conditions and
affective conditions.

(i) Cognitive conditions. It refers to mental processes that should be in place

for learning to occur. Typical conditions discussed in textbooks are as-
pects such as: attention and perception; intelligence; aptitude; thinking
and reasoning level, and previous knowledge for meaningful learning to
take place
(ii) Affective conditions. Not all the learners enter a learning situation with
the same emotional preparedness. For this reason, teachers need knowl-
edge and skills to optimise aspects such as: motivation; interest; attitude
and self-concept

At the same time teachers need knowledge and skills to minimise aspects
such as stress and anxiety.

The above-named conditions of learning relate to the domains of learning as

described by Bloom’s taxonomy. According to Bloom’s taxonomy or classification
of learning, there are three domains of learning: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor (the latter refers to motor skills). With regard to the cognitive
and affective domains, it is important to note that learning is not only an
intellectual or mental (cognitive) process, but it also involves affective processes:
When we are learning, there are emotions (feelings), values, motivations and
attitudes involved (Bloom 1956; Peak Performance Center n.d.). Bloom (1956:7)
maintained that the concealed feelings that teachers do not always know about,
are as important as those that are openly visible. In the affective domain there
are five levels namely receiving (paying attention and being aware of matters),
responding (reacting to it), valuing (seeing the significance of something),
organising (managing the information and linking it to own value system)
and characterising (performing in relation to own values) (Peak Performance
Center n.d.). During the 1990s, Bloom’s taxonomy was revised and we now
know it as Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised.

10
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

If you want to know more about Blooms taxonomy, go to:

https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/
teaching-tips /planning-courses-and-assig nments /course-desig n/
blooms-taxonomy

 The actual learning event

The actual learning event comprises two components: The child who is learning
and the teacher who offers instruction to support the learning event.

Types of learning are usually discussed in this section. Depending on what

has to be learnt, the child can be exposed to a variety of learning experiences.
This includes learning types such as:

 Observational learning and modelling

 Discovery learning
 Concept learning
 Problem solving
 Information processing
 Memorisation
 Self-regulated learning and learning styles
 Metacognition
 Cooperative learning

To support the different learning activities, teachers have to create a favourable

learning environment and offer quality instruction. For this reason, instruction
is often discussed in Psychology of Education textbooks under the following
headings:

 Teaching styles
 Classroom organisation and classroom atmosphere
 Instructional objectives
 Learner-centred instruction
 Effective communication and interaction with learners
 Regular monitoring
 Quality feedback

 Outcomes of the learning event

If the learning event was successful, children will remember what they have
learnt and they will be able to apply it. Memory and transfer are thus important.
Reasons why children forget or make mistakes when they have to recall
information are discussed in several Psychology of Education textbooks. If
children remember the content, they will most probably be able to transfer
their knowledge – which is an indication of the ability to apply newly acquired
knowledge in different situations.

The outcomes and success of any learning event cannot be determined without
proper assessment – and therefore you will find a chapter on assessment in
many textbooks. Aspects such as the following are covered:

 Types of assessment
 Developing classroom tests
 Reliability and validity

PED3701/1 11
  Preparing students for tests and dealing with test anxiety
 Administering tests
 Analysing test results

1.6.3 Individual differences

We have already referred to the learning mediator role of the teacher. The teacher
is supposed to mediate learning in a manner which is sensitive to the diverse
needs of learners – including those with barriers to learning – and to construct
learning environments that are appropriately contextualised and inspirational.
It is of crucial importance that teachers must be aware of learners who have
serious delays in their physical and cognitive development so that suitable care
can be taken for each individual learner who may need some special assistance
or therapy.

Not all children develop in the same way, nor do they learn in the same
way. Learners’ behaviour varies from good behaviour to behaviour which is
a concern for parents and teachers. Their achievement also varies. Not only
should teachers be aware of these differences; they should also be prepared
to deal with it. According to Mitchell and McConnell (2012:136–147) research
in educational psychology used to emphasise individual differences in learners,
with little attention to the influence of the social context. With the emergence
of theoretical frameworks of constructivist and social learning, researchers are
beginning to place greater emphasis on contextual variables in the learning
process. Such an approach will certainly benefit the South African situation.

Some of the individual differences which fall within the field of Psychology
of Education are:

 Gender differences
 Learners with physical impairments such as blindness or deafness
 Learning problems
 Language barriers
 High anxiety levels
 Behavioural problems in class
 Delinquency
 Cultural diversity
 Gifted children
 Creative children

1.6.4 Research methods

New knowledge is generated daily within the subject field, mainly as the result
of dedicated researchers who investigate different aspects on child development,
learning and individual differences within an educational environment. This
does not exclude teachers. There is an increasing need for teachers to get
involved in classroom research. Such research will assist teachers to improve
their instruction and to offer better support for learners in their class who
might experience learning or behavioural problems. Basic research methods
are practised in all sciences (for example, in the social and educational sciences)
and these methods have therefore also become an important component of
Psychology of Education. Two main research approaches can be distinguished
namely quantitative and qualitative research.

12
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

 Quantitative research is done with large groups. Psychological constructs

such as motivation or achievement are measured with tests or questionnaires
and the information is then statistically analysed.
 Qualitative research is done with small groups or individuals with the aim
of doing an in-depth investigation on a particular problem. Interviews or
observation is often used to collect data in qualitative research projects.
The structure of the subject field Psychology of Education as discussed in the
preceding sections (1.4. to 1.4.4) are presented in Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1
Structure of the field of Psychology of Education
Psychology of Education
Child and adolescent Learning
development
Conditions of learning Actual learning event Outcomes of learning

Physical Cognitive conditions Types of learning Memory Transfer

Cognitive Intelligence Observation learning
Spiritual Aptitude Discovery learning
Social Attention Concept learning
Moral Thinking Problem solving
Previous knowledge Information processing
Memorisation
Self-regulated learning
Metacognition
Cooperative learning
Affective conditions Quality instruction Assessment
Motivation Teaching styles Types of assessment
Interest Classroom organisation Developing classroom
Attitude Classroom atmosphere tests
Self-concept Instructional objectives Reliability and validity
Learner-centred Preparing students for
instruction tests
Effective Dealing with test
communication anxiety
Interaction with Administering tests
learners Analysing tests results
Regular monitoring
Quality feedback
Individual differences

Gender Language barriers Multiple Intelligences Gifted children

Physical impairments Anxiety Behavioural problems Creative children
Learning problems Learning styles Cultural diversity
Research
Quantitative
Qualitative

PED3701/1 13
 As you can see from the above discussion, there are a number of topics that
form part of the field of Psychology of Education. These topics are so important
that it is impossible to deal with them sufficiently in one module. Therefore,
there are different modules in your qualification focussing on different topics.
In table 1.2 you can see in which modules you will learn certain topics.

TABLE 1.2
Content/topic and module name

CONTENT/TOPICS MODULE NAME

Adolescent development Psychology of Education
Learning (including conditions Psychology of Education
of learning, actual learning event,
Instructional Studies in Context
outcomes of learning)
Affective conditions Psychology of Education
Quality instruction Instructional Studies in Context
Assessment Assessment in Education
Individual differences (learning Psychology of Education
styles and multiple intelligences)
Individual differences Inclusive Education
Research Research and Critical Reasoning

1. 2

Activity based on the structure of the field of Psychology of Education

(1.4–1.4.4)

After studying sections 1.4 to 1.4.4 above, draw your own mind map to illustrate
the structure of this field. Use this mind map to explain the scope of the field of
the Psychology of Education to learners who want to know what they will come
across when studying this field.

FEEDBACK
Make your own, original drawing (use colours, circles, lines, arrows, and more)
to help you to make your own map. You can use the information given in table
1.1, but make your own diagram. You can also include the information given
in table 1.2 for your own reference. The map can help you to remember the
structure of the field and guide you when studying the content of the module
Psychology of Education.

14
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

1.7 Who are the most important educational psychologists?

Presently, it will be impossible to predict who the most important psychologists
of the 21st century will be. However, Haggbloom, Warnick, Warnick et al
(2002:139–152) did research and provided a rank-order list of the 100 most
eminent psychologists of the previous (20th) century.

Eminence was measured using the frequency of citation in the professional

journals as well as psychologists most frequently cited in introductory psychology
textbooks. They also surveyed, by e-mail, approximately 1,725 members of
the American Psychological Society. These members were asked who they
considered as the greatest psychologists of the 20th century in general and in
their specialisation field. Certain qualitative measures were also applied. A final
rank-order list of 100 psychologists worldwide were drawn up. These individuals
were not only some of the best-known thinkers in psychology, they also played
an important role in the history of psychology and made important contributions
to the understanding of human behaviour. Unfortunately, the list consists of
only psychologists and does not differentiate between Psychology in general
and Psychology of Education. However, if the rank-order is left unchanged and
prominent psychologists who are cited in Educational Psychology textbooks are
selected, the following list may provide the names of the top ten “educational
psychologists” of the 20th century:

B.F. Skinner  believed that operant conditioning can strengthen any

behaviour. Operant conditioning is a learning process
(1904–1990)
through which the strength of a behaviour pattern
is modified by reinforcement or punishment. If the
behaviour is punished there is a good chance that it
will not be repeated. If it is rewarded (reinforced), the
probability of the behaviour being repeated becomes
stronger. In this way desired behaviour is gradually
modified by continuous reinforcement.
J. Piaget  was known as a “genetic” epistemologist who was
interested in the process of the development of
(1896–1980)
knowledge and cognitive growth. He believed that
thinking and intellectual development could be
regarded as an extension of the biological process
of adaptation to the environment. In this process he
has identified four well-known stages of intellectual
growth.
A. Bandura  is known as the originator of the social learning
theory, later renamed the social cognitive theory.
(1925-
The social cognitive theory explains how people learn
through observing others who serve as a model. If
the model is successful or is rewarded for his/her
behaviour, the observer will most probably behave
in a similar manner.

PED3701/1 15
 C.R. Rogers  focused on the development of the self-concept where
conditional positive regard played an important role.
(1902–1987)
Those raised in an environment of unconditional
positive regard (unqualified acceptance) have the
opportunity to fully actualise themselves whereas
those raised in an environment of conditional positive
regard feel worthy only if they match conditions laid
down for them by others. This point of departure
formed the keystone for his person-centred therapy
and learner-centred teaching.
E.L. Thorndike  helped to lay the scientific foundation for Educational
Psychology. His contributions in behavioural
(1874–1949)
psychology had a major impact on education, especially
his law of effect. According to this law a reward is more
effective if it follows immediately after the successful
behaviour, compared to a delayed reward.
A. H. Maslow  developed a theory of psychological health predicated
on fulfilling human needs in priority, culminating in
(1908–1970)
self-actualisation. Maslow described human needs
as ordered in a hierarchy. A pressing need would
have to be mostly satisfied before a person would pay
attention to the next highest need. When a human
being ascends the levels of the hierarchy, having
fulfilled the lower-order needs, such a person may
eventually achieve self-actualisation.

E. H. Erikson  was one of the originators of ego psychology. He

believed that the social environment in which a child
(1902–1994)
lives is crucial for providing growth, adjustment, self-
awareness and identity. He identified eight stages in
the life cycle of a person with a specific virtue that
manifests during the successful completion of each
stage. During adolescence this virtue is a sense of
identity.
D.C.  developed an Achievement Motivation
McClelland Theory, commonly referred to as “need for
achievement”. He focused on three particular motives:
(1917–1998)
the need for achievement, the need for affiliation and
the need for power. The need for achievement is the
desire to excel in relation to a set of standards. It is
the drive to succeed. The need for affiliation is the
desire for close personal relationships and the need
for power is the desire to be influential.

16
 Introduction to the adolescent – development and learning

J. S. Bruner  made significant contributions to human cognitive

psychology and cognitive learning theory in the field
(1915–2016)
of Educational Psychology. He proposed three modes
of representation. Modes of representation are the
way in which information or knowledge is stored and
encoded in memory. These modes can be enactive
representation (action-based), iconic representation
(image-based) or symbolic representation (language-
based). Language is therefore important for the
increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. In
accordance with this understanding of learning,
Bruner proposed a spiral curriculum, a teaching
approach in which each subject or skill area is revisited
at intervals, at a more sophisticated level each time.
L. Kohlberg  is well known for his theory on moral development.
An entirely new field within psychology was created
(1927–1987)
as a direct result of Kohlberg’s theory. The theory
holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical
behaviour, has six identifiable developmental stages.
Each stage is associated with a higher level of moral
reasoning compared to the preceding stage. The six
stages of moral development are grouped into three
levels of morality: pre-conventional, conventional and
post-conventional morality.

You will learn more about these psychologists in your prescribed book and
additional information in this module.

1.8 The teacher’s roles and responsibilities

The success of the teaching-learning activity depends entirely on the teacher’s
ability (or lack of it) to create a classroom climate that encourages active
participative learning. The teacher’s overall aim is to involve the learner in active
participation in the learning process. To achieve this aim, the teacher needs to
know the learner (his or her level of development) and how the learner learns.
The teacher further needs to be able to engage the learner in a critical thinking
exercise about the subject content. Subject content should not be presented as a
given, or as a form of eternal truth. Instead, it should be presented and accepted
simply as what it really is, that is, a useful tool with which to understand reality
well enough to operate confidently in one’s own life-world. This presents
a greater challenge to the teacher, who has the responsibility for creating a
classroom situation that invites each and every learner to view new content
critically, against the background of his or her own existing knowledge. This
way of presenting subject content encourages learners to construct a deeper and
richer form of knowledge which widens their experience of the life-world. In
this kind of a teaching-learning situation, the learner personally grapples with
the content and tries to reconcile it with his or her own existing knowledge.

It is clear that teachers play a vital role in the lives of adolescents in their learning
environments. The most important role fulfilled by teachers is that of educating
the learners who are placed in their care. Beyond that, teachers serve many
other roles in the classroom. They set the atmosphere in classrooms, create a

PED3701/1 17
 warm environment, nurture and mentor learners, become role models, and
listen and look for signs of trouble. For many years, communities have looked
up to teachers as respectable role models. For teachers to be able to fulfil the
role expected from them they need to have a sound knowledge of adolescent
development and learning.

Note that you will learn more about the roles and responsibilities of the teacher
in the modules Becoming a Teacher and Being a Professional Teacher.

1.9 Conclusion
In this unit you were introduced to what the whole module is about: the period
of adolescence, how adolescents develop and the challenges in the environment
of adolescents in South Africa. You were introduced to the subject field of
Psychology of Education. You have learnt that the two main concepts to define
Psychology of Education are development and learning. In addition, you now
know that the understanding of human development (and particularly, of
learners’ specific level of development) is essential for teachers. Teachers also
need to know how learning takes place. Furthermore, you were reminded of
the important roles and responsibilities of teachers in the schooling context.

In learning unit 2 we shall discuss the physical development of the adolescent.

As a teacher you should be familiar with the physical changes that take place
during adolescence in order to help the learners in your class to cope with
these changes.

18
 2
10: LEARNING UNIT

The physical development of the adolescent

2.1 Introduction
From the previous unit, we can conclude that a teacher works holistically with
the adolescent. What this means is that you must have appropriate knowledge
and understanding of all the areas of development of the adolescent.

In this learning unit, we will discuss the physical development of the adolescent.
We will look at the characteristics of normal physical development, with special
attention to the effect of physical changes on the daily functioning of the
adolescent. We will also refer to cultural differences in the handling of certain
developmental milestones. Together we will look at the importance of a healthy
lifestyle and what a healthy lifestyle entails.

This unit will enable you to

 have an extensive overview of the changes and the milestones that are
reached during the healthy physical development of an adolescent
 determine the effect of physical changes on the emotional and social
wellbeing of the adolescent
 elaborate on the influence of culture and community on the way certain
milestones are perceived and handled
 assess lifestyles and anticipate the side effects of unhealthy habits

The content of this unit consists of two parts in Gouws (2019):

2.1 The characteristics of the physical development of the adolescent

2.2 The importance of a healthy lifestyle

2.2 Unit 2.1

The characteristics of the physical growth of the adolescent

South Africa is a country with many ethnic groups. Each culture assigns different
meanings to the development and growth of their children. As a teacher you
should be aware of these different views and always respect that.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the physical changes in the adolescent.

PED3701/1 19
 Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance
number (2019)
Chapter 2 The physical de- It is important to understand the influ-
velopment of the ences and experiences of the adolescent
adolescent in the involvement of his/her body.
2.1 Characteristics of The hypothalamus activates the se-
physical growth cretion of growth and sex hormones
which stimulate the physical changes
that take place.
2.1.1 Accelerated growth Growth and sex hormones lead to rapid
during adolescence growth in the body, also known as the
growth spurt. You must be able to de-
scribe the growth spurt.
2.1.2 Primary and sec- Note the difference between primary
ondary sexual and secondary sexual characteristics.
characteristics Growth spurts happen in a predict-
able sequence, but there are differences
between individuals.
Table 2.1 Order and ages of The table clearly shows the order of
adolescent changes changes and also the different ages
in girls and boys for girls and boys. Always remember
that there are differences between
individuals.
2.1.3 Motor development You must be able to discuss the role
of motor development in adolescence.
Again, there are differences between
girls and boys.
2.1.4 Secular trend The time of onset of puberty changes
gradually. It also differs between devel-
oped and developing countries, rural
and urban areas and ethnic groups.
Also focus on the probable reasons for
these trends.
2.1.5 Early and late Know and understand early and late
development development in boys and girls. You
must also be able to discuss the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of each. It
is important to note that early or late
physical development have psychologi-
cal, social and emotional consequences
for adolescents.
2.1.6 Body image Body image has consequences for ado-
lescents’ self-concept and personality
development. Take note of cultural dif-
ferences in this regard and the influence
of mass media on body image.

20
 The physical development of the adolescent

2.1.7 Menarche The fi rst occurrence of menstruation

is referred to as menarche. The age at
which it occurs differs between girls
and there is variation in how they ex-
perience it, mostly depending on their
circumstances, their culture’s views,
and how they were prepared for it.
2.1.9 Breaking of the The change to a deeper voice is espe-
voice cially noticeable in boys. Be sensitive
to the effects on adolescent boys, espe-
cially when they have to talk in front of
others, as in the classroom.

(b) Activities and additional information to study

First do the following activities to test your knowledge and insight and then
study our feedback after each activity. Pay special attention to the feedback as
it also provides additional information that you must study for examination
purposes.

2.1
Activity based on physical development (2.1.4)

Read through the following sections again and then complete the activity:

2.1 Characteristics of physical growth

2.1.1 Accelerated growth during adolescence
2.1.2 Primary and secondary sexual characteristics
2.1.3 Motor development
2.1.4 Secular trend

(i) How will you explain the difference between primary and secondary
sexual characteristics to a class of adolescents?
(ii) Do you think that there might be a difference between the onset of pu-
berty in urban and rural areas in South Africa? What are the reasons for
your answer?

FEEDBACK

As a teacher you need to be aware of the changes that take place in your learners’
bodies. Always keep in mind that these rapid changes also effect cognition,
emotions, self-image and the behaviour of the learner.

Menarchical age declined over the last 40 years and showed clear differences
between urban and rural girls. Said-Mohamed, Prioreschi and Nyati et al (2018)
found that urban black South African women reach menarche 1,8 years earlier
than rural black South African women. These researchers also found that earlier
puberty in urban areas could result from higher rates of overweight/obesity

PED3701/1 21
 in childhood, while later puberty in rural areas could be associated with the
higher rates of undernutrition (Said-Mohamed et al 2018).

2. 2
Activity based on early and late development (2.1.5)
The advantages or disadvantages of early or late development are subject to
the culture of the adolescent. It is important that you must be sensitive to the
effects that early and late development respectively could have on your learners.
(i) Complete the table below. This will help you to arrange the information
in a way that makes it easy to understand and remember.
(ii) Also think of difficulties an adolescent may experience and ways in which
you can help the adolescent to avoid the challenges associated with early
and late development. You can add that to your table, which can serve as
a summary for this section.

Girls – early development Boys – early development

Advantages: Advantages:
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
Help with difficulties: Help with difficulties:
Girls – late development Boys – late development
Advantages: Advantages:
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
Help with difficulties: Help with difficulties:

FEEDBACK

Always keep in mind that the advantages and disadvantages of early and
late development respectively depend on the values of the culture (Mwaba &
Roman 2009). Help with difficulties must thus always be culture related. For
example: In a culture that values voluptuous women, the early development of
a girl may be advantageous. However, when a culture values small and skinny
women, it may be an advantage to the girl who develops later.

Additional information to study with 2.1.6 – Body image

Getting used to the changes in the body and developing a positive feeling
about your body is a very important task in adolescence. Your attitude towards
your body is affected by factors such as cultural preferences, the media and
peer opinions.
Body image is strongly linked to cultural expectations. Research by Mwaba and
Roman (2009) indicated that most young black women tend to be satisfied with

22
 The physical development of the adolescent

their body and body shape. Although their mean body mass index (BMI) is
higher than those of white girls, they do not feel pressured to lose weight and
they think they are attractive. A study done by Caradas, Lambert and Charlton
(2001) found that white girls show more body image concerns than black and
mixed-race girls. White girls feel that they need to lose weight and be thin to
be attractive. Ethnic differences also affect adolescent boys’ body image. White
boys have a more positive body image than black boys do (Gitau 2014). White
boys therefore tend to invest in muscle building to improve their bodies.

In South Africa, girls are continuously exposed to the Western ideal that you
need to be thin to be beautiful. When young girls embrace the Western culture
and values, they will be more susceptible to the thinness ideal. Acculturation
happens when an individual changes his or her own values and beliefs to those
of another dominant culture. An example is when a person from a traditional
culture internalises the norms and values of the Western culture. It happens
through continuous exposure to the dominant culture.

Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

Share with your fellow students what your own culture values as the desired
body image and if you think that you meet the cultural expectations. Please do
this in Discussion forum 2 for this module. Think of possible ways through
which people with negative body images can be helped and ask the group to
give their ideas on this.

Additional information to study based on attaining sexual maturity

(2.1.7–2.1.8)

T he onset of menstruation and nocturnal semen emissions indicates that the

adolescent now has an adult body and is capable of reproduction. This comes
with the obligation to make responsible life choices.

Different cultures have different ways of handling these transitions. “Rite of

passage” is a term that the ethnographer Arnold van Gennep (1908) originated.
A rite of passage refers to a ceremony that marks an important social transition.
It rids a person from an old role and helps him or her to accept and adapt to a
new role. It involves rituals and teachings that groom the person for his or her
new responsibilities. Typical transition periods are birth, puberty, marriage
and death. Rituals and ceremonies differ between various cultures and it also
serves to reinforce the values and beliefs of the culture.

The following are examples of rites of passage in the Jewish, Xhosa, Sotho,
and Venda cultures:

 Young Jewish boys celebrate Bar Mitzvah at 13 years to demonstrate

their commitment to the Jewish law. Bat Mitzvah is the equivalent ritual
for Jewish girls.
 Intonjane is the rite of passage that is practised by Xhosa women in South
Africa. They are taught about the rights and responsibilities of being a wife;
motherhood and being a leader in her community. Appointed elders do
routine hymen inspections in a ritual named inkciyo. Boys are circumcised
and they learn about self-discipline.

PED3701/1 23
  Lebollo is a ritual that helps the girl to understand the customs and traditions
of the Sotho culture. Lebollo la banna refers to male initiation of the Sotho
people. Rituals such as circumcision teach the initiates about cultural and
health issues.
 In Venda the young men spend three months in the bush for their initiation
which also involves circumcision. Young women dance like a snake as an
initiation to womanhood.

Initiation rituals are meant to teach the young person to function efficiently in
the adult world. However, due to colonisation and diverse influences in modern
society, many traditions are not considered to be relevant any more.

We will now look at the importance of a healthy lifestyle.

2.3 Unit 2.2

The importance of a healthy lifestyle

A healthy lifestyle includes aspects such as a healthy diet, physical exercise,

personal hygiene and mental health. Health hazards include aspects such as
sleep deprivation, accidents and infections.

(a) Study sections

Study the following sections in Gouws (2019):

Section Section heading Notes

number
2.2.1 Sleep deprivation Adolescents need enough sleep. Under-
stand the implications of sleep deprivation
for them.
2.2.2 Accidents Be aware of the danger of risk-taking, in-
cluding how to assist adolescents to under-
stand the consequences.
2.2.3 Personal hygiene Acne and body odour can be a huge prob-
lem for the adolescent. Understand the sen-
sitivity of the problem and how to manage
these problems in your classroom.
2.2.4 Healthy eating What is a healthy meal? You must also rec-
(nutrition) ognise the effects of good or bad nutrition
on the growing adolescent.
2.2.5 Infections You must be familiar with significant infec-
tions that adolescents are prone to.
2.2.6 Physical exercise Recognise the advantages of physical
exercise.
2.2.7 Mental health Mental health problems affect adolescents
worldwide. Know which factors contribute
to mental health problems. Understand how
to nurture mental health in the classroom.

24
 The physical development of the adolescent

(b) Activities and additional information to study

In what follows, you will find activities to do. After you have completed the
activities, study our feedback. In between we also give additional information
on certain aspects of a healthy lifestyle. Please remember that the feedback also
provides additional information that you must study for examination purposes.

2.3
Activity based on sleep deprivation (2.2.1)

Watch the TED talk entitled Why school should start later for teens
by clicking on the following link: https://www.ted.com/talks/
wendy_troxel_why_school_should_start_later_for_teens#t-402606)

Listening to this TED talk can help you to understand the effects of sleep
deprivation. Wendy Troxel is a sleep researcher. In this talk she argues that
early school start times deprive adolescents of much-needed sleep.

(i) Do you think that sleep patterns differ between cultures? Give reasons
for your answer.
(ii) How does acculturation affect the sleep of adolescents from different
cultures in South Africa?

FEEDBACK

Sleep patterns differ in various cultures. Bed times in traditional non-Western

cultures are flexible, and naps are part of the biological flow of sleep cycles.
However, owing to their fast-paced and work-orientated culture, people in
Western cultures sleep less. Electric light tricks the normal sleep cycle and makes
it hard to fall asleep. Devices such as the television, cell phones and computers
also interfere with the normal sleep cycle and many people only wake up when
the alarm clock rings.

Once again acculturation plays a significant role in sleep deprivation. School

hours in South Africa are based on the work-orientated expectations of the
Western culture. Schools start early and many children who live far from their
schools must get up very early to be on time for school. This means that you
as a teacher will probably work with many tired and sleep- deprived learners.
A study by McVeigh and Meiring (2014) also indicated that black children
consistently sleep less than white and Indian children.

Additional information to study with sleep deprivation (2.2.1)

Sleep is extremely important to your health. Adolescents need to sleep longer

than adults. It is a biological need and it reaches its peak around the age of 20.
When a teenager sleeps later, his or her academic performance increases. Such
a learner may also be better motivated and eat healthier (Roenneberg 2012).

PED3701/1 25
 Additional information to study with healthy eating (nutrition) (2.2.4)

Malnutrition refers to imbalances in the intake and absorption of nutrients. It

may be the result of unhealthy diets or the inability of the body to absorb the
nutrients from food. Malnutrition refers to both undernutrition and overnutrition.

Culture determines food preferences. Viljoen and Gericke (2001) found different
food preferences between black South African men and white and coloured South
African men. According to their study, white and coloured men followed Western
eating patterns. Five ethnic groups of men (Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, Northern
Sotho and Southern Sotho) followed Western eating patterns combined with
their traditional eating patterns. They argue that changes in the eating patterns
of the black ethnic groups are probably the result of acculturation.
Additional information to study with physical exercise (2.2.6)
Levels of physical activity differ between various ethnic groups. McVeigh and
Meiring (2014) found that physical activity in South African school children
decline as they grow older. In turn, the time spent in front of the TV or computer
increases. Boys tend to engage more in physical activities than girls do.
Physical exercise contributes to the physical, social, affective and cognitive
development of adolescents.

2.4
Activity based on mental health (2.2.7)
HIV infection, substance use, and exposure to violence are some of the factors
that increase vulnerability to mental disorders. It also seems that adolescence
is a period when mental health problems emerge. It would therefore be ideal
if these adolescents could get help early, but sources of help may not be readily
available. It may also be that cultural views and expectations play a role in the
identification and treatment of mental health problems.
How do people in your culture react to mental illness? Who will they turn to
for help?

FEEDBACK

A few examples of cultural views on mental health and the treatment thereof
include the following:

Mhlana (2012:35) points out that African men are not supposed to talk about
their problems. They are too proud to discuss their problems. There is not even
a common African word that describes depression. Women are presumed to be
strong and to suffer from a mental illness means they are weak. Furthermore,
traditional cultures often mistrust Western medical health professionals.

In their study, Moahmmed-Kaloo and Laher (2014:67) found that mental

illness is often stigmatised in Indian and Muslim communities. These patients
preferred to keep mental illness a secret from their families and their community.
Indian families are embarrassed when a member have a mental condition.

26
 The physical development of the adolescent

Mental illness is often concealed as a physical illness such as diabetes because

it carries less stigma.

Moahmmed-Kaloo and Laher (2014) found that patients often prefer to consult
traditional healers such as maulanas (Muslim religious leaders or teachers) and
sangomas (African traditional healers) when they suffer from mental illnesses.
Patients often were reluctant to see a psychiatrist or a psychologist.

2.4 Conclusion
We have come to the end of this learning unit. Apart from recognising the
difficulties of the physical development of the adolescent, the teacher must
also understand and accept cultural differences between learners. Feelings and
behaviour of learners may vary due to diverse cultural views and expectations
and the teacher must be sensitive to these differences.

In learning unit 3 we shall discuss the cognitive development of the adolescent.

Bear in mind that all the domains are interlinked and that development in one
domain influences development in another domain. When learning about
adolescents’ abstract and hypothetical thought, their idealistic rebellion,
egocentrism and personal fable, try to link these with what you have just learnt
about things such as their self-image, their experience of the physical changes
of puberty and their feelings about sexual maturation.

PED3701/1 27
28
 3
11: LEARNING UNIT

The cognitive development of the adolescent

3.1 Introduction
In learning unit 2, we studied the physical development of the adolescent.
We saw that rapid physical growth has a considerable impact on the general
wellbeing of the adolescent. It also became clear that a healthy lifestyle is crucial
for the development of the adolescent.

In this learning unit, we will explore the cognitive or intellectual development of

the adolescent. Apart from numerous physical changes, several (mostly unseen)
cognitive changes also take place during adolescence. To understand these
changes, we will have to consider different theories on cognitive development.
These theories will show us how various authorities think about the development
of cognition. Together we will also explore the brain and the development of
the brain during adolescence.

Intelligence has always been highly valued and we know that it is an important
factor in the functioning and development of all children. We will therefore
look at different views regarding intelligence and how it can be enhanced. In
conclusion we will learn more about creativity and how it can be stimulated.

Cognition is concerned with the process of “getting to know”. It thus has to

do with thinking and learning (see learning unit 8). Cognitive development
therefore involves aspects such as attention, comprehension, memory, problem
solving and decision making.

Cognitive development is a product of nature and nurture:

 Nature refers to the impact of factors such as genetics and heredity on

cognitive development.
 Nurture refers to the influence of the (learning) environment of the
adolescent.

It is therefore necessary to always keep the environment and cultural differences

in mind when you study cognitive development. Also note that healthy cognitive
development means that a child grows mentally to the best of his or her ability
in his or her unique situation.

This unit will enable you to

 evaluate and apply theories and different viewpoints regarding cognitive

development
 describe the structure, working and development of the adolescent brain
 discuss the concept of intelligence and the factors that influence intelligence

PED3701/1 29
  explain ways to enhance intelligence in the home and the class environment
 define creativity as a construct and generate ways to stimulate creativity
 demonstrate the ability to apply your knowledge to various practical
environments

The content of this unit consists of four sections in Gouws (2019):

3.1 Theories of cognitive development

3.2 The adolescent brain
3.3 Intelligence
3.4 Creativity

3.2 Unit 3.1

Theories on cognitive development

We will study a few theories on cognitive development because one theory does
not cover all possible aspects of adolescent cognitive development. Firstly, you
will study the theory of Piaget, as his is the most widely recognised cognitive
theory. Furthermore, the theories of Vygotsky, Sternberg, Feuerstein and
Gardner will give you a wider perspective on adolescent cognitive development.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the cognitive development of the adolescent.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
3.1.1 Piaget’s development You must understand the formal-oper-
approach ational phase of Piaget. Reflect on the
value of Piaget’s approach for teaching
adolescents. You must be able to evalu-
ate its usefulness in the South African
context.
Table 3.1 Phases in the cogni- The table gives a brief overview of Pia-
tive development of get’s phases. You must study the charac-
the child teristics of the formal-operational phase
only.

Page 42 Block: Useful guidelines for teachers.

Formal-operational
phase: General
guidelines for teach-
ing adolescents

30
 The cognitive development of the adolescent

3.1.2 Vygotsky’s sociocul- The role of language and the teacher

tural theory (mediator) is stressed and children learn
in collaboration through guided learning
and “scaffolding”. Be familiar with these
concepts and be aware of the value of
your relationships with learners when
teaching adolescents.
3.1.3 Sternberg’s approach Understand the triarchic theory of intel-
ligence and know the value for teaching
– helping children using all three abili-
ties (analytic, creative and practical) to
enable them to achieve.
Figure Triarchic theory of The figure gives a brief overview of the
3.2 human intelligence three aspects of intelligence.
and the interrela-
tionship of the three
parts
3.1.4 Feuerstein’s Explain how the theory can enrich teach-
approach ing and learning, referring to the idea
that the teacher plays a central role in en-
hancing learners’ cognitive functioning.
Page 49 Block: Useful guidelines for teachers.
For effective media-
tion, bear the follow-
ing in mind when
asking questions
3.1.5 Gardner’s approach Take note of each intelligence and the
value of the theory for teaching – that
each learner has a particular strength
that should be developed.
Table 3.2 Application of multi- It is important that teachers take note
ple intelligences of all nine intelligences, to be able to
recognise them in learners.

(b) Activities and additional information to study

First do the following activities to test your knowledge and insight and then
study our feedback after each activity. Please remember that the feedback
also provides additional information that you must study for examination
purposes. Pay attention to the additional information that you must study for
examination purposes.

PED3701/1 31
 Activity based on Piaget’s development approach (3.1.1) and Vygotsky’s
sociocultural theory (3.1.2)

(i) Compare the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky by completing the table below.

Piaget Vygotsky
Similarities
Differences

(ii) Use Vygotsky’s theory to explain how you will teach Mathematics to a
grade 7 class.

FEEDBACK

Watch the v ideo entitled comparison-between-piaget-and-

vygotsky by clicking on the following link: https://getrevising.co.uk/
grids/comparison-between-piaget-and-vygotsky

This information might help you to answer the activity.

Note: Language is important in the process of cognitive development. Children

talk to themselves to guide their actions when they are playing. Vygotsky
called this private speech. The child tries to control his or her own behaviour
and thoughts by speaking out loud. As the child becomes more skilful, private
speech becomes internal speech and it is then seen as thought. Vygotsky saw
language as the development of thought. Piaget, however, believed that cognitive
development leads to the development of language.

Piaget was more interested in the level of development of the individual.

Vygotsky focussed more on the processes of learning, rather than on the expected
levels of development.

Due to brain development as well as social influences and formal schooling, the
adolescent’s competency in language increases. Aspects of language structure
and vocabulary grow. The development of language and the improvement of
literacy are more and more dependent on social relations and institutions. In
school, the adolescent gains the knowledge and the vocabulary that is used in
different subjects. Through relations with peers, they also learn the language
of the streets, of courtship, and of cell phones. They learn language from the
media, other ethnic groups, and co-workers (when they enter the workplace).
There is an emphasis on technical vocabulary that also includes programming
languages.

The adolescent does not only learn a better understanding of language structure
and vocabulary but also gains the ability to use language appropriately in
various social situations.

When teaching Mathematics to a grade 7 class the teacher should use Vygotsky’s
“zone of proximal development (ZDP)”. This is where the teacher uses scaffolding
to guide the learners from where they are currently functioning to their full
potential. Some learners may need more assistance than others, therefore

32
 The cognitive development of the adolescent

teachers should identify where learners are in their understanding of the

learning material.

3.1
Activity based on Sternberg’s and Feuerstein’s approaches (3.1.3 and 3.1.4)

Your school is having a competition between grade 9 classes. Each class must
build a stick bridge. The class that wins will get a day off and a trip to Sun
City. Explain how you can use the theories of Sternberg and Feuerstein to assist
the learners in your class. Remember that Sternberg and Feuerstein both see
intelligence as series of processes rather than factors.

FEEDBACK

 Sternberg’s theory has three components:

– Analytical or planning, where the learners must analyse, evaluate and

review
– Creative or doing, where the learners must discover, invent and construct
– Practical learning, where they select, combine, compare and make the
most of information

 Feuerstein gives equal weight to the learner and the teacher. The teacher
actively accompanies the learners in the process.

3. 2
Activity based on 3.1.5 – Gardner’s approach

According to Gardner, intelligence is “a biopsychological potential to process

information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or
create products that are of value in a culture” (Gardner 1999:22).

(i) Which of Gardner’s intelligences do you possess? Substantiate your answer

with examples from your life.
(ii) Do you think that your culture played a role in activating your type of
intelligence? Explain your answer.

FEEDBACK

You can use the following questionnaire to help you to identify your own types
of intelligence: http://janreyes.pbworks.com/f/multiple+intelligences.pdf

PED3701/1 33
 Multiple intelligence is valid across various cultures. The Zulu girl who weaves
baskets with beautiful designs may have visual-spatial intelligence. Using the
baskets and designs as a language to communicate information about her
history and her future may indicate existential intelligence.

Also think about the things that your culture value and encourage.

 African communities view social competence and responsibility as part of

intelligence. They place more emphasis on practical intelligence.
 The conception of intelligence in Asian cultures is linked with religious and
philosophical beliefs. For example, Buddhists believe that temperament is a
vital part of intelligence. It is also associated with morality.
 In Western society individuals must have knowledge and skills that are
relevant to everyday life. These are skills such as abstract reasoning, problem
solving, and decision-making. Individuals must also excel academically
(Cocodia, 2014).

Additional information to study with 3.1 – Cognitive development

Dasen (2011) and his research team studied aspects of Piaget’s theory in
African children and concluded that Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is
universal at the structural level. However, according to Dasen (2011:167) there
are cultural differences in the speed of development of particular concepts,
depending on whether these are valued and fostered or not in any particular
setting. The implication for teachers according to Dasen (2011:168) is that all
normal learners have the possibility to acquire all basic cognitive processes,
even though some learners, depending on their socio-cultural background and
previous experiences, may not necessarily be able to use them spontaneously
in school tasks. The challenge for teachers therefore is to find appropriate ways
to help these learners to either actualise their underlying competence, or to
discover and acquire the relevant concepts through interactions with their
physical and social surroundings.

According to Nsamenang (2006) cognitive development in African culture

refers to the knowledge and skills needed to be competent and responsible in
the social environment (see learning unit 3) and to be able to cope with social
interaction, cultural life, values, economic activities and productive skills (such as
in daily routines). It is important for a child to take care of others and to receive
support, which are regarded as signs of cognitive and general development.

3.3 Unit 3.2

The adolescent brain

The brain undergoes important changes during adolescence, but it is still not
fully developed. The advances in brain development lead to growth in certain
areas of mental competences, and the immaturity in some other areas can lead
to behavioural problems.

34
 The cognitive development of the adolescent

(a) Study sections

Study the following section in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the table below.
It will enable you to understand the adolescent brain and its development.

Section number Heading in Gouws (2019) Notes for guidance

3.2.3 Development of the brain Know which changes take
during adolescence place in the brain and dis-
cuss the effect on the ado-
lescent’s thought processes
and behaviour.

(b) Additional information to study

In what follows, you will find additional information to study with regard to
brain development.

Additional information to study with 3.2.3 – Development of the brain

during adolescence

Brain maturity is a physiological process in which the human brain grows and
changes. Studies of neuro-imaging show that the adolescent brain continues
to mature well into the 20s (Johnson, Blum & Giedd 2009:216) – as opposed to
earlier views that the human brain is fully developed between 10 and 12 years.
Although brain maturity cannot be hastened, interventions or stimulation of
certain areas in the brain help the learner to perform better (Krüger & Botha
2016:310).

Many factors influence the development of the adolescent brain. These are
factors such as:

 Heredity
 Environment
 Prenatal and postnatal maltreatment
 Nutrition
 Sleep patterns
 Medication
 Surgical interventions
 Stress (physical, economical, psychological)
 Drug abuse
 Hormones such as oestrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

Some of the above-named factors are beyond the adolescents’ control, for
instance: heredity, the treatment they got from their parents and caregivers until
now, certain health conditions or even the environment they find themselves in.
They can, however, be aware of the dangers of drug abuse, undisciplined sleep
patterns and eating unhealthy foods, and they can decide to avoid dangerous
or unhealthy habits. They should also especially be aware of the possible risks
of the over-use of cell phones. There are some studies that indicate that the
mere use of cell phones has effects on cognitive performance, as described in
the following article.

When our minds are overworked, our mental skills decrease. This is referred
to as “brain drain”. According to an article “Brain Drain: The Mere Presence of

PED3701/1 35
 One’s Own Smartphone Reduces Available Cognitive Capacity”, in the Journal
of The Association of Consumer Research, cell phones drain our brain energy and
impair our ability to solve problems and to think critically and creatively. It is
not enough to switch the phone off (Ward, Duke, Gneezy & Bos 2017). These
researchers found that people made significantly more cognitive errors in a
test when they had their phones in front of them, even when the phones were
off. Those whose phones were not in the room did notably better in the test.
However, results in other studies are mixed. In 2014, scientists from Queen’s
University in Belfast who reviewed 43 of the best-designed studies on the effects
of screen time on brain development found that screen time can influence the
brain both in good and bad ways (Carey 2018).

Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

Share your own experience of the influence of smartphones on you and your
studies in Discussion forum 3 for this module. Did you notice that your use
of your phone hampers or enhances your ability to concentrate, remember
and study?

3.4 Unit 3.3

Intelligence

Intelligence refers to cognitive functions, and there are various definitions for
the concept which you will come across in this unit. The views on intelligence
have also changed recently. In this unit you will get an overview of what
intelligence is and the factors that influence it.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand intelligence.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
3.3 Intelligence Discuss the difference be-
tween old and new views
on intelligence.
Appraise the effects of cul-
ture on intelligence and
intelligence testing.
Table 3.3 The old and new view on The table is a good example
intelligence of how a table can be used
to compare information to
make it easy to study and
understand.

36
 The cognitive development of the adolescent

3.3.1 Factors that influence Analyse and explain the

intelligence factors that can influence
intelligence.
3.3.2 Enhancing intelligence Be able to evaluate the
development of thinking,
problem-solving, reason-
ing and creative thinking
skills in the South African
school curriculum. Elabo-
rate on ways to enhance
intelligence.

3.3
(b) Activity based on intelligence, factors that influence intelligence and
enhancing intelligence (3.3, 3.3.1 and 3.3.2)

Prepare a talk that you must give to parents on intelligence, including the newer
views on intelligence and factors that influence intelligence. Is there anything
that parents and you as a teacher can do to enhance a child’s intelligence?

FEEDBACK
The newer view on intelligence is more optimistic and can be a relief to some
parents. Your knowledge of multiple intelligences (see Gardner’s approach)
can also positively influence parents’ view of their child’s abilities. With regard
to factors influencing their child’s intelligence, they cannot change genetics
but there are areas that they (and you as teacher) can give attention to, for
example boosting the child’s self-concept, or motivating him or her to make
use of educational opportunities. You can add more ideas here.

3.5 Unit 3.4

Creativity

Creativity refers to innovation – to think of, and produce what is new and
useful. However, it is a very complex concept – not easy to define and it cannot
be measured as intelligence, for example. Some adolescents may say they are
not creative and sit back, but teachers can stimulate creativity – as you will
learn in this unit. In this unit you will also learn about the relation between
intelligence and creativity.

(a) Study sections

 Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand more about creativity.

PED3701/1 37
 Section number Heading in Gouws (2019) Notes for guidance
3.4 Creativity There is no one single def-
inition for creativity. You
must, however, be able to
construe an understand-
ing of what creativity is and
what the creative process
entails.
3.4.1 Stimulating creativity You must not only know
how creativity can be en-
hanced; you must also be
able to apply the knowledge
by using creative ways to
enrich your own stud-
ies. This will enable you
to think creatively in your
class and boost creativity
in your learners.
Page 62 Block: Teachers can use these
ideas in and outside the
How teachers can stimulate
classroom to stimulate ado-
and promote creativity
lescents’ creativity.
3.4.2 Creativity and intelligence Creativity cannot be meas-
ured by tests. However, you
must be able to discuss the
characteristics of a creative
person. Also apply that
knowledge to enable your-
self and learners in your
class to live and learn in
creative ways.

3.4

(b) Activity based on creativity (3.4–3.4.2)

Creativity is highly valued in the educational system. However, schools struggle

to transform the rigid school structure (that values memorisation more than
independent thinking) into an environment that is conducive to creative
thinking. The challenge is to move from an emphasis on convergent thinking
(getting the correct answers) to an emphasis on divergent thinking (encouraging
different ways of problem solving and accepting uncertain outcomes). The fact
that creativity is greatly influenced by cultural aspects such as tight values
and a low tolerance for out of the ordinary behaviours intensifies the problem.
Learners and teachers alike may therefore be wary of accepting new and creative
ideas that may be frowned upon in their culture.

(i) Do various cultures and cultural factors nurture or limit creativity in South
African schools? Substantiate your view.

38
 The cognitive development of the adolescent

(ii) How can teachers in South Africa enhance creative thinking in a multi-
cultural class?

FEEDBACK

(i) People from cultures that have tight values and that do not encourage in-
dependent thinking may find it difficult to accept and engage in seemingly
foreign creative ideas. However, in culturally close groups the likelihood
of engagement in new ideas increases. Groups in South Africa differ sig-
nificantly when it comes to cultural values and expectations.
(ii) Project-based learning approaches across cultures are examples of teacher-
facilitated creativity in the classroom. However, these approaches can be
at odds with the preferences of teachers. Teachers may generally be more
in favour of quiet, conforming behaviours among their students. They may
not approve of the disorderly and lively environments that are encouraged
in “creative classrooms”.

Teachers can foster creativity in their classrooms when they:

 encourage independent learning

 practise tolerance and openness to ideas that differ from your own (very
important in multi-cultural schools)
 delay judgment and accept ambiguity
 motivate students to develop divergent thinking by asking challenging
questions instead of merely providing answers
 promote the self-evaluation of ideas
 help students to accept and cope with failure

Informal educational settings may offer excellent opportunities for creative co-
operation between learners. Teachers and learners may be more comfortable
to explore new ideas and experiences outside the constricting environment of
the classroom.

3.6 Conclusion
Teachers should take note of the implications of adolescents’ cognitive
development, so that they can guide adolescents in a way that will promote
optimal cognitive development. They should be aware of the existence of
individual differences between adolescents. We cannot assume that all 15-year-
olds are on the same cognitive level. We should remember at all times that
the adolescent may be capable of formal-operational thought on one day, only
to lapse into the concrete-operational phase the very next day. This means
that, as teachers, we cannot simply sit back and wait for all the adolescents
in our class to reach the formal-operational phase before we continue with
our teaching. Teaching should start from concrete considerations, building
up where it is applicable to more abstract reasoning. This is reflected in many
teaching programmes, including some programmes devised for mathematics
and science, which begin with experimental, practical aspects before deductive
work is attempted (Gouws 2008:47).

PED3701/1 39
 If you know the characteristics of children’s cognitive development, you
will find it easier to determine a child’s level of cognitive development. In
other words, you will know how the child thinks and what you can expect
of him or her. Learning should continually be adapted to children’s level of
cognitive development and knowledge. Remember, however, that there are
major individual differences and that children’s development cannot simply
be divided into watertight compartments or phases.

In this learning unit we explored the following notions of the cognitive

development of the adolescent:

 Various theories and different viewpoints on cognitive development

 The structure, working and development of the adolescent brain
 The concept of intelligence and the factors that influence intelligence.
 Ways to enhance intelligence in the home and the class environment
 Creativity as a construct and ways to stimulate creativity

We also explored the influences of culture on the view of cognition and

intelligence. We specifically referred to the challenges of the multi-cultural
environment in South Africa.

In the next learning unit, we shall look at the social development of the
adolescent. Once again, remember that all the domains are interlinked and
that development in one domain influences development in other domains.

40
 4
12: LEARNING UNIT

The social development of the adolescent

4.1 Introduction
From the previous unit it is evident that adolescents’ cognitive abilities increase
rapidly during the adolescent years, with the result that they can perform
tasks more easily, quickly and efficiently. Moreover, their heightened cognitive
abilities enable adolescents to answer the question “Who am I?” and to form
meaningful relationships with society.

In this learning unit, we will discuss the social development of the adolescent.
Social development may very well be the most important area of adolescent
development. Adolescents not only need to manage meaningful relationships
within the society, they must also develop self-confidence and develop
interpersonal skills. They must find their place in society whilst increasingly
accepting personal and cultural differences.

This unit will enable you to

 consider recent theories on the social development of adolescents and

realise the main pursuit of this phase, namely a search for identity, and the
importance of the adolescent’s context
 understand the social relationships of adolescents and how you as teacher
can create
 positive relationships with your learners
 realise the importance of self-concept and self-esteem and how to enhance
learners’
 self-esteem
 know about the factors that influence personality development and the role
a teacher can play in this development
 recognise the importance of finding an identity during this stage and how
teachers can add to this process

The content of this learning unit consists of five sections in Gouws (2019):

4.1 Theoretical perspectives on adolescent social development

4.2 Social relationships of the adolescent
4.3 Self-concept and self-esteem
4.4 Personality development
4.5 Identity formation

PED3701/1 41
 4.2 Unit 4.1

Theoretical perspectives on adolescents’ social development

It is interesting to take note of older views on adolescents’ social development,

such as those of Hall, Freud, Mead, and Havighurst, but you need not study
those for examination purposes. More recent theories must be studied, namely
that of Erik Erikson and Urie Bronfenbrenner. Erikson’s theory on adolescence is
known for his view on the adolescent’s search for identity; and Bronfenbrenner’s
theory for taking all contexts of the adolescent into account.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand two important theories on adolescents’
social development namely those of Erikson and Bronfenbrenner.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
4.1.1 Erik Erikson Humans develop through eight stages,
each with its own crisis that must be
resolved to develop optimally. The ado-
lescent stage is of particular importance
because the adolescent has to develop a
sense of identity.
Table 4.1 Erikson’s eight stag- The table gives a brief overview of Erik-
es of development son’s phases. Although you are studying
the adolescent, it is important to know
the crisis and central issue of each stage,
because each stage builds on the effec-
tive resolution of the previous stages.
4.1.2 Urie Bronfenbrenner The person and his or her environment
are influencing each other. Teachers of
adolescents must be aware of all the
contexts that can influence the learners,
especially the microsystem (e.g. risk fac-
tors at home) that can influence school
performance.

(b) Additional information

Study the following two sections with additional information on Erikson and
Bronfenbrenner.

Additional information to study with 4.1.1 – Erik Erikson

Ramokgopa (2001) studied the developmental stages of African children of the

Bolobedu area in Limpopo, in relation to Erikson’s stages. He found that the
children here also go through similar stages of development as Erikson’s stages
(with problems and expectations). However, the stages are not related to age
as such, but to the child’s abilities to perform certain tasks. This corresponds

42
 The social development of the adolescent

with what Nsamenang and Tchombe (2011) reported on the Afrocentric views
on development: that the child does not develop according to fixed ages, but
rather according to readiness to perform a certain task.

Ramokgopa (2001) found that Erikson’s theory fails to recognise the importance
of rituals (as the rites of passage you studied in unit 2) and the psychological
advantages of these rituals for adolescents. According to this author, Erikson
also failed to take adolescents from African and particularly from disadvantaged
backgrounds into account when formulating his theory.

One can therefore conclude that children of different races and cultures go
through similar developmental stages, but that it may be defined differently
in different cultures and that there are different rituals when a child moves to
the next developmental stage.

Additional information to study with Urie Bronfenbrenner (4.1.2) integrated

with the African ecological perspective

In order to study development of children from an ecological point of view,

especially in the African population group, Ogbu (1981) designed such a
model. This model is essentially not much different from Bronfenbrenner’s bio-
organic model. However, Ogbu’s (1981) model differs from Bronfenbrenner’s
model in his focus, in that his model focuses on the nature of culture-specific
child education techniques and their relationship to cultural-specific skills,
rather than on the interactions of an individual with various aspects of his or
her environment. In the early nineties, Nsamenang (1992) suggested that child
development should be studied within an ecocultural conceptual framework.
The African perspective approach takes place over the chrono-cosmos (Tabane
2014). In the African ecological perspective, the relationship between different
systems that develops over time is very important. These systems namely the
micro-cosmos, meso-cosmos, exco-cosmos and macro-cosmos link with the
systems identified by Bronfenbrenner (Tabane 2014). Table 4.1 gives a brief
description of each cosmos.

TABLE 4.1
African ecological perspective

Micro-cosmos Domain where the child is directly involved and relation-

ships with significant others are fostered.
Meso-cosmos This is the domain of traditional health practitioners,
spiritual leaders and priests. In the African worldview,
it also includes the extended family. There is an African
saying: “Ngwana wa gago ke waka (Your child is my child)”
to indicate the importance of family and community in
the upbringing of the child.
Exco-cosmos Child is not directly involved, but events in this space
have an influence on the child’s development.

PED3701/1 43
 Macro-cosmos The domain in which God and the ancestors are en-
countered. From an African perspective, this system
influences the belief system: for, example, the relation-
ship between the person, values, customs, community,
and ancestor, as well as the connection with religious
systems. The fundamental Afrocentric view of Botho or
Ubuntu is cultivated in the child.
Chrono-cosmos This section explains time and the influence of time on
the development of the child. In South Africa with its
political changes and economic development challenges,
children will also be influenced by the chronosystem.

Source: Sow 1980; Tabane 2014; Swick & Williams 2006

In figure 4.1 the conceptual integration of the ecological approach of

Bronfenbrenner and the African perspective approach is showing a complete
system around the child (Tabane 2014:95)

FIGURE 4.1
The ecological approach and the African perspective approach

44
 The social development of the adolescent

4.3 Unit 4.2

Social relationships of the adolescent

Adolescence is a time of change in all relationships – with parents, siblings,

teachers, other adults, the peer group and friends. Gradually the adolescent
becomes less dependent on parents and other adults, and becomes closer to
the peer group and friends. Through all these relationships (and even conflict,
sometimes) the adolescent experiments with new roles, while steadily becoming
more and more his or her own person.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the adolescent’s social relationships and the
gradual social emancipation that takes place.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
4.2.1 Relations with Parents still play a very important role.
parents For optimal social development it is nec-
essary that they provide a happy home
for their children through being support-
ive and understanding, and by accepting
and trusting them.
Table 4.2 Different parenting The parenting style (and also the parents’
styles relationship with their adolescent child)
will influence the adolescent’s general
adjustments and the development of as-
pects such as self-concept, independence,
academic achievements and many more.
In this table the parenting styles and
their effects on children are described.
4.2.2 Conflict between There seems to be agreement among
adolescents and researchers that there is mostly some
their parents degree of conflict between parent and
adolescent child. However, the nature
and extent of the conflict will depend on
factors in the society, as well as charac-
teristics of parents and their adolescent
child.
4.2.3 Relations with Here you will find the characteristics of
siblings sibling relationships and factors influenc-
ing these relations.
4.2.5 Relations with Teachers can play a significant role in the
teachers and other lives of adolescent learners, depending
adults on the kind of relationship they can form
with the learners.

PED3701/1 45
 Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance
number (2019)

4.2.6 Relations with the The peer group serves important func-
peer group tions in adolescents’ social development,
as described in this section. Peer group
influences can be positive or negative.

Page 83 Block: The notes give interesting information,

especially that peer pressure need not
Notes on peer
always be regarded as negative.
pressure
4.2.7 Relations with Adolescents have the cognitive ability
friends to have good friendships because they
can understand others’ thoughts and
feelings. They are also becoming more
emotionally mature which enables them
to be good comrades. They form friend-
ships with the same sex and with time,
also romantic relationships.

(b) Activity and additional information to study

First do the following activity and then take note of our feedback. Furthermore,
study the additional information on the Afrocentric views regarding the
importance of social relationships for the adolescent, the feedback is below.

4.1
Activity based on relations with the peer group (4.2.6)

Adults usually think that the peer group poses some kind of threat to their
adolescent child and that the pressure of peers will have a negative influence
and will harm the relationship they have with their child. Discuss these fears
with a group of parents and explain the positive and negative influences of the
relationship of the adolescent with the peer group. Also give them hints as to
what they as parents can do with regard to negative influences of the peer group.

FEEDBACK

Peers are very important to adolescents and serve significant functions in

the social development of adolescents. Explain these functions in your talk
and emphasise the importance of a healthy relationship between parent and
adolescent, although the parents’ influence is decreasing.

46
 The social development of the adolescent

Additional information to study with the unit on social relationships

Children grow up in specific families with particular cultural beliefs and specific
value systems. In the African context, it often happens that grandparents become
the main caregivers, because of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, where parents die, as
well as socioeconomic changes where parents have to work away from home
(Tabane 2014). Children from “single-parent households, divorced homes,
blended families or child-headed households” will perhaps have different
values than children from nuclear households with both parents active in
the child’s life. “Parenting … is one of the aspects that differ tremendously in
different cultural and ethnic groups. Western parents are more set on raising
individualistic children whereas other cultural groupings may prefer a more
group-centred approach” (Venter, Haasbroek, Nthangase, Snowman & McCown
2016:25). Teachers need to take note of that and accommodate both parenting
styles in the classroom.
We now also need to look at the Afrocentric views on social development.
Afrocentric views on development recognise both nature and the social
environment in which the child develops (also called nurture) (Nsamenang
2006; Nsamenang & Tchombe 2011). According to these views:

 development is seen as the ongoing and methodical social inclusion of the

child in the community
 an individual needs other people, but also carries a social responsibility to
develop into a dependable mature person
 the child cannot exist in isolation
 the sense of self can only be achieved through interconnection in a community
and through the performance of one’s social roles. Archbishop Desmond
Tutu explained this principle as follows:

“My humanity is bound up in yours, for we can only be human together.”

4.4 Unit 4.3

Self-concept and self-esteem

To get to know who they are, how they feel about themselves and how they
evaluate themselves are very important tasks of adolescence. Their cognitive
development and interaction with others will influence the way the self-concept
and self-esteem of the adolescent will develop.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the notions of self-concept and self-esteem,
how these can develop positively and how they relate to self-actualisation.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
4.3 Self-concept and An introduction about the importance
self-esteem of self-concept and self-esteem
Page 86 Self-concept and Make sure that you know what these
self-esteem concepts comprise.

PED3701/1 47
 Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance
number (2019)
4.3.1 Characteristics of Know the dimensions of the self-concept,
self-concept as well as its dynamic (changeable)
characteristic and the way it is organised,
which will differ between individuals.
Teachers must be aware that they can
play a role in the development of the
adolescent’s self-concept and self-esteem.
4.3.2 Self-esteem and Self-esteem refers to feelings of self-
self-concept worth. The self-concept and self-esteem
influence adolescents’ mental health.
Take note of the areas that are affected
by the way adolescents see themselves.

4.3.3 Development of Take note of the influence of parents,

a positive self- teachers, physical characteristics
concept and a high and socioeconomic status on the
self-esteem development of the self-concept. Also
know the importance of self-knowledge
and how it can be enhanced.
Pages Block: Important information for teachers to
89–90 take note of.
How teachers can
enhance the self-
esteem of their
learners
4.3.4 Self-actualisation Characteristics of self-actualising people
are given. It refers to becoming what
your potentialities enable you to be.

(b) Additional information to study

Study the following information on an Afrocentric view.

Additional information to study with the unit on self-concept and self-

esteem (4.3)

Although there are differences between various cultures, Nsamenang (2006)

has suggested three phases in the development of social selfhood.

 The spiritual selfhood starts at conception. When the umbilical cord falls
off, the child is incorporated into the living community through a name-
giving ceremony.
 The social selfhood begins with the naming ceremony and ends at death.
 The ancestral selfhood follows the biological death. Ancestors influence
people in their daily lives.

48
 The social development of the adolescent

4.5 Unit 4.4

Personality development
Your “personality” is unique and it refers to your complete being – all domains of
your development. It comprises how you react to other people and circumstances,
and why you do it a certain way. It also refers to how other people experience
you as a person. Your “temperament” refers to your characteristic way of
behaving in situations.
(a) Study sections
Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the personality development of the adolescent.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
4.4.2 The development Various factors influence the develop-
of personality and ment of personality. Parents and teach-
temperament ers can have a particular influence on
adolescents’ personality development.
Take note of certain personality traits
that were identified by researchers.
Page 96 Block: Teachers can have a positive influence
on adolescents’ personality development
Facilitating ado-
(and mental health as a whole) by being
lescent personality
aware of their behaviour towards their
development
learners.

4.4.3 Defence Defence mechanisms are unconscious

mechanisms behaviour patterns used by individuals
to defend themselves against negative
feelings – and to use these is not a posi-
tive way to cope with life.

Table 4.3 Examples of defence Be aware of defence mechanisms in your

mechanisms own behaviour and that of your learners.

4. 2

(b) Activity based on defence mechanisms (block on p 96, 4.4.3 and table
4.3)

An adolescent learner in your class scores low in her tests, and you hear that
she tells other learners she thinks her low scores are because you do not like
her. How will you handle this? Think of what you will say to her when you
call her in.

PED3701/1 49
 FEEDBACK
Understand that the learner is defending herself against the painful reality. Be
diplomatic when you talk to her and use the ideas in the block on p 90 as well
as your knowledge of defence mechanisms.

4.6 Unit 4.5

Identity formation

Whatever their race or culture, all adolescents have to work through the question
“Who am I?”. Society gives them time (the moratorium) in order to search for
their identity and come to grips with who they are, distinctive from others. The
period of adolescence, with all the changes taking place (physically, socially,
emotionally) is therefore the time when individuals also have to find their own
identity. The search for personal identity, the desire to find out “Who am I?”
is a lifelong process, starting at birth and continuing into adulthood. During
adolescence they temporarily “lose” the stable self-concepts that they built
up during childhood and they are confused about who they really are. Their
temporary confusion leads to feelings of insecurity, stress and self-consciousness,
as is evident in the following poem by a 16-year-old boy (Broughton 1981:23):

No one can describe

Me the way I am
No one can enter my brain
At least no mortal man
So if you say you know me,
Please sir, look again,
for no one knows who I am but me,
And then, do I really?

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand identity formation.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
4.5.1 Development of a Because of cognitive development during
distinct identity this stage, adolescents can think about
themselves and their ideal image. They
establish an identity after experimenting
with a variety of identities, fantasising to
be like a chosen model and then recon-
cile fantasy with reality.

50
 The social development of the adolescent

4.5.2 Gender-role identity To think of yourself as male or female is a

very crucial part of your overall identity.
There may be pressure on boys and girls
to behave in certain ways according to
their gender – the force of these pressures
may differ between different cultures.
Page 99 Block: Gay, lesbian Use the information in this block and
and bisexual identity endeavour to create a climate of ac-
ceptance in your classroom (and the
school) for learners with different sexual
orientations.

4.5.3 Career identity By the end of this stage adolescents usu-

ally have an idea of the career they want
to follow.
4.5.4 Ethnic identity In a diverse society as in South Africa,
it is important for adolescents to fi nd
their own ethnic identity, but they can be
guided to accept people of other ethnic
groups. Maybe you as a teacher can play
a role here.
4.5.5 Identity diffusion Many adolescents first experience iden-
tity diffusion before they establish an
identity. In this section the emphasis
is on the role of teachers (as important
identification models) in helping ado-
lescents with their identity formation.
Table 4.4 Marcia’s identity The table gives a clear summary of the
statuses identity statuses according to Marcia.
After exploration it is the ideal that the
adolescent commits to an established,
authentic identity.

Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

Explain your choice to study education in Discussion forum 4 for this module.
Tell your fellow students how your career identity was established and whether
your career choice was influenced by this identity. Ask them to also share their
own experiences in this regard.

4.3
(b) Activity and additional information to study based on the unit on
identity development

Reflect on what you have learnt about the adolescent’s social development and
the importance of establishing an own identity in a certain culture. Then take

PED3701/1 51
 note of the additional information on collectivist and individualist cultures
below. While studying the following information, consider what the effects of
these two different outlooks may be on the adolescent who is striving to find
his or her own identity.

The child lives in a cultural environment. Each culture determines what is

acceptable and what is expected of its members. There are different cultures
in South Africa and therefore there are different expectations. Cultures are
typically divided into two categories: collectivism and individualism, which
determine our social behaviour and influence our personality (Triandis, 1986,
2002).

Collectivist cultures: Collectivism is the idea that the individual’s life belongs
to the group or the society of which he or she is a part. The individual must
give up his or her values and goals for the group’s “greater good”. Examples
are the cultures of China, India, Japan and Africa.

Individualist cultures: Individualism is the idea that an individual’s life

belongs to himself or herself. The individual has the right to live it as he or she
chooses, and can follow the values of his or her choice. This describes American,
German and Australian cultures.

The following table describes the traits of collectivist and individualist cultures.

Collectivist Individualist
You are expected to be an active “I” identity. It is all about yourself.
member of the society. You always
do what is best for the society.
The rights of your family and com- Your own goals, achievements and
munity are always more important initiatives are important.
than your own.
Rules promote unity and selflessness. Your rights as an individual are most
important. Rules tend to ensure the
importance of the individual and of
individualism.
Everyone cooperates with others and Independence is the main value. It is
support each other. not that important to help others. You
are responsible for yourself.
The family and the community are To rely on others and to be dependent
more than the individual. on others is shameful.
The society is interconnected and You must rely on yourself and do
unified. things on your own.
Ubuntu You do all you can to ensure your own
success.

52
 The social development of the adolescent

FEEDBACK
Is your own culture distinguishable as only collectivist or individualist? Are the
cultures you know in South Africa one or the other? Is any one of these cultures
more inclined to enhance identity formation or not? Can you as a teacher play
a role to help learners who struggle with identify diffusion, to commit to an
established (ethnic) identity?

Note that you also have to assist adolescents in their search for identity. Here
are some pointers in this regard:

 Allow them freedom to experiment with roles, choose independently and

participate in life without guilt feelings.
 Help them to strive for realistic self-images. Remember, if the image that
adolescents strive for differs too much from their true selves, this may lead to
identity diffusion and identity confusion. So, help them to accept themselves
as they are, with all their strengths and weaknesses.
 Help them to acquire an appropriate gender role identity, occupational
identity and ethnic identity. With regard to occupational identity, give them
access to information about a large variety of careers and help them to arrive,
through self-knowledge, at a sensible decision. Regarding ethnic identity,
you should help them not only to experience their own identity positively
but also to respect the values and customs of other ethnic groups.

4.7 Conclusion
At the end of this unit you may realise the significance of adolescents’ social
development, and very specifically establishing who they are, what they want
to become, what sexual orientation they are comfortable with and what identity
they have. An accepting teacher can enhance these developments. Once they
are sure of all these, they can accept others who are different from them and
become mature, well-adjusted adults in their society.

In the next learning unit, the emotional, moral and religious development of
the adolescent shall be discussed.

PED3701/1 53
54
 5
13: LEARNING UNIT

The emotional, moral and spiritual

development of the adolescent

5.1 Introduction
During adolescence some of the main tasks include learning to control emotions,
developing one’s own value system and deciding about spiritual values and
religion.

This unit will enable you to

 understand the importance of adolescents’ emotions and the developments

that take place during the stage of adolescence as well as the role of teachers
in this regard
 realise that the cognitive developments during adolescence can lead to the
ability to decide on an own set of values
 recognise the role that teachers can play in the spiritual development of
adolescents and how this development takes place

The content of this unit consists of three sections in Gouws (2019):

5.1 Emotional development

5.2 Moral development
5.3 Spiritual development

5.2 Unit 5.1

Emotional development

Adolescents may have emotional swings because of hormonal changes and

environmental pressures, but they also have the ability to have insight into their
own and others’ feelings. In this unit you will get to know about adolescents’
heightened emotionality, how they experience emotions, and that they become
more competent in their emotional expressions.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the emotional development of the adolescent.

PED3701/1 55
 Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance
number (2019)
5.1 Emotional Understand what emotional develop-
development ment involves and why emotions are so
important.
5.1.1 Heightened emo- Adolescents may experience heightened
tionality and emo- emotionality because of many environ-
tional ability mental pressures, but they usually ma-
ture emotionally during this stage.

5.1.2 Emotional maturity Understand emotional maturity – that it

means to be able to control the expres-
sion of emotions.
Table 5.1 Examples of im- Interesting examples to illustrate
portant emotion- the competencies are given.
al competencies
5.1.3 Experience of Joyous, inhibitory and hostile states are
emotions during described.
adolescence
Page 107 Block: Useful guidelines for parents and teach-
ers are given.
How to deal
with adolescent
aggression

(b) Activities and additional information to study

Study the following additional information and then do the activity. Use the
feedback as your guideline.

Additional information to study with emotional development (5.1.1–5.1.3)

Mood swings in adolescence are ascribed more to negative events in adolescents’

lives than to hormonal changes (Zimba 2011). According to this author,
adolescents’ moods, like being withdrawn, depressed and anxious, may be
caused by difficulties at school, at home and in relationships. He says teachers
must understand that there are many problems especially when growing up
in South Africa – some adolescents in certain circumstances may be affected
by the social-political instability, various hardships and poverty.

The emotionally mature adolescent will avoid emotional outbursts in front of

others and will handle the emotion in an appropriate manner and at a suitable
place. They will distinguish important from unimportant stimuli in situations
before they react emotionally. They are able to have compassion for others
and to understand their feelings. They are open and sensitive to their own
experiences and feelings and they can express their feelings suitably according
to different situations.

Expression of emotions varies between cultures. Children are socialised to meet

the emotional values and standards of their culture through role models. In
an individualist culture, high arousal in emotions and expression are valued
and promoted. This is meant to encourage autonomy and independence in

56
 The emotional, moral and spiritual development of the adolescent

the individual. Collectivist cultures, however, value low arousal in emotions

more than high arousal in emotions. People in collectivist cultures tend to hide
emotions to maintain the harmony in the group or community. They view
emotions in relation to the group.

Emotional skills have an impact on all areas of the adolescent such as cognitive,
social and moral achievement.

Also important in our diverse South African society is to take note of what
Tchombe (2011:277) wrote about the emotional climate in the classroom: It
must have an “inclusive nature” (including learners of various cultures, mixed
abilities and even disabilities) – this will depend on the teacher’s empathy,
warmth, patience, zeal and resourcefulness which create a positive psychological
climate and emotional security for the learners.

5.1
Activity based on adolescent hostility (5.1.3) and how to deal with
adolescent aggression (the block in that section)

Adolescent learners are sometimes hostile towards their teachers and even
openly aggressive. Think of a video that was on social media showing how
an adolescent learner did not want to obey the teacher to put her phone away,
bumping the teacher with her table.

What should a teacher do in this situation? What behaviour of a teacher will

suppress the aggression and what must he or she do to let the learner understand
that this behaviour is not acceptable?

FEEDBACK
Consider the hints in the mentioned block. Discuss the problem and how to
handle it with fellow students. Be aware of your own feelings and think if you
will be able to be understanding and empathetic and composing yourself. If
not, what can you do to develop these skills?

5.3 Unit 5.2

Moral development

Adolescents have the cognitive ability to think about right and wrong and to
judge behaviour and behave according to their values – they therefore begin
to establish their own set of values.

(b) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the theories about moral development

PED3701/1 57
 and adolescents’ development in this regard. You will also come across factors
that can influence this development.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
5.2 Moral development Morals are learnt and society expects
adolescents to become morally inde-
pendent and responsible.
5.2.1 Characteristics of Adolescents’ abstract thinking leads
adolescents’ moral to more critical and rational views of
development morality. They may therefore come into
conflict with adults about moral issues.
Furthermore, an internal locus of control
will lead to more responsible behaviour.
5.2.2 Theories of moral The most acknowledged theory on moral
development development, namely that of Kohlberg,
is explained.
Reference is made to Gilligan’s female
alternative to Kohlberg’s theory.
Page 113 Block: The known story of Heinz, told by
Kohlberg, is presented.
Example of a moral
dilemma
5.2.3 Factors influencing Apart from cognitive development, there
adolescent moral are several environmental factors influ-
development encing moral development, such as fam-
ily, peers, “new morality”, community,
the media and the school. Take note of
the important role that the school and
teachers can play.
Page 123 Block: Useful suggestions for teachers, em-
phasising teachers’ modelling of moral
How to promote
behaviour.
moral development
in your learners

(b) Activity and additional information to study

First, study the additional information and then do the following activity. Also
take note of our feedback.

Additional information to study with factors influencing adolescents’

moral development, especially the role of the school (5.2.3)

Interesting information is given by Zimba (2011) about the way African people
teach their children morals. He says they use proverbs, riddles, puzzles and role
play and children are encouraged to take the perspectives of others in simulated
situations. He suggests that teachers use these activities when teaching learners
moral reasoning.

Zimba (2011) also stresses the challenges that South African teachers have
because of the diversity of learners (although this will be applicable all over

58
 The emotional, moral and spiritual development of the adolescent

the world). He continues to say that teachers must be “in tune” with the
sociocultural milieu and the behaviour of the learners, and be alert because
“Information and Technology (IT) and globalization have transformed the job
of the teacher into a highly dynamic one” (Zimba 2011:148 & 150). Teachers
must also take the role of parents by teaching learners morals (especially about
sexual behaviour) because earlier, traditional ways of parents and certain family
members teaching children are not in place any more (“In most communities
this value safety net has broken down”, Zimba 2011:148). Teachers must also be
willing that learners ask questions openly about sexual matters and use these
questions to create an ongoing dialogue with learners, so that moral values
with regard to sexual behaviour can be conveyed to them.

5. 2
Activity based on factors influencing adolescents’ moral development,
especially the role of peers and teachers (5.2.3), and on the above additional
information

Answer the following question posed by Zimba (2011:151):

“Imagine that a 17-year old adolescent has approached you to ask for advice on
how to handle a friend who was pressurizing her to experiment with sex. By
taking into account her level of development and her Southern African social
cultural background, what advice would you give her?”

FEEDBACK
Information from 5.2.3 and the above will suggest inter alia the following:
Be empathic towards this learner because you as a teacher understand that
adolescents would like to conform to peers’ values. However, these values
may clash with adults’ views. Give the adolescent time to make her own
decisions, on the basis of values you and her parents recommend to her, and
be open to discuss her questions and concerns with her. Also make room for
Kohlberg’s view, namely that you must take the specific adolescent’s level
of moral development into account. Be sure to give adolescents a chance to
discuss, argue and debate about moral issues – it is the best way to help them
progress to higher levels of moral thought and reasoning. It affords them an
opportunity to talk to someone who is at a higher level of moral functioning.
If parents and teachers include humour and praise in their discussions, listen
to adolescents with interest, find out about their opinions and encourage them
in different ways to join in discussions, these adolescents will soon develop
their own moral judgment.

You can elaborate further.

PED3701/1 59
 Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

Consider the moral dilemma told by Kohlberg in the story of Heinz. Go to

Discussion forum 5 for this module, and share your view with regard to a
friend who does something illegal to get money to pay for his or her studies in
Education and who wants to copy parts of your assignment.

5.4 Unit 5.3

Spiritual development

Spirituality is related to what a person believes and the religion he or she

follows. Children mostly accept their parents’ religion but adolescents begin
to take responsibility for their own belief system or religion.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the adolescent’s spiritual development.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
5.3 Spiritual Adolescents develop their own belief
development system. Fowler’s stages of religious de-
velopment are described.

5.3.1 Characteristics of Their cognitive abilities enable adoles-

adolescents’ religious cents to critically evaluate the beliefs and
development values their parents and teachers convey
to them, in comparison to these adults’
behaviour. Their peer group’s religion
influences their decisions about religion
to a greater extent than before.
5.3.2 The role of teach- Valuable suggestions to teachers in reli-
ers in the religious gious education are given – to be open
development of minded and sensitive to the diversity in
adolescents religious views of their learners.

(b) Additional information to study

Study the following two reports, giving extra information on the spirituality
and religion of adolescents. Then do the activity and take note of our feedback.

Additional information to study with the unit on the role of teachers in

the spiritual development of adolescents (5.3.2)

In addition to what you came across in 5.3.2, take note that the Department of
Education promulgated the National Policy on Education (2003), introducing

60
 The emotional, moral and spiritual development of the adolescent

a curriculum on religion and spirituality that presents a variety of world

religions (including African traditional religion), as well as secular worldviews.
The new curriculum requires that teachers will not promote one religion, but
expose learners to a diversity of religions or secular views. This is in line with
the Constitution, giving individuals the choice to decide for themselves what
religion they want to follow. It makes religion education more inclusive because a
specific religion is not taught, but learners are educated in the religious diversity
in South Africa and the world. The reason for this new policy was that it might
increase learners’ understanding, reduce prejudice and facilitate respect for
others (Chidester 2003). However, this gave rise to a public controversy and
various debates followed. The situations in schools are complex, because teachers
and learners may come from various religious or non-religious backgrounds
and will have to accept others with different views from their own.
Additional information to study with the characteristics of adolescents’
religious development (5.3.1)
Research by Brittian, Lewin and Norris (2013) give interesting information
on adolescents’ experiences of religion. These authors interviewed 55 black
learners from Soweto in 2008 to find out what role religion plays in their lives.
The adolescents lived in difficult conditions such as high crime, and violence
in and around the home – and many of them also experienced difficulties
at school. They belonged to African as well as a variety of mostly Christian
religions. Most of the youths reported positive experiences with religion. The
minority who reported negative experiences with religion faced the problem that
adults’ teachings about religion did not show in their own behaviours – they
experienced adults as hypocritical. However, the majority experienced their
religion as meaningful and to be part of a church or religious group provided
emotional and social support to them. They further believed that religion lead
to their positive behaviour, helping them to avoid drugs and alcohol and risky
sexual activities. They said that praying to a Higher Power helped them to cope
with difficulties in their lives.

5.3
Activity based on the role of teachers in the religious development of
adolescents (5.3.2)

In this section of the prescribed book it is recommended that teachers get

training to be able to handle the new policy on religion education. Think of
yourself and your own beliefs, and what can help you as a teacher to be open
to other religions and beliefs. Make suggestions as to what this kind of training
should consist of. What can help one to have appreciation for other convictions?

FEEDBACK
Take note of section 5.3.2 of the prescribed book. Consider the teacher qualities
suggested there. Think of how your own identity (self-concept), self-awareness
and mindfulness will promote these qualities and how you can update your
own knowledge of various religions.

PED3701/1 61
 5.5 Conclusion
At the end of this learning unit you may realise the significance of adolescents’
emotions, morality and spirituality, because these aspects involve their self-
concept (who they are) and their whole being. Adolescents usually develop
control over their emotional expressions and decide on a set of values and the
religion they want to follow. The ideal is emotional, moral and spiritual maturity
that will enable adolescents to adopt values that will empower them to accept
the equality of all humans and to have respect for every other individual in
our diverse society. Teachers can play a significant role in these developments,
especially by their example.

In the next learning unit, we shall investigate the developmental challenges

experienced during adolescence.

62
 6
14: LEARNING UNIT

Developmental challenges of the adolescent

6.1 Introduction
From the previous units it is evident that adolescents go through many changes,
such as physical, cognitive, social, emotional, moral and spiritual changes. Some
of these are positive developments but some may bring challenges such as the
demanding task to establish an identity (with regard to gender role, career and
ethnic identity). They must also make decisions about religion, moral values
and whether or not to conform to peer pressure. They may also have conflict
with their parents and experience problems at school. The difficulty to cope
with the challenges of this stage may manifest in eating disorders, dropping
out of school and emotional disturbances such as stress and even suicide.

In this learning unit, we will discuss some of the challenges many adolescents
may encounter, namely eating disorders, underachievement at school and
emotional disturbances and how to help adolescents deal with these.

This unit will enable you to

 understand that adolescents have eating challenges and that some may
have eating disorders
 realise that there are high rates of underachievement and school dropout
among adolescents in South Africa and that various factors are causing
these problems
 know about the stress adolescents may experience and how to prevent
teenage suicide

The content of this unit consists of three sections in Gouws (2019):

6.1 Eating challenges and disorders

6.2 Underachievement and dropping out of school
6.3 Emotional disturbances

6.2 Unit 6.1

Eating challenges and disorders

Excessive overweight or underweight may have the risk of serious health

problems and the causes of these conditions are complex.

PED3701/1 63
 (a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the eating challenges and even disorders
of adolescents.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
6.1 Eating challenges Nutrition is important during the adoles-
and disorders cent stage, and many youths experience
problems in this regard.
6.1.1 Obesity Obesity is an increasing problem in most
countries, also in South Africa (third
highest obesity rate in the world). It is
more common in adolescence than in
childhood and can cause emotional and
health-related problems.
6.1.2 Eating disorders The causes of eating disorders are com-
plicated interactions of various factors.
The two most common disorders among
adolescents are described: anorexia ner-
vosa and bulimia.

Page 133 Block: Symptoms of anorexia are mentioned.

The disorder must be recognised because
How to recognise
adolescents with this condition may need
adolescents with
professional help.
anorexia

Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

In Discussion forum 6 for this module, tell your fellow students what you
think about the health problem of obesity in South Africa, especially among
adolescents. Do you think there is a solution? Ask other students to take part
in this discussion.

(b) Additional information to study

Additional information to study with eating disorders (6.1.2)

The incidence of eating disorders such as obesity, anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa is high among adolescents. Although some cultures view obesity as
a status symbol or a symbol of prosperity, many adolescents of all cultures
tend to absorb Western standards when it comes to fashion. In Western and
even Eastern cultures, thinness is showcased as the bottom line for beauty,
success and acceptability. Obese learners may therefore regard themselves as
unattractive and socially less acceptable than their thinner peers. Because of
these expectations of some cultures or groups, and a complexity of many other
factors (intrinsic and extrinsic factors), some adolescents develop serious types
of eating disorders namely anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Both these disorders

64
 Developmental challenges of the adolescent

are the result of a distorted body image and may lead to severe physical and
psychological problems (Gouws 2015).

6.3 Unit 6.2

Underachievement and dropping out of school
In South Africa there are high frequencies of underachievement and school
dropout due to various reasons.
(a) Study sections
Study the relevant section in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the causes of underachievement and school
dropout.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
6.2 Underachievement Take note of the variety of factors caus-
and dropping out of ing underachievement and withdrawal
school from school.

(b) Activity and additional information to study

Study the additional information on school dropout in South Africa and then
do the activity and also study the feedback.
Additional information to study with underachievement and dropping
out of school (6.2)
“In South Africa, dropout has reached a national crisis. Approximately 60%
of first graders will ultimately drop out rather than complete 12th Grade”
(Weybright, Caldwell, Xie, Wegner & Smith 2017:1353). These researchers’
sample came from learners in Mitchells Plain. They found that most withdrawals
from school took place at the end of Grade 9. Further, most of these learners
were male and did not live with a biological parent, had continuous academic
difficulties, used tobacco, were involved with gangs and had low levels of
intrinsic motivation. The authors suggest that dropout is a process, rather
than one event, taking place over time when the learners disengage from the
school system. From their findings they suggest that there should be prevention
programmes and that the Life Orientation in the present curriculum should
be improved, focusing on intrinsic motivation as a protective factor against
possible dropout of school.

6.1
Activity based on underachievement and dropping out of school (6.2, as
well as the above additional information).

Do you know learners who withdrew from school? What were their
circumstances? Did their lives portray some of the factors contributing to
dropping out (as in 6.2) or as reported in the above research?

PED3701/1 65
 If you as a teacher were asked to develop a document with guidelines to help
prevent learners from dropping out of school, what would you suggest?

FEEDBACK
Some of the learners’ circumstances are not in your power to change, but where
can a teacher play a role? Think of motivating learners to change what they
can, for example quitting habits like smoking or using other substances and
being motivated to attain some goals. Maybe you can arrange some help for
learners with learning difficulties? Also, remember what you have learnt about
internal and external locus of control under 5.2.1 in the prescribed book. Think
of what you as their teacher can do to motivate learners to take responsibility
for their own lives.

6.4 Unit 6.3

Emotional disturbances

 Adolescents cope with several stresses with varying degrees of mastery.

Most do well. Others, who have not developed successful coping skills, may
suffer from stress-related disorders. The expression of these disorders is often
related to the specific societal pressures placed on the adolescent. Depression,
eating disorders, suicide, substance abuse, violence, delinquency and sexual
promiscuity are some of the ways through which stress is expressed in our
country (Gouws 2019).
 In this unit you will come across the sources of stress for adolescents and
how they can cope with these. You will also learn more about suicide which
increases among adolescents and how to take precautions against it.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the possible emotional problems that
adolescents may encounter.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
6.3 Emotional Some adolescents develop emotional
disturbances problems because of demands and chal-
lenges of this stage.
6.3.1 Stress Stressors on the micro, meso and macro
levels in adolescents’ lives may cause
constant worries that may result in
physical and psychological symptoms.
Teachers must take note of techniques
that may help learners cope with nega-
tive stress.

66
 Developmental challenges of the adolescent

Page 141 Block: Valuable guidelines are given to teachers.

to 142
How to help learners
to deal with stress
6.3.2 Suicide Suicide among adolescents is increasing
and this is a source of concern.
Pages Public health: Again, valuable guidelines to teachers
143 to Preventing teenage are given. The important message is to
144 suicide take every threat of suicide or danger
signal seriously.

(b) Activity and additional information to study

Study the following additional information and then do the activity. Also pay
attention to the feedback.

Additional information to study with the unit on stress (6.3.1)

In section 6.3.1 in the prescribed book you have learnt about positive and
negative stress. With regard to negative stress, study the following additional
information:

How gravely adolescents may experience negative stress, is depicted in the

words of an African American boy (reported by Chandra & Batada 2006:A40):
He described stress as “a great deal of pain that’s inside your body that you
can’t get out and it’s agitatin’ you and it’s stuck in your mind and makes you
feel bad.”

Adolescence is considered by most researchers to be a time of special stress,

hence the often-heard phrase that it is a time of ‘‘storm and stress’’. A number
of physical, psychological and sociological influences are responsible for the
heightened stress of the adolescent years. Pubertal growth leads to profound
physical changes in adolescents’ bodies. Psychologically, they are faced with
new challenges such as the formation of a distinct identity. Socially they have
to contend with just as many changes. They do not only have to make the
difficult transition from the dependency of childhood to the independence and
autonomy of adolescence; they must also deal with the demands made on them
by friendships and romantic relationships. Furthermore, they are challenged
by learning to use newly developed cognitive abilities. (Gouws 2015)

Adolescents cope with these stresses with varying degrees of mastery. Most
do well. Others, who have not developed successful coping skills, may suffer
stress-related disorders. The expression of these disorders is often related to the
specific societal pressures placed on the adolescent. Depression, eating disorders,
suicide, substance abuse, violence, delinquency and sexual promiscuity are
some of the ways that stress is expressed in our country (Gouws 2015). Some
of these expressions of stress are discussed in the prescribed book and in the
different learning units.

PED3701/1 67
 6. 2
Activity based on 6.3.1 – stress (sources and coping)

Provide learners with information about the sources, negative effects and
symptoms of stress. Use figure 6.1, Sources of adolescent stress, in the prescribed
book, as a framework for discussing the different sources of stress with the
learners. In collaboration with them, compile a list of resources/skills/coping
mechanisms that can be used to prevent or reduce stress. At the end of the
week let each learner identify their own stressors and help them to work out
a programme to cope with future stress.

FEEDBACK
Understand that adolescents are confronted with various sources of stress.
Help the learners to identify these in their own lives. Use the guidelines in the
block “How to help learners to deal with stress” on page 135 of the prescribed
book to help them work out a way to go forward, each one dealing with his or
her unique situation.

6.5 Conclusion
Adolescence is a time of change and adaptation and, while many adolescents
appear to be happy and carefree, they frequently have serious underlying
anxieties to contend with. Both internal and external conflicts are created by
the adolescent’s struggle to cope with emerging sexual interests, hormonal
changes, increased autonomy, need for peer group acceptance, and emotional
fluctuations. This underlying stress finds expression in emotional disturbances
brought about by stress. Some develop eating disorders and others may think
that taking their own life is the only way out. Others display behaviour that
is often seen as misconduct, such as aggression and truancy. Teachers should
always be aware of and sensitive to any comments made by adolescents about
stressors they experience or behaviour that may point to eating disorders,
excessive stress and even showing signs of planning for suicide. They should
be able to inform parents and learners of the dangers and symptoms of and
prognosis for serious emotional disturbances.

Now that you have reached the end of this unit you may realise the many
challenges that adolescents face and that the inability to cope effectively with
these may lead to eating disorders, underachievement, dropout of school and
emotional disturbances.

In the next learning unit, we shall deal with social concerns relating to
adolescence.

68
 7
15: LEARNING UNIT

Social concerns in adolescence

7.1 Introduction
Teachers will come across many kinds of social issues, especially with adolescent
learners. The social concerns about learners in this stage are challenges related
to adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviour, which may lead to pregnancy
or to various illnesses. Adolescents further experiment with alcohol and drugs
and their use of technology and the media can also be worrisome.

This unit will enable you to

 understand that adolescent sexual behaviour may lead to various infections,

with HIV as the most distressful one – with even deadly consequences
 realise that teenage pregnancy may have problematic consequences –
especially with regard to the education of teenage mothers
 know that adolescents’ use of alcohol and substances may begin as
experimentation but some may become addicted. You will understand the
reasons why they use drugs and where they may get help
 know about the influence of technology and the media that may be a concern,
depending on how it is used

The content of this unit consists of four sections in Gouws (2019):

7.1 Sexual attitudes and behaviour

7.2 Teenage pregnancy and abortion
7.3 Adolescent alcohol and substance abuse
7.4 Technology and media

7.2 Unit 7.1

Sexual attitudes and behaviour

Adolescents should be made aware that irresponsible sexual behaviour may

have serious consequences with regard to infections and HIV/AIDS. Teachers
can inform learners of the true facts about HIV and motivate them to have a
cautious lifestyle.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the sexual attitudes and behaviour of
the adolescent.

PED3701/1 69
 Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance
number (2019)
7.1.2 Acquired immune In this section you will get information
deficiency syndrome on what HIV/AIDS is, how it is passed
(AIDS) on, the symptoms and how learners can
be educated about this pandemic with
the aim to prevent it.

Page 150 Block: Valuable guidelines for teachers and for

any individual to pay attention to, if you
Guidelines on how to
want to prevent the spread of HIV.
prevent HIV/AIDS

(b) Additional information to study and activity

Study the additional information given below and do the activity. Also pay
attention to our feedback.

Additional information to study with acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome (AIDS) (7.1.2)

The researchers Singh, Karim, Karim, Mlisana, Williamson, Gray, et al (2006

no page number) describe the fast increase in the spread of HIV under South
African adolescents as “explosive”. They therefore suggest that it is crucial that
researchers must get a better grasp of the factors that affect the HIV risk in
adolescent girls.

Research that explored the factors contributing to the risk of HIV infection
(by Awotidebe, Phillips & Lens 2014) among rural adolescents of the Western
Cape, found that about 30% of the learners were sexually active from a young
age (before 15 years). They found that peer influence was the main cause for
learners to be sexually active. Furthermore, those learners whose parents talked
to them about health and sex tended to avoid risky sexual behaviour. The results
showed that knowledge about HIV contributed to safer sexual behaviour,
for example the use of condoms. This research emphasised the importance
of educating learners about HIV and including parents where possible when
doing interventions.

7.1
Activity based on 7.1.2 – acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
and the above additional information

Study 7.1.2 in the prescribed book and the research findings mentioned above.
Take the community of the school where you are a teacher into account, and
think of the sex education that is provided. What are the factors at your school
and its environment that can contribute to HIV infection in adolescent learners?
What role can you as a teacher play in preventing some of these causes? What
can you do?

70
 Social concerns in adolescence

FEEDBACK
According to the prescribed book, teachers can play a significant role in
preventing the HIV/AIDS pandemic (see p 145). The factors that may play a
role are discussed in your prescribed book. You may also add to these factors.
Take note of these factors, and take the school and its environment into account
when you think of possible contributing factors. When thinking of what
teachers can do, consider the importance of conveying knowledge about HIV
and involving peers and parents in your interventions.

Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

From time to time there is a controversy about the subject Life Orientation and
how much information about sex should be conveyed in schools by teachers.
Start a debate on this issue in Discussion forum 7 for this module, giving your
views on this topic. Also ask other students for their opinion on this subject.

7.3 Unit 7.2

Teenage pregnancy and abortion
The prevalence of teenage pregnancies in South Africa is a cause for concern.
The causes range from circumstances in the home to peer pressure and cultural
expectations. The consequences are problematic for the girl and her whole
family and for her education.
(a) Study sections
Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following
table. It will enable you to understand teenage pregnancy.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
7.2.1 Reasons for teenage Several reasons for teenage pregnancy
pregnancy (and the increase thereof) are presented
in this section.
7.2.2 Consequences of There are psychological, social and eco-
teenage pregnancy nomic consequences for the adolescent
mother and all the people and systems
she is involved with.
7.2.3 The adolescent This is quite a neglected topic but the
father young father with his own psychologi-
cal and economic problems must also be
considered to get the full picture of the
consequences.

PED3701/1 71
 7.2.4 Teenage abortion and Through the subject Life Orientation,
teenage education it is hoped that teachers can counteract
teenage pregnancies by motivating ado-
lescents to endeavour to make a success
of their lives.
If a girl is pregnant, she has the right to
stay in school but not all South African
schools are prepared to accommodate
pregnant adolescents.

(b) Activity and additional information to study

First, study the additional information and then do the following activity and
also take note of our feedback.
Additional information to study with HIV/AIDS (7.1.2) and education
and teenage pregnancy (7.2.1 and 7.2.4)
The researchers Pettifor, Stoner, Pike and Bekker (2018) suggest that the
health of a community will lead to young women’s sexual health. Where there
is poverty and dysfunctional family norms, girls are exposed to sex inequity
and violence – with greater risk of unprotected and forced sex. However,
these researchers are of the opinion that schools can protect adolescents from
risky sexual behaviour, preventing pregnancies and HIV infection. They say
that if adolescent girls stay in school, they can be protected by a “safe space”
(Pettifor et al 2018:269) where girls can support each other and have a strong
social network. They found that girls attending school also have fewer older
partners and exhibit overall safer sexual behaviour. They also suggest that in
HIV prevention programmes, the interventions must be adapted to the specific
adolescent population.

7. 2
Activity based on 7.2.1 and 7.2.4 – prevention of HIV and teenage pregnancy

Study the above additional information and sections 7.2.1 and 7.2.4 in the
prescribed book. Mention is made of prevention programmes and the role of
teachers. If you can make suggestions in the curriculation of the Life Orientation
subject, what would you maintain and what would you add to the existing
courses?

FEEDBACK

Make sure that you know what your school’s curriculum for Life
Orientation comprises for the various grades. Take into account that the
above-named researchers suggested that peers can assist each other and that
intervention programmes must suit the specific population. When you make
suggestions, take into account the community your learners live in, their
circumstances and any other factors that may determine specific preventions.

72
 Social concerns in adolescence

7.4 Unit 7.3

Adolescents’ alcohol and substance abuse

Some, but not all adolescents, get dependent on alcohol and/or substances after
experimenting because they were maybe searching for who they are; or because
of peer pressure or several other reasons. Such addictions are health hazards.
In this section of the prescribed book, you can read more about the dangers of
substance abuse, where to get help, the physical symptoms of substance abuse
and legal aspects of drug taking. It explains possible effects of substance abuse
and implications for the classroom.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand alcohol and substance abuse.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
7.3.3 Physical signs of Parents and teachers should be aware
drug abuse of these signs.

7.3.5 The harm of drug Drug abuse is harmful to one’s health,

abuse but apart from health risks, there are
also psychological, social and academic
consequences and even involvement in
crime.

7.3.8 Where to seek help Teachers must know the various sources
of help that are available in the school’s
vicinity and the broader community.

Page 163 Block: Schools should have strategies in place

with regard to drug abuse.
The management
of drug abuse in
schools
7.3.9 Classroom implica- Teachers face a challenging situation.
tions of drug abuse They should have knowledge about drug
use and should also be prepared to han-
dle situations with learners who abuse
drugs. They must create a climate where
adolescents will trust them so that they
can be educated about drugs and receive
support when necessary.

(b) Additional information and an activity

Study the following additional information and do the activity and give attention
to the feedback.

PED3701/1 73
 Additional information to study with adolescent drug abuse (all the
section numbers in the preceding table)

The adolescents from Mitchells Plain near Cape Town are described as coming
from mixed African, European and Asian descent. Adolescents of this area
from four schools took part in focus group discussions on inter alia substance
use. There were adolescents who did not use drugs, but most of those who did,
mentioned peer pressure as a reason. They said they did not want to be unlike
the group, and for the sake of their friendships, to be popular and to fit in, they
would rather use drugs with the friends. Some even said they did not really like
to use the drugs, but they wanted to impress their friends. Unfortunately, they
are then in danger of becoming addicted (Patrick, Palen, Caldwell, Gleeson,
Smith & Wegner 2011).

7.3
Activity based on drug abuse (7.3.3, 7.3.5, 7.3.8, 7.3.9 and the blocks on
pages 159 and 163 of the prescribed book, as well as the aforementioned
additional information)

You overhear the following conversation on the playground:

Boy A: ‘‘C’mon, we’re going to the loo.’’

Boy B: ‘‘You go. I’ll come later. I’m busy here.’’
Boy A: ‘‘Oh, come on, you’re always busy! I bet you’re f… afraid!’’
Boy B: ‘‘No I’m not. You go.’’
Boy A: ‘‘Wow, I’m sure you’ve never even tried dope! What a drag!’’
Boy B: ‘‘Please, leave me alone. I don’t want to be part of it.’’
Boy A: ‘‘What a mommy’s boy! You’ll never fit in here. You loser.’’

What will your reaction be? What message will you communicate to Boy
A, and to Boy B? How could you educate and motivate adolescents without
engaging in scare tactics? What could you do to help your learners cope with
peer group pressure?

FEEDBACK

This is what I would call a tall order and, again, your answer may be unique. I
suggest that you discuss this activity with your colleagues and co-students. The
prescribed book offers suggestions for dealing with the problem of where to
find help. Try to consult other sources on the subject and add more information
to that provided in the prescribed book. The following suggestions may also
be helpful:

 Be careful not to overreact.

 Be sensitive and understanding, but firm in your approach.
 Help Boy B to feel good about his choices and values.
 Be knowledgeable.
 Explain the dangers and effects of drug abuse in a factual way without
sermonising.

74
 Social concerns in adolescence

 Try to establish positive peer pressure by involving all learners in discussions

on drug abuse.
 Emphasise the importance of taking responsibility for one’s own life.

7.5 Unit 7.4

Technology and media

Technology and the media take up a considerable part of adolescents’ time

every day. In this unit the adolescents’ use of technology, the influences and
related problems are discussed, as well as the role that parents and teachers
play in adolescents’ use of technology and the media.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following table.
It will enable you to understand the use of technology and media by adolescents.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
7.4.1 Problems associ- General problems namely sexting, cut-
ated with the use of ting, cyberbullying and addiction are
technology explained.
7.4.2 The influence of The use of the media influences the
media use on the physical, cognitive, emotional and social
development of the development of adolescents.
adolescent
Table 7.1 The influence of The various influences on the different
media use on the domains are listed.
different develop-
mental domains of
the adolescent

7.4.3 The role of parents Parents and teachers should have enough
and teachers in ado- knowledge about technology to enable
lescent media use them to teach adolescents to use technol-
ogy responsibly.
Page 167 Block: Helpful hints for parents and teachers.
Guideline on how to
positively influence
adolescents’ media
use

PED3701/1 75
 7.4

(b) Activity based on problems associated with the use of technology

(7.4.1) and the block on page 167 of the prescribed book

What do you know about information and communication technologies? How

do you plan to help adolescents to use it wisely and responsibly?

FEEDBACK
Think of ways to acquire more knowledge about the technologies used by your
learners. Maybe you know young people who can help you to become more
knowledgeable about the latest developments in, for example, the use of your
smart phone. Learners can talk about the advantages and disadvantages of
technology in a class discussion or in groups – they must explain to you and
to each other how they think about and use technology and this way you can
get more informed about their views. By understanding their viewpoints and
experiences you may earn their trust so that you can help them to become
more sensible.

7.6 Conclusion
The adolescents of Generation Y are faced with many challenges in our modern
society. Fortunately, not all adolescents show problematic behaviour with regard
to sexual attitudes, substance abuse and the use of technology. There are,
however, a considerable part of the adolescent population who need guidance
from teachers with regard to social problems. Teachers can play a significant
role in guiding learners to strive to become adults who can make a contribution
to their community.

The next unit is important to teachers. It covers the key topic of motivation and
also teaching and learning. It will answer the following questions: How does
learning take place? How do learners remember what they have learnt? How
can teachers make provision for learners’ individual abilities and help them to
realise their potential?

76
 8
16: LEARNING UNIT

Motivation, teaching and learning

8.1 Introduction
In the previous learning units you have learnt about the physical, cognitive,
social, emotional, moral and spiritual development of the adolescent. You have
also come across the developmental challenges they face during adolescence.
In this unit we will discuss aspects such as motivation and we will find out
why some adolescents want to make a success of their lives; why they want
to learn in school, be responsible and do their best to be able to provide for
themselves and their families one day; and what teachers can do to motivate
learners to achieve academically and to be conscientious.

We will also focus on learning – how people learn and theories explaining how
learning takes place. Furthermore, there are individual differences with regard
to how people learn and we will make you aware of different learning styles.

This unit will enable you to

 understand that motivation is a complex concept and that one can be

motivated by internal or external influences
 understand the importance of problem solving and decision-making
 know how to promote a culture of teaching and learning and for teachers
to realise that if you want to teach generation Y, you must not remain using
traditional teaching methods
 have an overview of different learning theories and to realise that learners
have different ways of learning

The content of this unit consists of three sections in Gouws (2019):

8.1 Motivation
8.2 Problem solving and decision-making
8.3 Adolescent teaching and learning

8.2 Unit 8.1

Motivation

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the complex concept of motivation and
related concepts namely intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

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 Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance
number (2019)
8.1 Motivation The definitions of motivation are
discussed.
8.1.1 Maslow’s self- The hierarchy of needs is explained: basic
actualisation theory needs must be satisfied before higher
needs can be fulfi lled.
8.1.2 Achievement The need to do well, but to try again after
motivation failure, refers to achievement motivation.
The latter is explained in this section.

8.1.3 Motivation and at- Learners may ascribe their success or

tribution theory failure to either internal or external fac-
tors. Make sure that you understand the
role of locus of control when learners are
explaining their success or failure.

8.1.4 Intrinsic and extrin- Both types of motivation can be present

sic motivation and teachers must endeavour to balance
the two kinds of motivation in learn-
ers. Intrinsic motivation is seen as the
most desirable but extrinsic motivation
is necessary at times.
Table 8.1 Characteristics of The characteristics are listed, giving one
intrinsic and extrin- an understanding of these two types of
sic motivation motivation.

(b) Additional information and activity

First study the information on self-efficacy below. Secondly, do the activity

on corporal punishment and learners’ misbehaviour and the reasons for that.

Additional information on self-efficacy to study with the above unit on

motivation (8.1–8.1.4)

Motivation is related to self-efficacy, which refers to one’s belief in yourself

regarding your ability to achieve certain goals and to confront difficulties. It
therefore refers to how much effort a person will spend to succeed or to reach
a goal. You must understand why it is important to grasp self-efficacy and how
it is related to motivation. Teachers must be able to motivate their learners and
to encourage their self-efficacy beliefs about themselves.

The idea of self-efficacy was originated by Albert Bandura during the 1970s.
He is a well-known psychologist who focused on behaviourism and developed
the social learning theory, which includes self-efficacy. He published his first
article on self-efficacy in 1977.

Self-efficacy is related to self-esteem, self-image, self-concept, optimism and

confidence, but it is a different concept (Ackerman 2018). According to Bandura’s
theory, self-efficacy is grounded in the belief you have in your own abilities
to face difficulties and to succeed in some facet such as the academic, sport or

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 Motivation, teaching and learning

leadership fields. Bandura’s self-efficacy refers to a positive belief that you can
accomplish a task successfully. There are four sources that enhance self-efficacy:

 Mastery experiences refer to experiences in which you are successful in

mastering a task. It builds self-belief in your ability to overcome obstacles.
If you successfully kick the ball in the soccer net several times you will start to
believe that you have the ability to play good soccer.
 Vicarious experiences apply when you watch and observe role models
succeeding in tasks by repeated efforts. It strengthens the belief that you
can also do what others have done. You may then start to watch how Messi
(a well-known soccer player) kicks a soccer ball to learn more about the art of
playing soccer. This may motivate you to succeed as a soccer player.
 Verbal persuasion happens when influential people in your life strengthen
your belief that you have the capacity to master activities and to succeed.
This empowers you to put in enough effort to succeed. Watching Messi may
motivate you to practise your soccer skills. Your parents may be very proud of
your achievements and encourage you to continue playing.
 Emotional and physiological states influence how you judge your efficacy.
Stress and vulnerability reduce performance whilst positivity will enhance
your confidence in your skills. You may start to feel positive, optimistic and
confident about your ability to play soccer. That confidence is called self-efficacy.

You can see how the four sources can boost your confidence and your self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy is therefore related to motivation, and the difference between the

two concepts is that motivation has to do with the will and the aim to achieve
something while self-efficacy centres around the confidence in yourself that you
will be able to succeed. A person with high motivation will usually also have
high self-efficacy and vice versa. If a person is highly motivated, he or she will
succeed and that will add to general high self-efficacy beliefs. A gain of high
self-efficacy is that such a person will be resilient in the face of disappointments
and will not give up easily. Furthermore, people with high self-efficacy believe
that they have an influence on what happens in their lives. They therefore also
have an internal locus of control (Ackerman 2018).

Teachers can play a role in the motivation and self-efficacy of their learners.
Ackerman (2018) is of the view that teachers must have healthy self-efficacy
beliefs so that they can promote these beliefs in their learners. Such teachers who
believe in their own skills to teach, will adapt their classes to the learners’ needs
so that the learners can experience mastery or “performance accomplishment”
according to Bandura and Adams (1977:288). This experience can promote their
motivation and self-efficacy. Teachers are also models to learners, demonstrating
motivation, self-efficacy and hard work; and they can encourage learners to
believe that they can succeed in tasks. To apply Bandura’s social learning theory
about the “vicarious experiences of observing others” (Bandura & Adams
1977:288), one can therefore deduce that learners who see that such teachers
succeed in what they do can be motivated to also achieve.

If teachers do not create opportunities for achievement, and they let learners
believe that they cannot achieve, it will create anxiety in learners who do not
have the faith in themselves to even try to succeed. If learners feel sure that
they will be able to learn the information for a test, and will be able to answer
the questions well, they will be motivated to keep on studying to improve
their marks.

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 According to Cherry (2019) self-efficacy is a psychological skill that can be
encouraged and improved. This author suggests that one can implement
Bandura’s theory of sources of self-efficacy to promote your own self-efficacy. In
the same way teachers can use these sources to promote learners’ self-efficacy:
they can initiate learners’ mastery of tasks, praise them and be a model to them
(also see Bandura & Adams 1977).

The reason why we regard self-efficacy as so important, is that one’s faith in

your own abilities will play a very important role in how you feel, think and
behave. In his theory, Bandura suggests that “behavioural changes correspond
closely to level of self-efficacy” (Bandura & Adams 1977:288). Self-efficacy
therefore influences how one will behave, how much energy you will spend
and how long you will persevere when facing problematic situations in your
life. Self-efficacy therefore plays the most important role in how motivated
you are to achieve your goals and how you feel about yourself. Learners with
a high self-efficacy attitude will be able to succeed in life.

Discussion Forum:
Log onto myUnisa and go to Discussion Forum to add your contribution.

In Discussion forum 8 for this module, share with the group what motivates
you to study the module Psychology of Education and ask your fellow students
to also share their motivations. Also tell them what factors can demotivate you
in your studies.

8.1
Activity based on extrinsic motivation and misbehaviour in class

From what you have studied about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, you must
realise that extrinsic motivation is not the most suitable way to discourage bad
behaviour.

What must teachers do when learners do not obey and are naughty? Ausubel
(1968) maintains that children should receive far more rewards than punishment,
and that physical punishment should be avoided at all costs.

The question of corporal punishment is still one of the most controversial

educational issues in most developing countries.

What is your view on corporal punishment?

What are the reasons that learners behave in certain ways? Did you think about
possible reasons for their disobedience and misbehaviour? What must you do
when learners do not behave in class?

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 Motivation, teaching and learning

FEEDBACK
You are entitled to your own view. There are quite a number of views on
corporal punishment.

The following is an interesting view adapted from Ferron (1990:232–234):

‘‘Punishment in some form or another is essential in the training of the

young, and corporal punishment can prove very effective when employed
wisely. It is indiscriminate use of corporal punishment which is bad.
What would you think of a doctor who prescribed the same drug for
every ailment, or wrote out prescriptions without examining his or her
patients? The same holds for a teacher who resorts to corporal punish-
ment for every misdemeanour’’.

Children make a nuisance of themselves for various reasons – because they

are not fully occupied, because they have lost interest in the lesson, or out of
a sheer love of mischief. In the latter case, the causes may lie very deep in the
child’s psyche – possibly as a result of conditions at home. Some children may
have come to regard quarrelling and abusiveness, bullying and retaliating as
normal modes of behaviour due to their home circumstances. Others live in
so much fear and subjugation at home that they see the classroom situation
as their only outlet for self-assertion and adventure. Many children come to
school so hungry and tired that it is difficult not to sympathise with them if
they try to use the classroom as a haven of rest and relaxation. Moreover, some
children are so sensitive that they would never need corporal punishment for
their misdeeds. For them a reproving look or a show of displeasure would
probably be enough. It is possible to reason with some children, while others
may require a sharp rebuke, a warning or an ultimatum, while yet others have
to be deprived of certain privileges. It is foolish to use corporal punishment for
every offence on the grounds that children are wicked or that they are possessed
by some evil spirit which must be beaten out of them.

The modern psychological view is that no child is naturally bad or depraved.

Children are human beings who have definite needs at various stages of their
development and in different situations in life. Some attempt must be made
to satisfy these needs. When children misbehave, parents or teachers should
ask themselves the following questions:

 What do the children think they are gaining through this particular
behaviour?
 What needs are being satisfied by their behaviour?
 How can the children’s needs of the moment be satisfied in a more
constructive way?
 What is the background and history of their deviancy?
 Can I, at this stage, help to rectify the mistakes of the past?
 What should be my plan of action for the future, in the children’s best
interests?

If children disobey you or they talk during class, there must be a reason for this
behaviour. Perhaps what you have said has fired their imagination in some way
and they need to discuss the matter with a friend, because you have denied
them the opportunity of discussing it with you. Perhaps you (or some other

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 adult) have shut them up or ridiculed them in the past, so that they are afraid
to approach you now. Perhaps one of their peers asked them for help and they
were in the process of giving it. Perhaps they are bored with your lesson and
want to talk about something more interesting or exciting. Perhaps some other
child took their pen, and they were in the process of regaining their property
when you pounced upon them. Perhaps they just talk to flout your authority,
or to annoy you. You have been the cause of frustration to them in the past,
and this is the only way they know of getting their own back on you. Perhaps
they are craving attention, and this is the only way they can get it from you or
their peers, or both.

When learners fail to do their homework, their teacher should try to determine
why. Perhaps there are no facilities at home or no encouragement from their
guardian to do their homework. Perhaps they were made to run errands or to
do household chores as soon as they arrived home from school and were too
tired afterwards. Perhaps they were not sure what they had to do, or how to do
it. Perhaps they find your subject boring. Perhaps, once again, they are ‘‘waging
war’’ on you in the only way they know, or this is the only way they know of
getting attention. Perhaps they earn status among their peers by repeatedly
failing to do their homework. The other children may be too afraid to tell you
that they find your lessons boring, but these children have discovered a way
of doing so. Perhaps they ‘‘get cuts’’ (are caned) for their repeated failure to
do their homework, and they take their punishment without flinching. This
earns them status among their peers for being “tough, brave kids’’. If learners
throw paper balls about the classroom, there must be a reason. People do not
throw paper balls about for nothing. Perhaps they are the paper ball throwing
champion of their class and have to demonstrate their skill from time to time
in order to retain this title. Being the champion of paper ball throwing gives
them a certain status among their peers. Perhaps somebody you did not see
had hit them with a paper ball first, and they were merely retaliating when
you caught them in the act. Perhaps they had almost perfected their skill in
throwing paper balls without being caught, but today was their unlucky day!
Or perhaps they were just trying to get your attention. If children cannot get
their sums right, they can still achieve some distinction among their peers by
being the roughest and toughest kid in the class. Other children will look up
to them, and that makes them ‘‘somebody’’!

The Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act No 33 of 1997 banned corporal

punishment in schools. Suggestions for alternative discipline methods to be
used instead of corporal punishment are reward charts, merit and demerit
systems, taking away privileges, time-outs, detention (creating space and time
where learners can do schoolwork) and picking up litter. Because of the teachers’
“in loco parentis” status they have the duty to foresee possible dangers that
learners may be exposed to and take the necessary steps to protect learners
from potential harm, especially in cases when children are disciplined for
misbehaviour.

If you want to know more about discipline in schools, go to:

http://section27.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Chapter-19.pdf.

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 Motivation, teaching and learning

8.3 Unit 8.2

Problem solving and decision-making

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the importance of problem solving and
decision-making in the life of the adolescent.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
8.2.1 Problem solving Problem solving is explained.
8.2.2 Decision-making The numerous ways in which to make
a decision is discussed, as well as the
principles of decision -making.

Today adolescents find themselves in a rapidly changing and complex world.

In the midst of this, they have to set objectives and make decisions in order to
attain self-actualisation. Adolescent development is characterised by a growing
need for independence and self-reliance. Adolescents want to choose and decide
for themselves, but they still want approval from adults who are important to
them, and they still need adult guidance.

8.4 Unit 8.3

Adolescent teaching and learning

Teachers must guide learners in their acquisition of knowledge and must also
facilitate them to apply what they have learnt to everyday life and to achieve
their goals in life. This is a challenging task because of the diversity of learners
from different backgrounds and with different cognitive abilities.

(a) Study sections

Study the relevant sections in Gouws (2019) as indicated in the following

table. It will enable you to understand the importance of a culture of teaching
and learning at schools and to comprehend what a constructivist approach is.

Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance

number (2019)
8.3 Adolescent teaching Learning is a life-long process. Teachers
and learning should make sure that their adolescent
learners will be able to practically apply
what they have learnt.

8.3.1 A culture of teaching The characteristics of a culture of teach-

and learning ing and learning are explained. Teachers
should take note of these very important
features.

PED3701/1 83
 Section Heading in Gouws Notes for guidance
number (2019)
8.3.2 Constructivist You should pay special attention to this
theory theory to be in touch with the latest de-
velopments with regard to teaching and
learning. The latest ideas comprise that
learners must not passively receive in-
formation; they should be active in the
cognitive interpretation of study mate-
rial under the guidance of the teacher
(remember Vygotsky’s theory).
Page 181 Block: Valuable guidance for teachers is given
in this block.
Advice for teaching
in the constructivist
classroom
8.3.3 Information process- During adolescence the abilities to man-
ing and memory age information develop and learners
can perform better than earlier. In this
section valuable methods for remember-
ing information are provided.

Page 185 Block: Again, helpful guidance to study differ-

ent study materials is given.
Guidelines on how
to help learners to
study different study
material
8.3.4 Teaching Genera- Traditional ways of teaching are not
tion Y suitable for adolescents of Generation Y.
They are technologically more advanced
than most adults. Therefore, they expect
to be guided, encouraged, motivated and
inspired to be able to use the knowledge
they acquire in practice.
Page 187 Block: Helpful suggestions for teachers who are
challenged to use new methods.
Tips to consider
when teaching Gen-
eration Y
8.3.5 Individual For effective teaching, teachers must be
differences aware of the individual learners’ vari-
ety of language, culture, socioeconomic
backgrounds and cognitive abilities. A
way to motivate learners is to acknowl-
edge each one’s potential by implement-
ing the theory of multiple intelligences
(MI).

84
 Motivation, teaching and learning

Table 8.2 Teaching and learn- This table provides examples of what
ing according to MI teachers can do to accommodate learners
theory of different kinds of intelligences, how
they can assess the learners and what
strategies they can suggest to learners.
You can add to these examples.

(b) Activity and additional information to study

Study the three sections with additional information on respectively teaching

and learning, and information processing and learning styles; and do the
activities following two of the sections. Also take note of our feedback.

Additional information to study with teaching and learning (8.3–8.3.5)

 What is teaching, learning and cognition?

Teaching and learning form a single, integrated concept and the value of
teaching can therefore be found in the type of learning it encourages. There is
no single way to learn. Learning is a complex and ongoing process throughout
a person’s life. Learning involves a process of change from not knowing to
knowing, because of experience and practice. Human achievement is driven by
learning, which has made learning a core topic of focus throughout the history
of psychology as a science (Young & Wasserman 2005:1).

Cognition is concerned with the process of “getting to know”, but it also entails
awareness, judgement and the product of knowing (Davis 2013:1). It thus
has to do with thinking (or mental activities such as reasoning, perceiving,
attending and remembering – see the prescribed book, p30). Cognition and
learning are inter-linked; the one goes with the other. New experiences lead to
new awareness and concepts. We therefore become aware of new information;
we learn it and it then becomes part of our body of knowledge (Davis 2013:1).
Figure 7.1 illustrates this interaction.

FIGURE 8.1
Cognition and learning interaction

The brain is constantly trying to make sense of the world around us. We are
often not even aware of the way our brains process information. Learning
happens when the brain adds new information. Learning involves aspects such
as attention, comprehension, memory, problem solving and decision-making.
You need to remember that communication and language are important in
the cognitive learning process. According to Weiten, Hammer and Dunn
(2018:229) learning is the process involved in observable behaviour changes.
For example, a teacher explains a mathematics concept to learners, and notes
that they struggle to grasp the concept and apply their knowledge. She changed
her teaching method and learners then understood the concept and were able

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 to apply their knowledge. In our example it is clear that both the learners and
the teacher have learnt (Weiten et al 2018).

Formal schooling is concerned with learning the basics of science and scientific
knowledge (Muthivhi & Broom 2009). Education in formal environments
is influenced by numerous factors, some of which are unique or intrinsic to
the learner while others are extrinsic or in the environment of the learner,
influencing their learning acquisition and experiences. Intrinsic and extrinsic
factors can exert a mutual influence on each other. In a diverse classroom
environment, teachers need to take these factors into consideration to unlock
learning opportunities for all their learners. In doing so, teachers should have
knowledge of learning, cognitive development and the theories that inform
learning (Nel & Nel 2016:35–36). This is the reason why we provide additional
information on theories that can guide and support teachers to use a variety
of teaching methods – to be able to guide a diversity of learners.

If you download the following open education resource from https://oer.galileo.

usg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=education-textbooks or
click on the hyperlink in the title, you will find a wealth of information to
supplement your knowledge of learning theories:

Zhou, M. & Brown, D. 2015. Educational Learning Theories. Education Open

Textbooks. Book 1. http://oer.galileo.usg.edu/education-textbooks/1

Save the PDF as “Zhou_Brown_Ed learning theories” for future reference.

 Theories about learning

To date, there is no single, unified theory of learning but a number of theories

on different aspects of learning, each of which should be taken into account in
trying to understand learning (Young & Wasserman 2005:12). These theories
are specifically relevant for teachers – to use when planning teaching and
learning (Eryaman & Genc 2010:2). You should also note that theories are not
necessarily uncontested truths. Existing theories are sometimes amended and
new theories challenge or critique earlier theories – with varying degrees of
success. Some theories withstand the test of time and others do not. Although
there are many different approaches to learning, you must understand the
following three basic types of learning theories: behaviourist, cognitive and
constructivist (including social constructivist) theories, as well as the latest
theory namely connectivism.

Table 8.1 gives a brief summary of the four types of learning theories:

86
 Motivation, teaching and learning

TABLE 8.1
Four types of learning theories

• Behaviourist learning theories

You came across a behaviourist theory in the preceding additional information
on self-efficacy where we referred to Bandura. The basic proposition of
behaviourism is that behaviour is a reaction (or a response) to something in the
environment (a stimulus). According to Louw, Louw and Kail (2014), behaviour
is therefore learnt from stimuli in the environment and the contribution of the
behaviourist theory is that it made us aware of the importance of environmental
influences (learners’ background, peers, teachers and the school atmosphere).

The first behaviourist, Watson, was influenced by a Russian scientist, Ivan

Pavlov, who did the well-known experiment with dogs to illustrate classical
conditioning. Pavlov rang a bell every time he offered food to the dogs. The
dogs salivated when they saw or tasted the food and heard the bell. Later
Pavlov only rang the bell, which caused the dogs to salivate. This type of
learning, where an initially neutral stimulus (ringing of the bell) is combined
with a stimulus (food), and it stimulates a specific response (saliva), is called
classical conditioning – or in easier terms, learning through association. Watson
claimed that children develop only because of their environment and not so
much because of heredity (Louw et al 2014).

Then came Skinner who suggested a different kind of learning. He introduced

operant conditioning: children learn by responses they get from the
environment, for example, by getting some kind of reward or punishment.
For instance, if a learner, Simon, does his homework, he is praised by the
teacher (he is rewarded) and this will reinforce his behaviour and he will keep
on doing his homework. However, if Thabo keeps on throwing paper balls at
the girls, he is punished by the teacher who keeps him in class after school
and he cannot attend soccer. This punishment may keep him from repeating

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 his naughty behaviour (Louw et al 2014). This type of learning is also called
“learning through the consequences of your behaviour”.

Following this, Bandura (whom you know by this time) presented his social
learning theory, which he later called the social-cognitive theory because he
also acknowledged the role of cognition. He believed that cognition plays a
major role in the choice of behaviour. The choice of behaviour is influenced by
personal, behavioural and environmental needs.

Bandura suggested that children simply learn behaviour by observing others

(models) and imitate the behaviour after seeing the consequences of the model’s
behaviour (this is called observational learning). Bandura also introduced
the concept of self-efficacy which plays a role when children decide whom to
imitate (Louw et al 2014).

Models can be positive (being rewarded for doing the right thing) or negative
(doing the wrong thing and suffering the consequences). Negative models
are less likely to motivate a change in behaviour. External reinforcement
(rewards) and intrinsic reinforcement (“feeling good” after performing the
behaviour) influence learning. Observational learning and modelling include
the following components:

TABLE 8.2
Components of observational learning

You must pay attention to the model to learn something

new. An interesting model with whom you identify and
Focus
who fits into your local context, will catch your attention
more fully and you will learn.
You remember new information about what the model did
Remember and said.
You think (reflect) about it later.
After watching and remembering the model’s behaviour,
Repeat you try to do it yourself. Repeating the behaviour may lead
to lifelong change.
You must be motivated to repeat the behaviour. If you re-
peat the behaviour and you get positive results, you will
Motivation
keep doing it. If it leads to negative results (punishment or
failure), you will stop the behaviour.

It is evident that we learn intentionally and unintentionally from the example

set to us by other people in our life world. A teacher who is a good role model
can therefore have an enormous influence on learners and can definitely help
to create an atmosphere of tolerance and optimism in our country. By setting
an example of integrity and productivity, and showing that you intend to
succeed, and that you intend to help others to succeed, you will be making an
enormous contribution.

• Cognitive theories
Piaget is a well-known cognitive theorist, describing how cognitive development
takes place until adolescence. You learnt about this theory in learning unit 2

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 Motivation, teaching and learning

(please study again pages 30–39 of the prescribed book). Piaget’s concepts,
referring to the ways to respond to new information, namely assimilation and
accommodation, are particularly important aspects for teachers to understand.
Many authors refer to the use of learners’ existing knowledge (when assimilation
takes place) and teaching of new information – when learners must process
new information (accommodation). Adolescents can develop to the stage
of formal operations, where they are able to think abstractly, logically and
idealistically about possibilities (Hardman 2016:220). Also see pages 32–33 of
the prescribed book).

Vygotsky’s theory is also a cognitive theory that you studied in learning unit 2
(pages 39–41 of the prescribed book). Some authors (e.g. Louw et al 2016:28)
also call it a contextual theory because Vygotsky suggests that children learn
through others in their social environment (through the help of adults and
peers, by collaborative learning or guided learning); and in the prescribed book
it is called a sociocultural theory because the child acquires the knowledge,
attitudes and behaviour from the social environment or culture. This theory
is important for teachers because it conveys the idea that the skilful teacher
supports the learner (“providing intellectual scaffolding” – Gouws 2019:40) by
taking the learner’s level of development and existing knowledge into account.
Vygotsky also proposed that learners work together and learn from each other
(cooperative learning).

• Constructivism
You studied the constructivist theory under 8.2.2 in your prescribed book. One
of the main characteristics of constructivism is that it differs from the idea that
learners are “empty vessels” that have to be filled up with knowledge (also
called the “talk-and-chalk” teaching) (Donald, Lazarus & Moolla 2014:104).
According to the constructivist approach new knowledge is not passively taken
in but it is “actively and continuously constructed and reconstructed as the
individual progresses to higher levels of understanding” (Donald et al 2014:104).
The approach is based on the principle that the brain is not an inactive organ
but is continuously learning. Furthermore, constructivism differs from the idea
that there is one truth that is unchanging (the positivist approach), because
what is true in one context may not be correct in another.

A central concept in constructivism is that people are actively and continuously

constructing the information or stimuli they receive from their environment.
They compare new information with remaining knowledge structures
(schemata). Schulze, Snowman and McCown (2016) explain that existing
structures are increased (assimilation) and new structures of knowledge are
formed (accommodation). Knowledge is constructed in social contexts through
social interaction (think of Vygotsky’s theory). Very often the constructivist
view of learning proposes active learning or guided discovery.

Another concept in constructivism is metacognition – people can be aware of

their own thinking and can evaluate their own thoughts and maybe improve
strategies to engage with new information. In addition, constructivism
emphasises an individual’s ability to “represent the world in the mind” by
using the “tools” of language, mathematics or musical notation – they use the
abstract symbols of letters, numbers and music notes to symbolise the real
world, which is unique to humans (Donald et al 2014:107–108).

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 When referring to social constructivism, it reminds us of Vygotsky’s theory.
As Schulze et al (2016) pointed out, Vygotsky proposed assisted learning,
where teachers or more informed learners can assist learners (cooperative and
collaborative learning). Davis’ (2013) view is that adolescents learn successfully
when they are in contact with others and when they take part in discussions in
a group. This is even more so if the discussions are applicable to what happens
outside school. The connection with peers – talking to them, sharing experiences
with them – has social value, to feel part of the group, but it also has cognitive
results because peers can sometimes make concepts clearer to each other. This
can also lead to a sense of independence (Davis 2013). This “dialogic discourse”
is in contrast with the more traditional “monologic conversation” where the
teacher was the only one talking (Davis 2013:70–71). Vygotsky’s model therefore
advocates collaborative learning with peers and other adults. He sees the child
as an apprentice who acquires knowledge and skills through help from those
who already possess such knowledge. In Africa, adult and peer mentors are
quite useful in children’s learning – and learning occurs when human beings are
part of activities that are provided by the society in which they live (Tchombe
2011). A “community of practice” builds on Vygotsky’s “social constructivism”,
which requires the interaction between social and practical elements in learning
through oral teachings and practical activities (Vygotsky 1978). In this model
(Community of Practice) the learner functions at two levels:
(1) He or she makes his or her learning meaningful through practical activity
at an intrapersonal (within the self) level
(2) He or she interacts with others using speech and cultural tools to con-
nect the meaning of the interpersonal (between people) world he or she
shares with others

But what is meant by the concept “community of practice”? It was first proposed
in a book titled “Situated Learning” (Lave & Wenger 1991), after studying
the people on the island of St Kilda. A “community of practice” refers to the
learning that occurs when people who have a common interest in some subject
or problem work together to share ideas and find solutions (Lave & Wenger
1991). The community provides opportunities to learn how to do something
or to improve and do it better and it acts as a “collective store” of wisdom
and experience. In Africa and specifically in the Chewa culture, peer group
cooperation is very important. “Kugwirizana ndi anzache”, in Chi-Chewa means
to cooperate with one’s peers. It is a highly valued dimension of behaviour in
many societies in Africa. To work together in harmony towards a shared goal
is the dynamic relationship that enables individuals to pool their efforts for the
benefit of a group (Serpell 2011).

The features of “communities of practice” can be summarised as:

 a common or shared interest in something

 community members interacting and learning together
 sharing collective resources that members have developed over time

To apply constructivism to their teaching, teachers must make the study material
relevant to the learners’ worlds – for example, when giving them a problem to
solve, it must come from a context with which the learners are familiar. Teachers
must also know what knowledge the learners already possess, in order to use
it in their acquiring of new information. With regard to social constructivism,
teachers can give problems to be unraveled in groups. In this way children
learn how to negotiate and they can learn from each other (Schulze et al 2016).

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• Connectivism
George Siemens and Stephen Downes developed a theory for the digital age,
called connectivism. Their proposed learning theory has issued a debate over
whether it is a learning theory or instructional theory or merely a pedagogical
view (Dunn 2011). But, what is connectivism? It is regarded as a learning
theory that “describes the process of learning which takes place through the
building of online connections between people” (IGI Global n.d.:1). It further
acknowledges the development of learning networks, and the invention of
new learning networks. An individual’s knowledge is not only in his or her
brain. The knowledge resides in connections with electronic devices and other
humans. The theory is about how the internet produces limitless opportunities
for individuals to obtain knowledge and share the information with others (IGI
Global n.d.). Learning occurs in simulated (or virtual) networks and communities
through social interaction (IGI Global: n.d.:1). Learning therefore takes
place in various ways: through e-mail and e-mails lists, conversations, web
searches, on reading blogs and in communities. Connectivism further refers
to education where language together with media and technology is the
channel of information, “promoting greater student participation, collaboration
and interaction between networked learners, who socially construct an active
learning experience within different learning networks” (IGI Global n.d.:2).
Knowledge is therefore shared with others and is changeable, not isolated and
exists in network groups.

This is a new theory and therefore we do not find much written about it
or research done on it in comparison to the wealth of information and
research studies that exist on other theories. Marquis (2012:2) describes it as
a revolutionary theory. The development of technology has lead to the theory
of connectivism and it creates new challenges to education. “The application
of connectivism to teaching and learning requires a thorough rethinking of
the educational process and the role of the teacher, student, and technology
in that process” (Marquis 2012:1). Connectivism as a theory forced teachers
to look at what is being done in digital education and to rethink, debate, and
philosophise over how each part fits. They must continually be evaluating how
each new generation learns (Dunn 2011).

Not all teachers are up to date with the latest technology, and in this digital
age, the role of teachers is diminishing because learners can become more
independent learners, connected to different forms of communication outside
formal education. A paradigm shift in educational theory is necessary to keep up
with what is changing in this time of technological progress (Kop & Hill 2008).

8. 2
Activity based on learning theories

What would you do if some learners are not behaving well in class? Peter is
disruptive while you are talking and Emmah does not want to do her homework
– she seems to be unmotivated to achieve. Use the theories of learning you
studied above and make suggestions for how you can handle these situations.

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 FEEDBACK
What is the best way to handle bad behaviour? Think of what you have learnt
about operant conditioning (reward and punishment) and suggest ways you
could try to handle Peter. Are there ways to get him to be motivated to attend
to your lessons? And why is Emmah demotivated? Can you do something to
boost her self-efficacy? If you know their backgrounds and abilities, can you
get them interested by offering your lessons according to their special abilities
(think of the MI theory) and by using new technology that would capture
their attention?

Additional information to study with information processing (8.3.3)

Theories describing how information is processed are also cognitive theories.
You came across information processing in the prescribed book on pages 181–
185. There it is explained that incoming information must be interpreted and
managed (processed) so that it can be stored – and recalled at a later stage. In
other words, how the brain processes information: information must be moved
from the sensory register to the working memory and stored in the long-term
memory. This means that it can be remembered, for example when writing a
test, or applying information to a practical real-life situation.
There are a number of terms and ideas that are common to all information
processing theories. Figure 8.2 outlines these terms and their explanations as
well as the progression of the process.

FIGURE 8.2
Fundamental terminology linked to information processing theories

Source: Davis 2013:15–16

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 Motivation, teaching and learning

There are a number of information processing theories. We give more information

on Bruner and Gagne.

 Bruner’s modes of representation

Bruner’s view is that if knowledge reaches the child, it is processed (stored)

in certain ways and encoded (converted). The first way to store and encode
information is to remember some action (like a baby remembering the action
of shaking a rattle or an adult remembering how to type or sew), and it is
called “enactive representation”. Another kind of representation is “iconic”
– information is stored as mental pictures in the mind. Iconic representation
can also be used by drawing diagrams or making illustrations – some people
remember information easier this way. The last ability to develop is that of
“symbolic representation”, when language, mathematical symbols or other
codes or symbols are used. These symbols (e.g. language) can be adapted and
organised and be used in abstract concepts (McLeod 2018, no page number).

Bruner suggested that teachers’ purpose must not be to divulge knowledge,

but to enable learners to think and develop problem-solving skills and to
construct their own understanding and develop their own coding system to
store knowledge. He proposed the spiral curriculum which means that teachers
start to convey difficult ideas at a simple level first, and then move to more
difficult levels (like going up in a spiral). Bruner called this discovery learning
when teachers facilitate the learning process that helps learners to discover the
links between fragments of information themselves (McLeod 2018).

 Gagne’s model of instructional design

Gagne refers to conditions for learning which include:

 internal conditions – what the learner already knows before the teaching
 external conditions – what the teacher offers to the learner (Khadjooi,
Rostami & Ishaq 2011).

Gagne advanced the hierarchical theory of learning, which he also referred to

as the eight conditions of learning or the hierarchy of learning. The hierarchy
of learning – in ascending order of complexity of the skills – includes:

 signal learning, the most elementary version of learning which is similar to

classical conditioning as theorised by Pavlov and Watson
 stimulus-response association – is basically similar to Thorndike’s theory
of instrumental learning and Skinner’s operant conditioning
 chaining – is the ability to link at least two previously learnt distinct stimulus-
response connections into a coherent sequence
 verbal association – is a version of chaining in which a learner uses verbal
connections to make associations
 discrimination learning – is the ability to respond in different ways to
similar stimuli
 concept learning – takes place when the learners master the ability to
generalise responses on the basis of a set of stimuli which belong to a
particular category or class
 learning of rules – is a sophisticated cognitive process through which the
learner is able to identify the relationships between at least two concepts
and subsequently apply them in both familiar and novel situations

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  problem solving – can be defined as an attempt to overcome hindrances
obstructing the path to a solution (Swartz, De la Rey, Dunn, Townsend &
O’Neill 2016:194; Tuckman & Monetti, 2011:227–228).

When teaching, the teacher must first of all spell out the outcomes that the
learners must reach. Then comes Gagne’s “Events of Instruction”, comprising
nine steps that teachers can implement to ensure that learning takes place
(Khadjooi et al 2011:117).

Events Processes of learning

1. Stimulation to gain attention to ensure the reception of stimuli
2. Informing the learner of the learn- to establish appropriate expectancies
ing objective
3. Reminding learners of previously for retrieval from long-term memory
learned content
4. Clear and distinctive presentation to ensure selective perception
of material
5. Guidance of learning by suitable semantic encoding
6. Eliciting performance involving response generation
7. Providing feedback about performance
8. Assessing the performance involving additional response feed-
back occasions
9. Arranging variety of practice to aid future retrieval and transfer

Source: Instructional design n.d.:2

These events can be converted by the teacher so that it can be used in any
teaching environment with the aim that learners can reach the learning
outcomes (Instructional Design n.d.). The main objective is not so much that
learners remember, but that they understand what is presented to them. To be
able to reach this goal, teachers must organise their lessons very well with the
outcomes as objective (Khadjooi et al 2011).
Additional information on learning styles to study with individual
differences (8.2.5)
First of all, you need to take note of the SIAS (Screening, Identification,
Assessment and Support) policy which was implemented in 2014 by the National
Department of Basic Education (DBE) together with other African countries
to make sure that all schools offer care and support to all learners. The SIAS
offers standardised procedures to identify, assess, and provide programmes for
all learners who require additional learning support to help them gain access
to quality education. The SIAS also provides guidelines on enrolling learners
in special schools and settings as well as a protocol and a set of official forms
to be used by teachers, school-based support teams and district-based support
teams for screening, identifying and assessing learners.
The SIAS policy is rooted in the belief that all learners must be able to access
quality education to the best of their ability as far as possible, within their local
school. This belief is called “inclusion”. Inclusion is rooted in diversity that

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requires teachers to be able to recognise and respect the differences among

their learners and be able to adjust their teaching accordingly.
If you want to know more about the SIAS policy, go to:
https://www.education.gov.za/
The SIAS policy is especially significant for our South African teachers, because
the nature of the population in South African schools has changed drastically
over the past few years. In the same school, it is possible to find children
from different races and ethnic groups, children with different abilities and
disabilities, and children from different socioeconomic backgrounds. The
teacher must therefore be prepared beforehand to handle such diversities in
the classroom. You will find more information on this topic in the Inclusive
Education module.
In this module we focus on the individual learning styles of learners. In the
prescribed book you have learnt that learners differ with regard to learning
styles and that teachers should acknowledge each one’s potential and should
use the theory of multiple intelligences (MI) to be effective in their teaching
and treat learners according to their specific abilities. To add to this, we would
like to make you aware of various kinds of learning styles that learners may
have (because all individuals are unique) and what methods teachers can use
to accommodate all the different learning styles.
First of all, teachers must have knowledge of the basic principles of learning
to be able to create a culture of learning. They must furthermore have good
knowledge of the field they teach and be aware of their own learning preferences
– “Teachers identifying themselves as learners is key to the development of
a community of thinking in a school” (South Australian Teaching for Effective
Learning Framework n.d.:13). If teachers understand their own learning and
how others learn, they can value their learners’ diversity and be able to help
them in their learning.
Teachers must therefore know their learners and the learning styles they
prefer. It is important to realise that one style is not right and the other wrong
– learners must use the style that is best for them, or even a combination of
styles (Loveless 2019). According to Srijongjai (2011:1559) “everyone has a
mix of learning styles, and learning styles are not fixed, so instructors should
also accommodate other types of learning styles by providing diverse learning
environments.” In figure 7.2 it is shown that in one individual a learning style
can dominate, but he or she may use other styles also – learning styles can
be combined and therefore teachers must not label learners and define them
by one style only (Loveless 2019).

 VAK learning styles

The VAK model, suggested by Loveless (2019:2), suggests the following styles:
Visual (learn best by seeing), Auditory (learn best by hearing), and Kinaesthetic
(learners learn best by moving and doing). A fourth style can be identified,
namely learning through the tactile sense (learning by touching and feeling,
mostly with their hands) (Integrated learning strategies 2016; Warren 2017).
Teachers must help learners to recognise their own learning styles, which will
help them to study more efficiently. This refers to metacognition – to understand
your own thinking (you have been referred to this under Constructivism above).

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 FIGURE 8.3
Types of learning styles (Loveless 2019:3)

What teachers can do with regard to the different learning styles

 For visual learners (who learn the most by what they see), it will help to use
colours, drawings, posters, charts, graphs and hand signs (Loveless 2019).
 For auditory learners (who like to speak or ask questions in the classroom,
and learn best by what they hear), teachers can use audio books and let the
learners discuss topics, make speeches or let them debate some issue. They
can also be encouraged to make recordings of lectures or make recordings
of themselves – of what they want to write down in their notes or when
writing essays (Loveless 2019).
 Kinaesthetic learners learn best by doing something or by actions. They like
to do experiments (e.g. in a science lab) or going on field trips. They can be
guided to act out historical events or you can let them move around in the
class by asking those who agree or disagree with a statement, to move to
one side of the class (Loveless 2019).
 Tactile learners like to doodle while concentrating/listening or fidgeting
with something. Here a stress ball can be of help to pay attention. They
also sometimes like drawing, colouring, building something, moving or
painting. Playing a musical instrument can also stimulate their cognitive
development. It also helps them to take notes while listening in the classroom
(Integrated Learning Strategies 2016; Warren 2017).

Apart from these basic learning styles, one also finds some individuals who
learn best by writing, for example, making their own notes or summaries (they
learn while they read and write). There are also logical learners (who do well
in mathematics), social learners (who do well in discussions and working in
groups) and solitary learners (who want to study alone) (Loveless 2019).

Loveless (2019) suggests that teachers must be creative in their teaching

by accommodating more than one learning preference while presenting a
lesson, in order to benefit most of the learners. He stresses the importance of
understanding that every learner is unique, and that even two learners who

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 Motivation, teaching and learning

prefer the same learning style, can still differ in how they learn. Therefore,
teachers have the enormous task to know and understand their learners.

 Kolb’s experiential learning model

Kolb’s learning styles are one of the best known and widely used learning
style theories.

The learning styles described by Kolb are based on two major dimensions:
active/reflective and abstract/concrete (Kolb & Kolb 2012:169). Kolb presented
these as lines of axis, each with “conflicting” modes at either end:

Concrete Experience – CE (feeling) ––-V––-Abstract Conceptualisation

– AC (thinking)

Active Experimentation – AE (doing)––-V––- Reflective Observation

– RO (watching)

A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is

called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-
south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how
we think or feel about it).
These learning styles are the combination of two lines of axis (continuums) –
each formed between what Kolb calls “dialectically related modes” of “grasping
experience” (doing or watching), and “transforming experience” (feeling or
thinking).
When applied to an educational situation the process can be summarised as
follows:

You must

 be willing to be actively involved in doing something

 be able to think about what you have done
 use analytical skills to think about the experience; and use decision-making
and problem-solving skills to use the new ideas gained
 learn from the experience and apply it to the next situation

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 FIGURE 8.4
Kolb’s Experiential Model

Source: Adapted image from Pfeiffer & Jones 1985; Kolb & Kolb 2012

According to Kolb & Kolb (2013:13) data from empirical and clinical studies over
the years has shown that the original four learning style types – accommodating,
assimilating, converging and diverging – can be refined further into a nine-
style typology. The nine learning styles better define the unique patterns of
individual learning styles and reduce the confusions introduced by borderline
cases in the old four-style typology.

Kolb and Kolb (2012:1700–1701) mention some characteristics of learners who

display the nine learning styles.

 Experiential style: Learners enjoy working in groups, role-playing,

brainstorming, or doing fieldwork.
 Reflecting style: Learners “thrive in learning environment rich in discussions,
interactions, and through readings that provide them with a deeper
understanding of themselves and the world around them.”
 Thinking style: Learners prefer well-structured, logical tasks and may prefer
to work alone.
 Practical learning style: Learners “learn best through real-life projects, field
trips, and hands-on experiments”.
 Divergent learning style: Learners prefer to work in groups where they gather
information and are able to listen with an open mind.

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 Motivation, teaching and learning

 Assimilating style: Learners prefer “lectures, readings, exploring analytical

models, and having time to think things through”.
 Converging style: Learners enjoy doing simulations, practical applications,
and laboratory assignments.
 Accommodating learning style: Learners like to work with others, do field
work or find different ways of doing a project.
 Balancing learning style: Learners are able to change their learning style to
match the task.

The focus on nine different learning styles assists teachers in planning for
a diverse range of activities that may suit the different learning styles in the
classroom. This is important because teachers may only provide activities for
a learning style that suits the teacher. Remember that research does indicate
that learners should be provided with different learning activities. You may
find all nine styles in a single classroom.

8.3
Activity based on learning styles and individual differences

Prepare a lesson on a subject of your choice (e.g. history, mathematics, geography,

English). In your presentation to the class, try to accommodate the various
learning styles of your learners (look at the preceding list of styles again). How
would you implement different methods in one lesson?

FEEDBACK
You must be aware of your learners’ preferred learning styles and accommodate
these. For example, divide the class in groups and give them tasks that are
related to the subject: Let some make drawings; let others prepare speeches
or let them act out some situation. You can add to these methods and merge
it with the topic of your lesson.

Additional information on study techniques to study with (8.3.3)

In the prescribed book, you will find guidelines on how to help learners to study
different study material. There are also many study techniques to use when you
are learning. Some of these techniques might seem strange at first, but many
have been around for a long time and they work! If you can become competent
in using study techniques, you will turn them into skills – and you will also
be able to teach them to your learners. We will briefly discuss a few tried and
tested methods.

The SQ3R method

One frequently suggested method for reading study material is the SQ3R
(SQRRR) method (Coon & Mitterer 2015:23 Robinson 1978:47).

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 TABLE 8.3
The SQ3R Method

 Page through the whole book. Read the preface and

introduction. Browse through the table of content and the
index.
 Explore the chapters and get an overview of what the chapter

Survey
is about:
S
 Read titles and subtitles
 Look at pictures, charts or graphs
 Read the study questions
 Surveying gives you the “big picture” – a framework of the
main ideas

 This is where you start to engage actively with the text

Question

 Ask yourself: “What do I already know about this topic?” See

Q if you can recall any existing (prior) information on the topic.
 Look at headings and subheadings and turn them into
questions – e.g. “What does SQRRR stand for?”

 Start reading the text – you will be more engaged because

Read

R you are actively looking for the answers to your questions.

 You will be concentrating more intensely and for longer.

 Read the text again and make some notes – summarise.

 Close the book and try and answer your questions.
Recite

R  Write them down or say them out loud.

 Use your own words or language – this will improve your
memory and lead to greater understanding.

 Review the material once a week – this will help to retain

(remember) the information.

Review

Remember to include “review sessions” in your weekly

R timetable.
 You can use old exam papers to check your knowledge.
 Ask yourself questions which you think might be good exam
questions.

Organising learning material

You should organise the content of your learning material as soon as possible.
Do it in such a way that it makes sense to you, that you can understand it better
and that it will help you to recall the information at a later stage. You can be
as creative as you want when doing this. Use diagrams, pictures, tables, mind
maps, flashcards or anything creative that your brain can come up with.

Grouping and sorting

We all have a natural tendency to want to sort large groups of objects into smaller
groups. We group together things that are similar – usually based on common
characteristics such as size, colour, shape, texture, flavour and purpose. It helps
us to make sense of what is going on around us and makes us feel more secure.
Sorting and classifying are basic skills taught to children from a young age.
As children become more confident in sorting, they are encouraged to explain

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their thought process in sorting by identifying and naming the characteristic

that determines the different groups.

Recognising groups of objects requires logical thinking, an ability that will be

important for the rest of your life. Understanding the relationship between the
different groups and being able to discuss that relationship requires analytical
skills. Here is a very simple example to demonstrate grouping and sorting:

Look at Figure A. How many triangles, circles and squares are there?

FIGURE A

Look at Figure B. How many triangles, circles and squares are there?

FIGURE B

Can you see that the grouping and sorting of learning material according to
shape, will enhance your ability to remember information?

Getting the “bigger picture”

We have touched on this concept of working from the “Whole-to-Part” in our

discussion of the SQ3R method. In the survey (exploring) stage we tried to get
a “big picture” of the learning material – before looking at the finer detail (that
what is written underneath the headings). Some learners need to understand
the “whole concept” before getting the details. “Part-to-whole” learners are
more comfortable moving in the opposite direction (receiving the details first).
They like to use a “step-by-step” approach. The whole concept makes them
feel overwhelmed – they want to see the whole process unfold.

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 The “whole-to-part” approach can be applied to learning in the following way:

 Look at the title of the textbook or study guide – write it down

 Write down all the names of the units
 Write down all the main headings underneath each unit
 Write down all the subheadings of each main heading
 Write down the keywords underneath each subheading

This process will enable you to get the “big picture” of what the learning material
is all about. You can write it all below one another or you can become creative
and use diagrams or pictures to help you to remember.

Here is ONE example of how you can get the “bigger picture”:

EXAMPLE

Additional information on Afrocentric teaching

First of all, we will explain the Afrocentric-indigenous pedagogy as presented by

Van Wyk (2014). He describes an eight-way framework for Afrocentric teaching
including the following (please note that these strategies all contribute to the
“inclusive classroom” – including learners of various cultures, backgrounds,
abilities and learning styles) (Van Wyk 2014:52–58):

 Storytelling: Knowledge is usually shared by elders through telling

stories. Hereby the traditions, history and heritage are spread to the new
generations. It was used to teach the new generations how to endure difficult
circumstances in their natural environment. Today, teachers can use stories
to teach many kinds of subject matter.
 Deconstruct-reconstruct strategy: Teachers must first focus on the whole of
the outcomes they want to reach. Then the teacher can take the lesson apart
(deconstruct it) into sections that learners are able to cope with, according
to their abilities and learning styles.
 Learning through associations and connections (non-linear strategy):
A good way to learn new information is to link it to existing knowledge.
Teachers can help learners by repeating concepts and making sure that all
learners grasp the concepts before continuing.
 Learning through field trips and environmental excursions: By visiting
a wilderness area or wildlife park, learners can come close to connecting to
the land and place (and even to ancestral relations). Many field guides or
game rangers are indigenous people who can convey indigenous knowledge
to learners.

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 Community involvement-linked strategy: Parents and community

members can be asked to be involved in the school’s fundraising, maintenance
and cleaning. They contribute to their children’s school, while the learners
understand the community life and values.
 Experiential learning maps: To help learners to grasp the study material,
teachers can use charts, diagrams and other visual material. They can also
teach learners the value of using mind maps to help them develop a holistic
picture of the material they must study, or to use it for assignments.
 Symbols-and-images strategy: Teachers can help learners to reach the
learning outcomes easier when they use images, maps or metaphors. It
makes the study material more significant and easier to remember.
 Non-verbal: Body language, kinaesthetic learning and actions help learners
to experience what they learn in practice, inter alia through introspection
and experiences.

When looking closely at Afrocentric education, you will realise that these
principles are also included in some of the theories of learning that you
have studied earlier in this unit. An example of the “infusion of indigenous
knowledge (IK), Western science (WS) and Ubuntu” (Mukwambo, Ngcoza &
Chikunda 2014:70) is: Afrocentric principles are also related to what is called
non-linear or non-traditional ways of education. When proposing that existing
knowledge must be used, it links to Piaget’s assimilation and to the theory of
constructivism (which you know by this time). Also, the idea that community
members must be involved in the school, and to work with others or connect
to others (as in Ubuntu) is related to social constructivism and connectivism.
The Afrocentric notion of disclosing the outcomes of a lesson to learners is also
mentioned in Gagne’s theory of information processing. Therefore, Afrocentric-
indigenous pedagogy, Ubuntu and Western science are not excluding each
other (Mukwambo et al 2014).

One could say that all in all, the Afrocentric ideas of education strongly
aim to attain the “inclusive classroom” as Van Wyk pointed out: It does not
exclude any learner on the basis of race, culture, language or background.
“The Afrocentric-indigenous classroom is not only for black learners, but
inclusive of all learners for the advancement of quality education” (Van Wyk
2014:58). Afrocentric education does take indigenous knowledge and everyday
experiences of learners into account, and uses what learners already know, in
a non-linear orientation. When working according to these concepts, teachers
will make an effort to get to know their learners and will be sensitive to gender
and racial issues – thereby they instil “awareness, respect, Ubuntu, humanity
and inclusivity” in their learners by the inclusive climate they create (Van Wyk
2014:57).

To add to the Afrocentric view on learning, Muthivhi (2010) used the theories of
Vygotsky and Piaget to explore the role of cultural content in the development
and cognitive functioning of the child. His research included eighty Tshivenda-
speaking children in diverse rural South African settings. The study showed
that rural children simultaneously use concrete-functional, formal-abstract and
conceptual ways of thinking. Muthivhi (2010) found that children demonstrate
forms of thinking and problem solving that come from both their formal learning
experiences (school) and from their natural, daily learning and cultural settings
(home). The understanding of concepts and the specific styles of thinking
and problem solving are linked to the sociocultural context and the learning
activities in which the child participates. The cultural context in which the child’s

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 learning and development take place is complex and involves many layers of
meaning. It includes the traditions of learning in the formal school setting as
well as their everyday learning in their sociocultural context.

The progress in cognitive development that occurs during the middle school
years are therefore tied to learning in school but also to learning in sociocultural
context. Through learning, children become increasingly skilled and develop
critical areas of their brains. Cognitive tasks will therefore be solved according
to the experience of the individual child.

8.4
Activity based on Afrocentric teaching

Think of yourself as advocating in favour of Afrocentric-indigenous pedagogy.

You have to convince the principal of the school of the benefits of such an
approach. Name the points that you will raise in your submission.

FEEDBACK
Take the eight points that Van Wyk proposes and the benefits of the inclusive
classroom into account and convince the principal and the school board that
the Afrocentric approach is the way to go for the future of education in South
Africa.

8.4 Conclusion
This extensive learning unit covered many essential aspects that teachers should
take serious note of. Think of the importance of the motivation and self-efficacy
beliefs of learners and the importance of these aspects for making a success
of their lives. Also consider the importance for teachers to know how learning
takes place and to have knowledge of learning theories, learning styles and
the individual differences between learners. If they succeed in these objectives,
teachers will also create a culture of teaching and learning and an inclusive
classroom to include all learners, regardless of their backgrounds.

Considering the above requirements for effective teachers, one becomes aware
of the challenges that teachers in South Africa are confronted with, especially
because of the diversity in our country with regard to language, culture,
socioeconomic background and beliefs. By taking on these challenges, you,
as a student of education, show that you are willing to confront the enormous
task ahead.

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