Chapter 2

Unit II: Oscillations and Waves

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A very special kind of motion occurs when the force acting on a body is proportional to the displacement
of the body from some equilibrium position. If this force is always directed toward the equilibrium
position, repetitive back-and-forth motion occurs about this position. Such motion is called periodic
motion, harmonic motion, oscillation, or vibration (the four terms are completely equivalent). We
are familiar with several examples of periodic motion, such as the oscillations of a block attached to a
spring, the swinging of a child on a playground swing, the motion of a pendulum, and the vibrations of a
stringed musical instrument. In addition to these everyday examples, numerous other systems exhibit

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periodic motion. For example, the molecules in a solid oscillate about their equilibrium positions;
electromagnetic waves, such as light waves, radar, and radio waves, are characterized by oscillating
electric and magnetic field vectors; and in alternating-current electrical circuits, voltage, current, and
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electrical charge vary periodically with time. Most of the material in this chapter deals with simple
harmonic motion, in which an object oscillates such that its position is specified by a sinusoidal function
of time with no loss in mechanical energy. However, in real mechanical systems, damping (frictional)
forces are often present. These forces are considered in Sec. 2.3.
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2.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

Consider a physical system that consists of a block of mass m attached to the end of a spring, with the
block free to move on a horizontal, frictionless surface (Fig. 2.1). When the spring is neither stretched
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Figure 2.1: A block attached to a spring moving on a frictionless surface.

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nor compressed, the block is at the position x = 0, called the equilibrium position of the system. We
know from experience that such a system oscillates back and forth if disturbed from its equilibrium
position. We can understand the motion in Fig. 2.1 qualitatively by first recalling that when the
block is displaced a small distance x from equilibrium, the spring exerts on the block a force that is
proportional to the displacement and given by Hooke’s law:

F⃗S = −k⃗x, (2.1)

where, k is the spring constant. We call this a restoring force because it is is always directed toward
the equilibrium position and therefore opposite the displacement. That is, when the block is displaced
to the right of in Fig. 2.1, then the displacement is positive and the restoring force is directed to the
left. When the block is displaced to the left of then the displacement is negative and the restoring
force is directed to the right.
Applying Newton’s second law to the motion of the block, together with Eq. (2.1), we obtain,

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k
F⃗S = −k⃗x = m⃗a ⇒ ⃗a = − ⃗x. (2.2)
m
That is, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the block, and its direction is opposite
to the direction of the displacement. Systems that behave in this way are said to exhibit simple
harmonic motion (SHM). Thus, an object moves with simple harmonic motion whenever its accel-
eration is proportional to its displacement from some equilibrium position and is oppositely directed.

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Time Period: The time required for one complete cycle (a complete repetition of motion) is called
the time period of oscillation.
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Frequency: The number of oscillations that occur within a unit time is called the frequency (f ) of
that particular oscillating system. Therefore, if T is the time period, then f = 1/T . Unit of frequency
is Hz or s−1 . Angular frequency can be defined as,
2π
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ω = 2πf = (2.3)
T

2.1.1 Differential Equation of SHM

We know, for SHM,
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d2 ⃗x d2 ⃗x k d2 ⃗x
F⃗S = −k⃗x ⇒ m 2 + k⃗x = 0 ⇒ 2 + ⃗x = 0 ⇒ + ω 2 ⃗x = 0 (2.4)
dt dt m dt2
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The boxed part of Eq. (2.4) is usually referred to as the differential equation of SHM, where ω = k/m
is the angular frequency.
Eq. (2.4) requires that x(t) be a function whose second derivative is the negative of the function
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itself, except for a constant factor k/m. We know from calculus that the sine and cosine functions
have this property. A general solution for Eq. (2.4) can be written as,

x(t) = xm cos(ωt + ϕ)
h i
= xm cos ϕ cos ωt − sin ϕ sin ωt
= A cos ωt + B sin ωt (2.5)

xm represents the maximum possible value of displacement. It is called the Amplitude of the Oscilla-
tion. ϕ is an initial phase, i.e., at t = 0, x = xmpsin ϕ. A zero initial phase corresponds to x(0) = 0.
The time period for oscillation is T = 2π ω = 2π
m
k . This is a typical example of ideal spring-mass
system.

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2.1.2 Total Energy of SHM
Total energy of any object of mass m is,

E=Kinetic Energy (K)+ Potential Energy (U).

For a spring-mass system executing SHM, KE = 21 mv 2 . Using, x(t) = xm cos(ωt + ϕ), we get,
1 hd i2
K(t) = m {xm cos(ωt + ϕ)}
2 dt
1
= mω 2 x2m sin2 (ωt + ϕ)
2
1
= kx2m sin2 (ωt + ϕ) (2.6)
2
For obtaining the last expression we have used, ω 2 = k/m.

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If U is the potential energy of the system, then,
Z x
U (t) = − FS (x, t).dx
Z x0
1
= kx(t)dx = kx2 (t)
0 2
1 2

U
= kxm cos2 (ωt + ϕ). (2.7)
2
Note that, in case of SHM, KE and PE both are functions of time and hence varies continuously.
However, the total energy,
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1 h i 1
E = K(t) + U (t) = kx2m sin2 (ωt + ϕ) + cos2 (ωt + ϕ) = kx2m . (2.8)
2 2
Thus, the total energy is a constant and doesn’t change with time.
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(a) (b)

Figure 2.2: (a) Variation of energy as a function of time, and (b) variation of KE and PE as function
of displacement from the equilibrium position. Here, A denotes the amplitude xm .

Fig. 2.2(b) shows that the KE is maximum at the equilibrium position, whereas the PE is maximum
at the two amplitude points. Any system tries to minimize its PE and hence always directs towards
the equilibrium point.

2.2 Simple Pendulum

Consider the motion of a simple pendulum as shown in Fig. 2.3. L is the length of the string and m
is the mass of the bob. T denotes the tension due to the string and it has been balanced by the cos θ
component of the bob’s weight, i.e., T = mg cos θ.

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 However, the mg sin θ component remains unbalanced and hence acts as the restoring force for
the pendulum. Since, mg sin θ is always directed opposite to the increasing direction of θ (angular
displacement), the equation of motion can be written as,

F⃗ = −mg sin θθ̂ (2.9)

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Figure 2.3: Motion of a Simple Pendulum.
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If θ is small, then the arc portion can be approximated as a straight line. If the instantaneous linear
displacement from the equilibrium point is x, then we can define, sin θ = x/L. Therefore, Eq. (2.9)
can be recast as,
mg
F⃗ = − ⃗x
L
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d2 ⃗x mg
⇒m 2 + ⃗x
dt L
d2 ⃗x g
⇒ 2 + ⃗x
dt L
d2 ⃗x
⇒ 2 + ω 2 ⃗x, (2.10)
dt
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p q
where, ω = g/L. Thus, the time period of simple pendulum is given by, T = 2πω = 2π L
g . Eq. (2.10)
signifies that under the small angle approximation a simple pendulum executes SHM.

2.3 Damped Oscillation

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Usually, friction, air resistance etc. work as damping factors in an oscillating system. In general, these
damping forces are proportional to the velocity and can be represented as, F⃗D = −µ⃗v = −µ⃗x˙ . Here,
µ is a positive constant, called the damping constant.
Therefore, the equation of motion for a damped spring-mass system can be written as,

F = −kx − µẋ
⇒ mẍ + µẋ + kx = 0
d2 x µ dx k
⇒ + + x=0 (2.11)
dt2 m dt m
The general solution for such a differential equation can be considered as, x(t) = Ceλt . Therefore,

ẋ = Cλeλt = λx (2.12)
2 λt 2
ẍ = Cλ e =λ x (2.13)

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Substituting these values back to Eq. (2.11), we get,
h µ ki
λ2 + λ+ x(t) = 0. (2.14)
m m
Since, for all the values of time t, x(t) can’t be zero, therefore,
µ k
λ2 + λ+ = 0. (2.15)
m m
This is a quadratic equation in λ, whose general solution is given by,
q

µ µ 2
−m ± m − 4k
m
λ=
2
r
µ µ 2 k
= − ± −
2m 2m m

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q
= − δ ± δ 2 − ω02 , (2.16)
q
µ k
where, δ = 2m and ω0 = m is the frequency of the undamped spring-mass system. δ encodes the
effect of damping. Now, depending on the relative values of δ and ω0 , there can be three possible cases.

2.3.1 Case I: Overdamped Oscillation

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If δ > ω0 , two real and discrete solutions can be defined. Here the damping wins over the oscillations.
q
λ1 = −δ + δ 2 − ω02 ,
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λ2 = −δ − δ 2 − ω02 . (2.17)
The general solution can be defined as,
x(t) = C1 eλ1 t + C2 eλ2 t
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" q # " q #
   
= C1 exp 2 2
− δ + δ − ω0 t + C2 exp 2 2
− δ − δ − ω0 t
h i
= e−δt C1 eαt + C2 e−αt , (2.18)
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where, α = δ 2 − ω02 and C1 , C2 are the integration constants.
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2.3.2 Case II: Critically Damped Oscillation

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If δ = ω0 , then δ 2 − ω02 = 0. Thus the two roots are equal in this case, i.e., λ1 = λ2 = −δ. Here the
damping and the oscillation, both are equally dominant.
In this case, the general solution can be written as,
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h i
x(t) = e−δt C1 + tC2 (2.19)

2.3.3 Case III: Under-damped Oscillation

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If δ < ω0 , the term α = δ 2 − ω02 will be imaginary.
p Herepthe oscillation surpasses thepdamping
and hence actual oscillation takes place. Let, δ 2 − ω02 = i ω02 − δ 2 = iβ, where, β = ω02 − δ 2 .
Therefore, the general solution will be,
x(t) = C1 eλ1 t + C2 eλ2 t
h i h i
= C1 exp (−δ + iβ)t + C2 exp (−δ − iβ)t
h i
= e−δt C1 eiβt + C2 e−iβt
h i
= e−δt (C1 + C2 ) cos βt + i(C1 − C2 ) sin βt (2.20)

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Let, (C1 + C2 ) = A cos ϕ and i(C1 − C2 ) = sin ϕ, where ϕ is some arbitrary phase. Thus, Eq. (2.20)
changes to,
x(t) = Ae−δt cos(βt + ϕ) (2.21)
Clearly, it represents an oscillatory motion. However, here the angular frequency is different from the
case of an ideal undamped oscillator. The frequency for an under-damped oscillator is given by,
r  µ 2
k
q
β = ω02 − δ 2 = − , (2.22)
m 2m
q
k
which is less than the frequency of an ideal oscillator, i.e., ω0 = m .

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Figure 2.4: Behaviour of an oscillator in three different cases of damping.
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Fig. 2.4 shows that oscillation can happen only for the under-damped situation.

2.4 Wave Motion

In this section we shall study the mechanical waves. In general, mechanical waves require some
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medium to propagate while the electromagnetic waves can propagate through the vacuum. Examples
of mechanical waves are the sound wave, water wave and vibration of string etc.

2.4.1 Types of Waves

Based on Direction of Particle Motion
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i) Transverse Wave: If the motion of the oscillating particles is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation then it is called transverse wave.
ii) Longitudinal Wave: If the oscillating particles move parallel to the direction of propagation
of the wave, then it is called a longitudinal wave.

Based on the Number of Dimensions

Waves can also be classified as propagating in one, two and three dimensions.
i) Waves moving along spring or string are one dimensional.
ii) Surface waves or ripples on water, caused by dropping a pebble into a quiet pond, are two
dimensional.
iii) sound waves and light waves travelling radially outward from a small source are three dimensional.
Further classifications can be done on the basis of periodicity, shape of wavefronts etc.

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2.4.2 Travelling Wave
A travelling can in general be represented through, y(x, t) = f (x − vt). Here, y represents the motion
of medium particles, x is the direction of wave propagation and v is the velocity of the wave. f defines
the structure of the wave. For example, for sinusoidal waves, f will sin or cos function.
For a wave moving along negative x direction, v will be replaced by −v, i.e., y(x, t) = f (x + vt).

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Figure 2.5: Motion of a travelling wave.
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Sinusoidal Waves
If the particles of the medium oscillates sinusoidally as the wave propagates through it, the wave is
called a sinusoidal wave. Thus, for a sinusoidal wave,
 
2π 2π 2πv
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y(x, t) = ym sin (x − vt) = ym sin x− t (2.23)

λ λ λ

Here, ym is the amplitude of oscillation for the medium particles, i.e., the amplitude of the wave. Now,
2πv 2π
λ = 2πf = ω is the angular frequency. Here, f is the frequency. Unit of ω is rad/s. λ = k is called
the wave number. Its unit is rad/m. Therefore,
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y(x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt) (2.24)

Wave velocity, i.e., the velocity with which the wave propagates through a medium, can be defined as,
v = λf = Tλ = 2π λ ω
T . 2π = k .

2.4.3 Transverse Velocity of a Particle

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The transverse velocity of a vibrating particle is given by,

∂y ∂h i
uy (x, t) = = ym sin(kx − ωt) = −ym ω cos(kx − ωt) (2.25)
∂t ∂t
And, acceleration will be,

∂uy ∂2y
ay (x, t) = = 2 = −ym ω 2 sin(kx − ωt) = −ω 2 y (2.26)
∂t ∂t
Therefore,

∂2y
+ ω2 y = 0 (2.27)
∂t2
Thus, the particles execute SHM in transverse direction.

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2.4.4 Phase Constant
In the travelling waves, we have assumed that the displacement y is zero at the position x = 0 at time
t = 0. This, of course need not be the case. The general expression for a sinusoidal wave travelling in
positive x direction is,
y(x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt − ϕ) (2.28)
Here ϕ is the phase constant. The phase constant doesn’t affect the shape of the wave; it just moves
the wave forward or backward in space space or time.

2.4.5 Interference of Waves

Interference can be interpreted as a phenomenon of redistribution of energy. Consider two waves of
same amplitude ym , wave number k and angular frequency ω. Both are moving in direction but with
different phases. The waves can be represented as,

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y1 (x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt − ϕ1 )
y2 (x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt − ϕ2 ) (2.29)
Now if y1 and y2 are superimposed on each other, the resultant wave would be given by,
h i
y(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt − ϕ1 ) + sin(kx − ωt − ϕ2 ) (2.30)

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A+B A−B



Using the formula, sin A + sin B = 2 sin 2 cos , Eq. (2.30) can be recast as,
2
"  #  
ϕ1 + ϕ2 ϕ2 − ϕ1
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y(x, t) = 2ym sin kx − ωt − cos
2 2
 i
h ∆ϕ
= 2ym cos sin(kx − ωt − ϕ′ )
2
= Am sin(kx − ωt − ϕ′ ), (2.31)
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where, ϕ′ = ϕ1 +ϕ
2
2
, ∆ϕ = ϕ2 − ϕ1 and Am = 2ym cos ∆ϕ 2 is the amplitude of the resultant wave. It
is no longer a constant, rather a function of the phase difference. Thus, there are two possibilities:
• If ∆ϕ = 2nπ [n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ], then AM = 2ym and the intensity I = A2m = 4ym
2
, which is
maximum. In this case, the interfering wave are said to be in-phase.
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• If ∆ϕ = (2n + 1)π [n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ], then AM = 0 and also the intensity I = A2m = 0, which is

minimum. In this case, the interfering wave are said to be out-of-phase.
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Figure 2.6: Interference pattern on a screen.

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Thus, for the initial waves y1 and y2 , at every point the intensity was same, i.e. ym . Whereas, for the
wave produced due to interference, at some points there can be highest intensity and at some points
the lowest. Therefore, one can have consecutive bright and dark spots (or fringes) on the screen due
to interference.

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2.4.6 Standing Wave
When two waves of same amplitude and frequency, superimpose on each other coming from the opposite
directions, one obtains standing waves.

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Figure 2.7: Standing waves in a string.

Consider two waves of same amplitude and moving opposite to each other:
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y1 (x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt)
y2 (x, t) = ym sin(kx + ωt) (2.32)

For simplicity, we assume the phase of the two waves to be zero. Therefore, the resultant wave is,
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h i
y(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t) = ym sin(kx − ωt) + sin(kx + ωt) = [2ym sin kx] cos ωt (2.33)

Thus, the effective amplitude, A′m = 2ym sin kx, depends on the position x.
If
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A′m = 0
⇒ sin kx = 0
⇒kx = nπ
2π
⇒ x = nπ
λ
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nλ
⇒x =
2
Here, we have used the definition of wave number k = 2π λ , λ being the wave length of the considered
waves. n = 0, 1, 2, · · · . The positions where the amplitude of the standing wave is zero, are called the
Nodes (N).
Further, A′m will be maximum if

sin kx = 1
⇒kx = (n + 1/2)π
2π
⇒ x = (n + 1/2)π
λ
λ
⇒x = (n + 1/2)
2
The positions where the amplitude of the standing wave is maximum, are called the Anti-nodes (A).

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