Biosensors 12 01075
Biosensors 12 01075
Biosensors 12 01075
Communication
Naked-Eye Detection of Food-Borne Pathogens Using
Multiplex Hyperbranched Rolling Circle Amplification
and Magnetic Particles
Congli Tang † , Hongna Liu † , Wenjing Pan, Meiling Wang, Jie Ren, Zhu Chen, Hui Chen, Yan Deng and Song Li *
Hunan Key Laboratory of Biomedical Nanomaterials and Devices, Hunan University of Technology,
Zhuzhou 412007, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract: Food safety is a significant public health issue in both developed and developing coun-
tries. Previous detection methods struggle to meet the current demands. We have proposed a
new way to detect pathogens, allowing detection to be visualized by the naked eye. Using our
newly developed assay, when target genes are present in the reaction, corresponding padlock
probes form closed-loop molecules. Each reaction tube contains a pair of universal primers for
identifying target genes. The ring padlock probes and corresponding universal primers start
hyperbranched rolling circle amplification (HRCA) under the action of the polymerase, so as to
gain branched chain amplification products, which are irreversibly entangled with magnetic par-
ticles to form aggregated magnetic particle clusters, and the detection results are visible to naked
eyes. On the contrary, by using linear probes, the clustering of magnetic particles will not be
produced. This method was applied to the detection of five food-borne pathogens enterohemor-
rhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), enteropathogenic Escherichia coli
(EPEC), enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) and Escherichia coli (E. coli), with detection limits of
Citation: Tang, C.; Liu, H.; Pan, W.;
1 × 103 , 1 × 104 , 1 × 103 , 1 × 104 and 1 × 102 CFU/mL, respectively. This method can realize mul-
Wang, M.; Ren, J.; Chen, Z.; Chen, H.;
tiplex automatic detection of nucleic acid and shows great development potential in the field of
Deng, Y.; Li, S. Naked-Eye Detection
molecular diagnosis.
of Food-Borne Pathogens Using
Multiplex Hyperbranched Rolling
Keywords: food-borne pathogens; magnetic particles; hyperbranched rolling circle amplification;
Circle Amplification and Magnetic
Particles. Biosensors 2022, 12, 1075.
multiple detection; naked-eye detection
https://doi.org/10.3390/
bios12121075
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Cont.
Biosensors 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Biosensors 2022, 12, 1075 4 of 11
(c)
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Schematic Schematic
illustration of illustration
MHRCA-MPND. of MHRCA-MPND. (a) gene
(a) When the target When the target
exists, gene exists, t
the padlock
probes is linked into a loop, and it is amplified with the universal primer by a hyperbranched rollingby a hyp
probes is linked into a loop, and it is amplified with the universal primer
rolling circle
circle amplification. amplification.
The product The product
is irreversibly is irreversibly
agglomerated agglomerated
with magnetic particles,with
and magnetic
the pa
the isdetection
detection result visible toresult is visible
the naked toWhen
eye. (b) the naked eye.gene
the target (b) non-exists,
When the thetarget genereaction
linking non-exists, the
actionreaction
and amplification and amplification
are not carried reaction
out, no are
HRCA notproduct
carriedisout, no HRCA
entangled product
with the is entangle
magnetic
magnetic particles and the magnetic particles are re-suspended in the
particles and the magnetic particles are re-suspended in the solution. (c) Padlock probe structure. solution. (c) Pad
structure.
HRCA increases the target sequence exponentially, and a large number of amplified
products can beExperimental
2.1. obtained in a Sample
short time during one experiment at a constant temperature.
The application of magnetic particles makes the detection results visible to the naked
All strains used in this study were purchased from the China Center of
eye. This research idea reduces the equipment relied on for temperature cycling reaction
Culture
and detection signalCollection
processing, (CICC).
which Each
greatlyofsimplifies
the bacteria strains
required was cultured
equipment, allowsfollowing
ufacturer’s instruction, and a plate count was used to determine
automation and can be detected by the naked eye. This new method combined with a the stock conc
The stock
portable apparatus canofbeeach reference
utilized strain was
in developing heat lysed
countries at 95 °C for 10 areas
and under-resourced min. to
The refere
allow quickand
and gene targets
accurate visualselected
detectionfor
oneach
site. category are listed in Table 1. Table 2 sho
quence information of probes and primers used in the experiment.
2.1. Experimental Sample
All strains
Tableused in thistarget
1. Specific studymolecules
were purchased from the
corresponding to China Center
pathogenic of Industrial
bacteria.
Culture Collection (CICC). Each of the bacteria strains was cultured following the manufac-
Reference
turer’s instruction, and aStrain
plate count wasStrain uidAthe stock
used to determine rfbeconcentration.
stx1 eaeTheipaH
stock of each reference strain was heat lysed at 95 ◦ C for 10 min. The reference strain and
E. coli CICC 10305 + - - - -
gene targets selected for each category are listed in Table 1. Table 2 shows the sequence
EIEC CICC 10661 + - - - +
information of probes and primers used in the experiment.
EPEC CICC 10664 + - - + -
ETEC
Table 1. Specific target CICC 10667
molecules corresponding +
to pathogenic bacteria. - - - -
EHEC CICC 21530 + + + + -
Reference Strain Strain uidA rfbe stx1 eae ipaH LT ST
E. coli CICC 10305 + - - - - - -
EIEC CICC 10661 + - - - + - -
EPEC CICC 10664 + - - + - - -
ETEC CICC 10667 + - - - - + +
EHEC CICC 21530 + + + + - - -
Biosensors 2022, 12, 1075 5 of 11
2.2. Ligation
A simulated target of each gene was designed to evaluate the feasibility of this method.
The ligation mixture totaled 20 µL and contained 10 × Taq DNA Ligase Buffer 2 µL,
10 µM padlock probe 2 µL, Taq DNA Ligase 1 µL, 10 µM simulated target 2 µL or pre-
heated reference strain sample; nuclease-free water was added to the reaction system to a
total of 20 µL. The reaction mixture was incubated at 55 ◦ C for 1 h.
Figure 2. Gel electrophoresis of RCA reaction and HRCA reaction. In the middle of the gel elec-
trophoresis map is a DNA Marker; the 8 wells left of the Marker are RCA products, and the 8 wells
right of the Marker are HRCA products.
RCA reaction products can only increase linearly. After one round of amplification,
only one repeat sequence can be obtained, which greatly reduces the detection efficiency.
The HRCA
Figure 2. Gelreaction introduced
electrophoresis of RCA double primers,
reaction and HRCA and reaction.
the amplification of rolling
In the middle of the gelcircle
elec-
Figure
and 2. Gel electrophoresis
branched of RCA reactiongene
and HRCA reaction. In the middle of the gel elec-
trophoresis mapchain increased
is a DNA Marker;thethetarget
8 wells left ofexponentially.
the Marker areCompared with
RCA products, andRCA
the 8reac-
wells
trophoresis
tion, of themap
right HRCA is a DNA
reaction
Marker Marker;
obtains
are HRCA the 8 wells
more
products. left ofinthethe
products Marker
sameare RCAimproves
time, products, and
the the 8 wells
detection
right of the Marker are HRCA products.
sensitivity and realizes large accumulation of products in a short time.
RCA reaction
3.2. Magnetic Particlesproducts
Selectioncan only increase linearly. After one round of amplification,
only
3.2. one repeat
Magnetic sequence
Particles can be obtained, which greatly reduces the detection efficiency.
Selection
To determine the best magnetic bead for agglomeration, we compared the following
The ToHRCA reaction
determine the introduced
best magnetic double
bead primers, and the amplification
for agglomeration, comparedof rolling circle
beads: Dynal MyOne (Dynabeads MyOneTM Streptavidin C1,we Invitrogen, the following
Waltham, MA,
and branched
beads:SPRI
Dynal chain
MyOne increased
(Dynabeads the target gene exponentially. Compared with RCA reac-
USA), beads (Beckman Coulter,MyOneTM
Brea, CA, USA), Streptavidin C1, Invitrogen),
Magbio beads SPRI beads
(Magbio, Gaithersburg,
tion,
(Beckman HRCA reaction
Coulter), obtains
Magbio more products
beads (Magbio) in the
and home-madesame time, improves the
magnetic particles detection
(HMP)
MD, USA) and home-made magnetic particles (HMP) [22]. The agglomeration reaction was
sensitivity
[22]. The and realizes
agglomeration large accumulation
reaction was carriedof products
out with in a
50 short
ng
carried out with 50 ng HRCA reaction product under the action of an external magnetic
time.
HRCA reaction product
under Agglomeration
field. the action of aneffects
external magnetic
of the field.
magnetic Agglomeration
particles effects before
were observed of the and
magnetic
after
3.2. Magnetic
particles were Particles
observed Selection
before and after vortexing (Figure 3).
vortexing (Figure 3).
To determine the best magnetic bead for agglomeration, we compared the following
beads: Dynal MyOne (Dynabeads MyOneTM Streptavidin C1, Invitrogen), SPRI beads
(Beckman Coulter), Magbio beads (Magbio) and home-made magnetic particles (HMP)
[22]. The agglomeration reaction was carried out with 50 ng HRCA reaction product
under the action of an external magnetic field. Agglomeration effects of the magnetic
particles were observed before and after vortexing (Figure 3).
If HRCA products are present in the solution, magnetic beads will not resuspend in
solution after vortexing and instead stay clumped together. If HRCA products are not
present
Figure in the solution, the
3. Agglomeration magnetic
reaction beads will
of magnetic beads:resuspend
1~2, Dynaleasily,
MyOne;and3~4,
theSPRI
solution
beads;will
5~6,
beMagbio
turbid.beads; 7~8,
In the HMP;shown
result 2, 4, 6, in
8 serve as negative
Figure control;
3b, all the (a)The
negative agglomeration
controls showed reaction before
very good
vortex; (b) The agglomeration reaction after vortex.
If HRCA products are present in the solution, magnetic beads will not resuspend in
solution after vortexing and instead stay clumped together. If HRCA products are no
present in the solution, the magnetic beads will resuspend easily, and the solution wil
Biosensors 2022, 12, 1075 8 of 11
be turbid. In the result shown in Figure 3b, all the negative controls showed very good
resuspension after vortex. As for the positive samples 1, 3, 5 and 7, all four selected
beads showed visible clumps after vortex, but obviously the HMP magnetic beads were
resuspension
the only type after vortex.
that As for thetightly
still clumped positivewithout
samplesany
1, 3, turbidity
5 and 7, allinfour
theselected
solutionbeads
(Figure 3b)
showed visible clumps after vortex, but obviously the HMP magnetic beads were the only
HRCA products tightly tie the magnetic beads together and have a strong physical at
type that still clumped tightly without any turbidity in the solution (Figure 3b); HRCA
tachment,
products preventing
tightly aggregation
tie the magnetic beadsfrom being
together andre-suspended. Therefore,
have a strong physical HMP was cho
attachment,
sen as the aggregation
preventing most suitable from option
being for visual detection.
re-suspended. Therefore, HMP was chosen as the most
suitable option for visual detection.
3.3. Magnetic Particles Amount
3.3. Magnetic Particles Amount
The number of magnetic particles is also an important factor affecting the experi
The number of magnetic particles is also an important factor affecting the experiment.
ment. If there are too many magnetic particles in the solution, they cannot entangle with
If there are too many magnetic particles in the solution, they cannot entangle with amplifi-
amplification products and disperse in the solution, resulting in a waste of magneti
cation products and disperse in the solution, resulting in a waste of magnetic particles. In
particles.
contrast, In contrast,
when when
there are too few there areparticles,
magnetic too few the
magnetic particles,
aggregates the aggregates
are too small to observe are too
small to observe the experimental results with the naked eye. All of
the experimental results with the naked eye. All of the above can lead to misjudgmentthe aboveofcan lead
to misjudgment
the of the experimental results.
experimental results.
Tocarry
To carryoutoutagglomeration,
agglomeration, wewe added
added 6000
6000 ng,ng, 4000
4000 ng, ng,
20002000
ng, ng,
10001000 ng, ng,
ng, 500 500 ng, 250
250 ng and 100 ng of HMP magnetic particles to both HRCA products and negative
ng and 100 ng of HMP magnetic particles to both HRCA products and negative controls controls.
Results
Resultswere
wereobserved
observedbefore and
before after
and agglomeration
after of magnetic
agglomeration particles
of magnetic (Figure
particles 4). 4).
(Figure
Figure4.4.Optimization
Figure Optimization of of magnetic
magnetic beads
beads input.
input. (a) Before
(a) Before the agglomeration
the agglomeration reaction;reaction;
(b) After (b) Afte
theagglomeration
the agglomeration reaction.
reaction. Numbers
Numbers 1~8 1~8 represent
represent the amount
the amount of magnetic
of magnetic beads6000
beads added: added:
ng, 6000 ng
4000 ng, 2000 ng, 1000 ng, 500 ng, 250 ng and 100 ng. Position 8 is a negative
4000 ng, 2000 ng, 1000 ng, 500 ng, 250 ng and 100 ng. Position 8 is a negative control. control.
3.4.
3.4.Limits
LimitsofofDetection
Detection
Probes in the HRCA reaction were serial diluted starting at 1 µM and going down to
Probes in the HRCA reaction were serial diluted starting at 1 µ M and going down
1 pM, with a negative control in the last position. The 8 HRCA products were agglomerated
to 1 pM, with a negative control in the last position. The 8 HRCA products were ag
with 1000 ng of HMP to detect the sensitivity of the reaction. The results are shown in Figure 5.
glomerated with 1000 ng of HMP to detect the sensitivity of the reaction. The results are
shown in Figure 5.
In the higher concentration HRCA product solutions, magnetic particle aggregation
clusters are tightly wound and present a visible magnetic particle aggregate in a tube
(Figure 5, positions 1–3); in the low concentration solution of products, the magnetic
particles cluster in a loose state (Figure 5, positions 4–7). When the probe concentration
is 10 nM (Figure 5, position 3), the magnetic particles are tightly agglomerated with
Biosensors 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
HRCA products. However, when the concentration of the product is below 1 nM (Figure 10 of 12
Biosensors 2022, 12, 1075 9 of 11
5, position 4), a large number of suspended magnetic particles stay in the solution. The
results show that the limit of visual detection based on magnetic particles is 10 nM.
(Figure 5, positions 1–3); in the low concentration solution of products, the magnetic
particles cluster in a loose state (Figure 5, positions 4–7). When the probe concentration
is 10 nM (Figure 5, position 3), the magnetic particles are tightly agglomerated with
HRCA products. However, when the concentration of the product is below 1 nM (Figure
5, position 4), a large number of suspended magnetic particles stay in the solution. The
results show that the limit of visual detection based on magnetic particles is 10 nM.
Figure 5. Limits of detection. Numbers 1~8 represent simulated probe concentrations of 1 µ M, 100
Figure 5. Limits of detection. Numbers 1~8 represent simulated probe concentrations of 1 µM,
nM, 10 nM, 1 nM, 100 pM, 10 pM, 1 pM and negative control.
100 nM, 10 nM, 1 nM, 100 pM, 10 pM, 1 pM and negative control.
3.5. In
Food-Borne Pathogen
the higher Detection
concentration HRCA product solutions, magnetic particle aggregation
clustersWeareapplied
tightlythiswoundmethod andto detect afive
present pathogenic
visible magnetic microorganisms.
particle aggregate Afterin diluting
a tube
each pathogenic
(Figure 5, positions bacteria
1–3); in to 10
the5, low
104, 10 3, 102, 101 and 1 CFU/mL, the HRCA reaction and
concentration solution of products, the magnetic
visual
particles detection
Figure 5.cluster
Limits inofwere performed
a loose
detection. state to determine
(Figure
Numbers 1~85,represent
positions the detection
4–7).
simulatedWhen sensitivity
probe probeof
theconcentrationseachofbacterium
concentration is
1 µ M, 100
and
10nM,
nM10each
nM, gene.
(Figure Taking
5, position
1 nM, 100 pM, 10 the
3), detection
the
pM, pM andresult
1magnetic ofcontrol.
particles
negative EHEC at the
are tightly concentration
agglomerated of HRCA
with 1 × 103
CFU/mL as
products. an example,
However, whenthe thedetection sensitivity
concentration of the of product
the method to pathogenic
is below 1 nM (Figure microor-
5,
3.5. Food-Borne
position
ganisms 4),was
a largePathogen
number
tested Detection
of suspended reaction
by agglomeration magneticwith particles
HMP; staytheinresult
the solution.
is shown Theinresults
Figure
show that
6. When the limit
We applied of visual
concentration
this method detection
of EHEC
to detect based
is 1five× on 3 magnetic
CFU/mL,particles
10pathogenic is 10 nM. products
its amplification
microorganisms. form
After diluting
aggregates with magnetic particles, so the concentration
each pathogenic bacteria to 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 and 1 CFU/mL, the HRCA reaction and
5 4 3 2 1 can then be continuously re-
3.5. Food-Borne
duced for Pathogen Detection
experiments to determine the detection limit of EHEC.
visual detection were performed to determine the detection sensitivity of each bacterium
andWe Forapplied
each each
gene. this
strain,method
Taking thetodetection
the visual detect fiveresult
detection pathogenic
is carried
of EHEC microorganisms.
out atatthethesame After
time
concentrationfordiluting
five 1 each
of different
× 103
pathogenic bacteria to 10 5 , 104 , 103 , 102 , 101 and 1 CFU/mL, the HRCA reaction and visual
bacterial concentrations.
CFU/mL as an example,The thetarget genessensitivity
detection corresponding to method
of the each strain to are shown inmicroor-
pathogenic Table 1,
detection
thus
ganisms were
determining performed
was tested the by
detectionto determine
limits of five
agglomeration thefood-borne
reaction detection sensitivity
pathogens
with HMP; of each
(Table
the result bacterium
is3).shown and
in Figure
each gene. Taking the detection result of EHEC at the concentration of 1 × 10 3 CFU/mL
6. When the concentration of EHEC is 1 × 10 CFU/mL, its amplification products form
3
asaggregates
an example, the magnetic
with detection particles,
sensitivityso of the
the concentration
method to pathogenic can thenmicroorganisms
be continuously wasre-
tested by agglomeration reaction
duced for experiments to determine with theHMP; the
detection result
limit is
of shown
EHEC. in Figure 6. When the
concentration
For eachofstrain,
EHECthe × 103 CFU/mL,
is 1visual detection is itscarried
amplification products
out at the same form
time aggregates with
for five different
magnetic particles, so the concentration can then be continuously reduced for experiments
bacterial concentrations. The target genes corresponding to each strain are shown in Table 1,
to determine the detection limit of EHEC.
thus determining the detection limits of five food-borne pathogens (Table 3).
Figure 6. EHEC detection results. The concentration of EHEC is 1 × 103 CFU/mL. 1–8: ST, LT, ipaH,
eae, Stx1, rfbE, uidA gene and negative control, respectively.
Figure6.6.EHEC
Figure EHECdetection
detectionresults.
results.The
Theconcentration
concentration
ofof EHEC
EHEC is is
1× 1 ×1010 3 CFU/mL. 1–8: ST, LT, ipaH,
3 CFU/mL. 1–8: ST, LT, ipaH,
eae, Stx1, rfbE, uidA gene and negative control, respectively.
eae, Stx1, rfbE, uidA gene and negative control, respectively.
For each strain, the visual detection is carried out at the same time for five different
bacterial concentrations. The target genes corresponding to each strain are shown in Table 1,
thus determining the detection limits of five food-borne pathogens (Table 3).
Biosensors 2022, 12, 1075 10 of 11
The detection limit of each strain is the maximum detection limit of the corresponding
gene. The results show that the detection sensitivity of EHEC, ETEC, EPEC, EIEC and
E. coli are 1 × 103 CFU/mL, 1 × 104 CFU/mL, 1 × 103 CFU/mL, 1 × 104 CFU/mL, and
1 × 102 CFU/mL, respectively.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, the naked-eye detection method of nucleic acids based on magnetic
particles in HRCA greatly reduces the amount of equipment and reagents needed in the lab,
thus reducing cost and trained professionals, allowing this user-friendly method to be used
worldwide. HRCA technology allows a large amount of products to be accumulated in a
short period of time. The amplicons in HRCA are wound with magnetic particles, and the
detection results are visible to the naked eye. The method simplifies nucleic acid detection
equipment and can achieve high throughput and automation. This method allows for a
simple and low-cost nucleic acid detection technology to be developed for the detection of
large-scale infectious diseases and genetic diseases and greatly reduces laboratory costs.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, S.L.; validation, H.L. and M.W.; formal
analysis, J.R. and Z.C.; investigation, H.C.; resources, Y.D.; data curation, W.P.; writing—original draft
preparation, C.T.; writing—review and editing, C.T., H.L., W.P., M.W., J.R., Z.C., H.C., Y.D. and S.L.;
supervision, H.L.; project administration, S.L.; funding acquisition, S.L. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2021YFE0191400,
2021YFE0200400, 2019YFE0191000), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 61971187,
61871180), Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 2019JJ50122), and Hunan
Key R&D Projects (No. 2021SK2003, 2022SK2115).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Congli Tang, Hongna Liu, Wenjing Pan, Meiling Wang, Jie Ren, Zhu Chen, Hui
Chen, Yan Deng and Song Li are grateful to Hunan University of Technology.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Biosensors 2022, 12, 1075 11 of 11
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