Published AJSJ2106643 Nutman

[AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. 321, JUNE, 2021, P. 643–679, DOI 10.2475/06.2021.
01]
American Journal of Science

JUNE 2021
GEODYNAMIC ENVIRONMENT OF THE CA. 3800 MA OUTER ARC
GROUP, ISUA (GREENLAND)
ALLEN P. NUTMAN*,**,†, CLARK R.L. FRIEND***, VICKIE C. BENNETT§,
MARTIN VAN KRANENDONK**,§§,§§§, and ALLAN R. CHIVAS*,‡
ABSTRACT. The arcuate, 35 km long Isua supracrustal belt (ISB, southern West
Greenland) contains the world's largest remnants of Eoarchean volcanic and sedi-
mentary sequences. The ISB is broadly divided into: (i) the northern Inner Arc Group
of 3720 to 3690 Ma rocks, and (ii) the southern Outer Arc Group of ca. 3800 Ma rocks
which is bounded on its northern side by the highly tectonized ca. 3750 Ma Dividing
Sedimentary Unit. The boundary between the two groups is a mylonite formed
between 3685 and 3660 Ma.
Despite the generally high strain, amphibolite facies metamorphism and layer-par-
allel dislocations that can thin or altogether excise some units, domains of lower de-
formation comprising 1% (qualitative assessment) of the Outer Arc Group contain
relict sedimentary and igneous structures. Combined with zircon U-Pb geochronology
and whole rock geochemistry, this enables the Outer Arc Group lithological sequence
and geodynamic setting to be reconstructed.
The lower part of the Outer Arc Group is dominated by metabasaltic amphibolites
of the Mafic Volcanic formation in which rarely-preserved pillow structures indicate
both their predominantly subaqueous eruption and also their stratigraphic facing.
They erupted .3800 Ma, because they were first intruded by subconcordant sheets
of fine-grained hypabyssal tonalite dated at 380363 Ma (Crowley, 2003) and then by
coarser-grained 3795 to 3791 Ma tonalite-granodiorite, which forms a large deformed
pluton along the south side of the ISB. This formation is succeeded by the
Sedimentary formation whose base consists of discontinuous rare, thin fuchsitic quartz-
ites with 3890 to 3805 Ma detrital zircons. Overlying is a diverse package of dolo-
stones, marls and siliceous rocks. Although they are extensively modified by
metamorphism and metasomatism, producing widespread growth of talc or tremo-
lite, relict graded sedimentary layering, chemical and isotopic signatures indicate
originally sedimentary protoliths. Detrital zircons in these rocks range in age from ca.
3820 to 3805 Ma. This unit shows an upwards transition from ‘pure' chemical sedi-
mentary rocks with distinct seawater-like trace element signatures into lithologies
increasingly contaminated by felsic material that is locally preserved as graded layers,
which are interpreted as an increasing volcanogenic input. Succeeding the sedimen-
tary rocks is the Felsic Volcanic formation, an extensive unit of mostly schistose
* GeoQuEST Research Centre, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Life Sciences, University of
Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
** Australian Centre for Astrobiology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052,
Australia
*** Glendale, Tiddington, Oxon, OX9 2LQ, United Kingdom
§
Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
§§
School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales,
Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia
§§§
Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust Fluid Systems
‡
Department of Earth Sciences and Sprigg Geobiology Centre, The University of Adelaide, SA 5005,
Australia
†
Corresponding author: [email protected]
643
644 A. P. Nutman and Others—Geodynamic environment of the ca. 3800 Ma
3807 to 3802 Ma felsic potassic-altered rocks with carbonate-rich interludes and veins.
Locally-preserved andesitic units with graded layering, massive vesicular lavas, polymict
breccias, resorbed quartz phenocrysts and fiammé, attest to volcanic and volcano-sedi-
mentary protoliths. Whole rock geochemistry and oxygen isotope analyses on these
rocks and their zircons indicate predominantly felsic volcanic protoliths that experi-
enced massive alteration in a surficial environment, probably following subaerial erup-
tion. Massive volcanic rocks are commonest in the west of the ISB, suggesting this part
of the belt was proximal to a volcanic center.
Using these stratigraphic data, we conclude that the ISB volcanic and sedimentary
rocks formed in a mobile geodynamic regime resembling plate tectonics, and not within
a stagnant lid regime.
Key words: Isua supracrustal belt, Outer Arc Group, Eoarchean, stratigraphy,
plate tectonics
introduction
This contribution to a special issue of the American Journal of Science in honor
of Alfred Kröner is on a topic that he pursued throughout his career; the interpreta-
tion of ancient metamorphic rocks. Our paper focusses on Eoarchean rocks (3600–
4000 Ma), which are from the oldest part of the geological record for which diverse
lithologies ranging from sedimentary rocks to mantle peridotites are preserved and
have a known present-day global extent of only <20,000 km2 (Nutman and others,
1996, 2013; S. Mojzsis written communication, 2021).
A key locality for unravelling Eoarchean processes is the Isua supracrustal belt (ISB)
within the Itsaq Gneiss Complex of Greenland (fig. 1; Nutman and others, 1996; Friend
and Nutman, 2019 and references therein). This is because the ISB is the world's largest
preserved body (arcuate in outcrop and ca. 35 km long) of Eoarchean volcanic and sedi-
mentary rocks, and consequently provides key information on early Earth's geodynamics,
surficial processes and the emergence of life (see Nutman and Bennett 2018 and referen-
ces therein for a recent summary). Geological mapping integrated with U-Pb zircon dat-
ing has demonstrated that the ISB contains juxtaposed slices of unrelated supracrustal
rocks ca. 100 million years different in age (fig. 1; Nutman and others, 1993, 1996, 1997,
2002; Crowley and others, 2002; Crowley, 2003; Nutman and Friend, 2009). The belt's
southern portion, which is the focus of this paper, consists of ca. 3800 Ma rocks and is
informally named by us as the Outer Arc Group (Nutman and others, 2020). The belt's
northern section comprises tectonic slices of ca. 3700 Ma rocks named the Inner Arc
Group (fig. 1; Nutman and others, 1996, 1997, 2019, 2020; Nutman and Friend, 2009,
and references therein). Recent publications have mostly focused on the ca. 3700 Ma
Inner Arc Group, because of its greater diversity of preserved volcanic and sedimentary
structures (Nutman and others 1984, 2017, 2019, Appel and others, 2009 and references
therein). Use of the term ‘arc' for both packages of rocks is a deliberate double entendre, to
signify first the arcuate outcrop pattern of these units and secondly our contention they
formed in environments geodynamically congruent with volcanic arcs.
In this paper, we focus on a reconstruction of the Outer Arc Group's ca. 3800 Ma
succession. In the Discussion we compare its similarities and differences with the tectoni-
cally-juxtaposed Inner Arc Group and then explore whether the ISB volcanic and sedi-
mentary rocks formed at convergent plate boundaries in a broadly uniformitarian
geodynamic regime, or if they were the products of a postulated stagnant lid geodynamic
regime proposed by some for the early Earth (for example, Webb and others, 2020).
isua supracrustal belt

All Isua supracrustal belt (ISB) rocks have undergone poly-metamorphism with
the maximum grade ranging from low amphibolite (500–550°C) to middle
Outer Arc Group, Isua (Greenland) 645
Fig. 1. Geological map of the northern end of the Itsaq Gneiss Complex (southern West Greenland).
amphibolite facies (up to 650°C), in different panels separated by Eoarchean mylon-

ites (Boak and Dymek, 1982; Rollinson, 2003; Nutman and others, 2013). This is sig-
nificantly lower metamorphic grade than much of the Itsaq Gneiss Complex, where
Eoarchean upper amphibolite to granulite facies conditions were realized (Griffin
and others, 1980; Nutman and others 1996; Friend and Nutman, 2005). Therefore,
the ISB provides an important window onto the early Earth. The ISB is bounded by in-
trusive complexes, with most contacts tectonically modified (Bridgwater and
McGregor, 1974; Nutman and Friend, 2009). The intrusive complex to the south is
dominated by ca. 3800 Ma tonalite protoliths and that to the north by ca. 3700 Ma to-
nalite protoliths invaded by copious 3650 to 3640 Ma granite sheets (Nutman and
others, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000; Crowley and others, 2002; Crowley, 2003; Nutman and
Friend, 2009). To the west, the belt is in tectonic contact with Mesoarchean rocks,
whilst eastwards it is obscured by the Inland Ice.
Primary volcanic and sedimentary structures have survived in only a few places,
and the compositional layering in both the volcanic and sedimentary rocks is mostly
of transposed tectonic origin (Nutman and others, 1984; Myers, 2001). The most com-
mon relict structures are pillows within mafic volcanic rocks, and more rarely, relict
bedding which is found in cherts, banded iron-formation(BIF) and dolomite-rich
rocks, together with graded bedding in felsic volcano-sedimentary rocks (for example,
Nutman and others, 1984; 1997, 2007a, 2016, 2017; Komiya and others, 1999; Rosing,
1999; Solvang, 1999; Furnes and others, 2007).
the outer arc group

Geological Mapping and Field Relationships
Figure 2 is a representation of the Outer Arc Group. From bottom to top (based
on relict indicators of facing direction) here we informally divide the group into the
Mafic Volcanic, Sedimentary and the Felsic Volcanic formations. We stress that figure
2 does not show a classic stratigraphic measured section, but instead schematically
portrays lithological and age relationships, and the contrasts between the Outer Arc
Group in the western and eastern parts of the ISB. Figure 3 is a geological map of the
western end of the ISB, where the majority of rarely-preserved primary lithological fea-
tures in the Outer Arc Group are found (location on fig. 1).
From the earliest investigations of the Isua supracrustal belt, lateral symmetry of lith-
ologies was noted, including a median unit of felsic schists flanked by mafic rocks, perido-
tites and rocks of definite sedimentary origin such as magnetite-rich banded iron
formation (fig. 1; for example, Keto and Kurki, 1967; Allaart, 1976). With the paucity of
precise and accurate U-Pb zircon geochronology in the early 1980s (Baadsgaard, 1976;
Baadsgaard and others, 1986a), a single stratigraphy was erected, which was recognized
as being disrupted by early Archean tectonic breaks (Nutman and others, 1984). By the
early 1990s however, with more accurate single grain U-Pb zircon geochronology, it was
discovered that the belt is composite, with a northern ca. 3700 Ma portion and a southern
ca. 3800 Ma portion (as termed here the Inner and Outer Arc Groups; Nutman and
others, 1993, 1996, 2002, 2020; Nutman and Friend, 2009).
The median unit of felsic schist (380662 Ma; Compston and others, 1986) lies
within what is here defined as the Outer Arc Group and is flanked on either side by
carbonate-bearing and quartz-rich lithologies, then along much of its margins by an
ultramafic schist unit, and then by amphibolites with thinner ultramafic schist and sili-
ceous schist units. Strain in all these rocks is high, and it is only in exceptional circum-
stances (particularly in the hinge regions of folds) that primary igneous and
sedimentary structures are preserved. In fact, fewer of these features are preserved
than in the ca. 3700 Ma Inner Arc Group to the north.
In the outer flanking amphibolites, rarely-preserved pillow structures in metaba-
salts face upwards towards the median felsic schist unit (figs. 2 and 4A). This confirms
that the median felsic schist unit is in an early isoclinal fold closure (Allaart, 1976;
Nutman and others, 2002). Recently-discovered, relict, sedimentary and volcanic
structures in the carbonate-bearing and quartz-rich lithologies in the Sedimentary
and Felsic Volcanic formations yield consistent facing directions (fig. 2, and see
below).
Fig. 2. Schematic section illustrating lithological sequence and geochronology for the Outer Arc
Group of the Isua supracrustal belt.
Mafic Volcanic Formation

The base of this formation is not seen, but in the ca. 3800 Ma tonalites south of
the ISB there are enclaves of similar amphibolites, layered gabbros and ultramafic
rocks, indicating that a substantial lower part of it is missing from the ISB. This
Fig. 3. Geological map of the western termination of the Isua supracrustal belt. This map is compiled
from more detailed mapping undertaken in 1981 and 2017.
formation is composed of amphibolites with ultramafic schists and siliceous layers and
is .3800 Ma because it is cut by discordant sheets of tonalite/granodiorite, that have
U-Pb zircon ages of 379164 and 380363 Ma (figs. 2 and 3; Nutman and others, 1996;
Crowley, 2003). The amphibolite mineralogy is predominantly hornblende 1 plagio-
clase 6 quartz 6 biotite, with only rare garnet. The rocks are devoid of felsic
Fig. 4. Outcrop photographs of the Mafic Volcanic formation and the Sedimentary formation. (A)
Example of basalt pillow structures, with carbonate-rich interstitial infill preserved within the Mafic
Volcanic formation. Pen is 12 cm long. (B) Ultramafic schists of picritic composition with carbonate alter-
ation at the top of the Mafic Volcanic formation. The arrow indicates the position of a thin fuchsite
quartzite (sample G93/25) at the base of tectonically-thinned Sedimentary formation. Person for scale in
the middle of the picture. (C) Thin siliceous banded iron formation horizon (BIF) within the Mafic
Volcanic formation. It is intruded by a fine-grained tonalite sheet (ton), lithologically the same as one ca.
100 m to the north dated as 380363 Ma (Crowley, 2003). People for scale at top of the picture. (D) Best-
preserved dolostone (dol) within the sedimentary formation. At 1 to 2 m to the left (labelled c-s), meta-
morphic reactions between quartz and dolomite layers have produced coarser-grained rocks rich in calc-
silicates. Yellow A5 notebook for scale at right hand side of picture. (E) Rodded fuchsite-rich quartzites in
a fold hinge. Unlike quartzite sample G93/25 (above), this rock did not yield zircons and is regarded as a
deformed quartz vein. Field of view approximately 2 metres wide. (F) Very rare low-strain zone in the
Sedimentary formation. Whilst showing small folds and the effects of minor displacements sub-parallel to
the axial surfaces, quartz-rich layers grade into dolomite-bearing layers, across repeated cycles at this out-
crop. Proposed facing direction is shown by the red arrow. Pen is 15 cm long.
Fig. 5. Geochemistry of the Mafic Volcanic formation. (A) Primitive mantle (McDonough and Sun,
1995) normalized trace element plot using data of Jenner and others (2009). (B) Th/Yb – Nb/Yb plot.
(C) Mg/Si – Al/Si (wt proportions) for the Mafic Volcanic formation rocks, in comparison with mantle
peridotites and layered ultramafic cumulates from south of the Isua supracrustal belt (data from Friend
and others, 2002).
segregations, indicating peak metamorphism at lower to middle amphibolite facies

conditions. Based on sporadic preservation of pillow structures throughout (fig. 4A),
the amphibolites are interpreted to have had predominantly subaqueous basalt proto-
liths (Nutman and others, 1984; Jenner and others, 2009). Detailed geochemical stud-
ies of these amphibolites by several researchers (table 1; Polat and Hofmann; 2003;
TABLE 1
Whole rock data
a a a a a a a a a a a
sample G05/07 G93/23 JG03/39 JG03/40a JG03/42 JG03/63 JG03/41 JG03/43 JG03/45 JG03/46 JG03/48 JG03/49 JG03/50
lithology ultramafic ultramafic high-Mg basalt enriched enriched enriched basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt
schist (picrite) schist (picrite)
affinity Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm.
age (Ma) >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803
lat. (N) 65°09.84' 65°05.07' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.09' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11'
long. (W) 49°48.91 50°10.45 50°10.47 50°10.47 50°10.41 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46
SiO2 39.68 43.57 42.4 47.3 49.6 51.3 51.4 53.1 52.7 50.8 51.7 51.2 52.6
TiO2 0.10 0.09 0.53 0.94 0.94 0.97 0.99 1.01 0.97 0.87 0.76 0.75 0.77
Al2O3 5.97 5.71 8.6 13.2 13.5 10.3 14.6 14.5 14.5 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.5
Fe2O3 10.28 8.60 13.2 11.2 11.5 14.3 11.4 12.3 11.5 13.6 13 12.9 12.2
FeO
MnO 0.17 0.14 0.21 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.21
MgO 34.34 27.06 21.4 7.3 7 9.7 5 5.2 5.3 12 11.4 11.4 10.9
CaO 1.77 5.51 8.4 11.1 10 9.8 7 6.5 8 10.6 10.6 10.7 10.8
Na2O 0.09 0.15 0.47 3.79 3.98 2.78 5.18 4.27 4.67 1.61 1.77 1.81 2.14
K2O 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.58 0.55 0.19 0.25 1.15 0.13 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16
P2O5 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.41 0.33 0.12 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
LOI 6.94 8.74
SO3 0.04 0.01
total 99.40 99.59 95.4 96 97.6 99.7 98.8 98.2 98.1 99 98.9 98.6 99.3
trace elements
Cr 1825 285 234 557 80 63 83 974 960 986 975
Ni 1731 1419 685 86.6 76.1 340 69.8 60 70.7 257 250 258 244
V
Rb 0.42 0.32 0.35 30.24 23.22 1.06 3.79 40.05 0.53 1.43 1.52 1.49 1.13
Sr 48.7 66.2 35.4 300 282 492 229 178 265 101 122 127 173
Ba 3.94 4.43 2 195 148 108.3 52.9 219 11.5 41 45.3 41.8 49.5
Y 4.10 4.64 12.1 23.9 23.2 15 21.7 23.7 21.2 16.3 15.9 15.8 15.8
Nb 0.08 0.06 1.46 4.41 4.05 6.43 3.73 3.83 3.54 2.35 2.33 2.27 2.42
Zr 4.84 4.23 28.1 120 111 79.4 90.4 94.5 87.3 65.2 63.7 62.4 64.5
Hf 0.18 0.16 0.84 3.17 2.92 1.97 2.39 2.48 2.33 1.76 1.72 1.69 1.78
Ta 0.01 0.00 0.1 0.23 0.22 0.4 0.25 0.26 0.24 0.17 0.16 0.17 0.17
Pb
Th 0.02 0.01 0.32 9.17 7.74 0.72 1.28 1.33 1.22 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.94
U 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.98 0.84 0.15 0.3 0.32 0.26 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.2
La 0.30 0.17 2.74 35.8 31.4 18.6 7.79 8.72 8.29 4.74 4.29 4.64 4.64
Ce 0.20 0.23 6.27 81.9 71.2 44.3 19.7 21.3 19.9 12.5 11.6 12.1 12.2
Outer Arc Group, Isua (Greenland)
Pr 0.03 0.03 1.04 10.85 9.42 5.84 2.82 3.01 2.79 1.85 1.75 1.8 1.81
Nd 0.16 0.19 5.09 46.6 40.8 24.4 13 13.8 12.9 9.03 8.52 8.82 8.76
Sm 0.08 0.11 1.57 10.14 8.87 4.55 3.53 3.69 3.39 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.63
Eu 0.04 0.07 0.67 2.67 2.34 1.32 1.13 1.13 1.09 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.83
Gd 0.26 0.35 2 8.19 7.43 3.97 4.11 4.3 3.97 3.25 3.2 3.17 3.15
Tb 0.07 0.09 0.37 1.07 1.02 0.59 0.7 0.75 0.68 0.57 0.55 0.55 0.56
Dy 0.56 0.69 2.24 5.11 4.91 3.1 4.19 4.43 3.96 3.23 3.19 3.14 3.23
Ho 0.14 0.17 0.47 0.91 0.89 0.59 0.85 0.92 0.81 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63
Er 0.50 0.55 1.35 2.37 2.34 1.6 2.45 2.65 2.36 1.83 1.77 1.7 1.77
Tm
Yb 0.56 0.65 1.32 2.04 2.02 1.37 2.29 2.46 2.26 1.58 1.55 1.58 1.57
Lu 0.09 0.10 0.19 0.28 0.28 0.2 0.34 0.36 0.32 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.22
methods XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA
ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU
651
TABLE 1
652
(continued)
a a a a a a a a b
sample JG03/52 JG03/53 JG03/54 JG03/55 JG03/57 JG03/60 JG03/62 JG03/64 170728 G17/40 G17/40 G12/84 G17/55
lithology basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt basalt dolostone dolostone whole carbonate analysis carbonate analysis carbonate analysis
rock
affinity Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Mafic Volcanic fm. Sedimentary fm. Sedimentary fm. Sedimentary fm. Sedimentary fm
age (Ma) >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 >3803 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805
lat. (N) 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.11' 65°05.10' 65°05.10' 65°05.18' 65°05.45' 65°05.45' 65°05.45' 65°05.45' 65°05.45'
long. (W) 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.46 50°10.37 50°10.38 50°10.67 50°07.04 50°07.04 50°07.04 50°07.04 50°07.04
SiO2 51.1 51.3 51.3 52.8 53.1 59 47.7 52.5 3.19
TiO2 0.78 0.74 0.76 0.77 0.89 0.8 0.97 0.74 0.02
Al2O3 9.4 9.5 9 9.3 11.1 11.3 9.7 9.3 0.04
Fe2O3 13.3 13.2 12.3 12.6 12.4 9 16.3 12 0.06
FeO 3.47
MnO 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.25 0.15 0.29 0.21 0.24
MgO 11.5 11.4 10.8 11.2 8.3 4.9 10.5 12.1 22.84
CaO 10.4 10.6 11.2 10.5 8.9 9.1 9.8 9.9 23.51
Na2O 1.84 1.9 1.71 1.68 3.43 3.5 2.07 1.59 <0.01
K2O 0.21 0.22 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.01
P2O5 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.05 n.d.
LOI 44.95
SO3
total 98.8 99.1 97.6 99.3 98.6 98 97.5 98.6 98.33
trace elements
Cr 994 921 915 929 276 231 316 1094 24 5
Ni 256 244 228 240 99.2 73.7 273 326 n.d. 20.3 13.0
V 4 0.53
Rb 2.77 2.83 1.32 1.05 1.18 0.96 0.76 2.58 0.7 0.09
Sr 138 161 140 135 193 222 70.1 154 141 65.1
Ba 66.2 76.1 43.5 41.3 37 34.8 10.4 53.3 14 20
Y 16.9 16.4 15.9 15.7 18.6 18.5 19.3 15.6 11.6 6.8 9.38 2.02 2.70
Nb 2.31 2.22 2.42 2.28 2.46 2.27 2.49 2.39 0.21 0.09
Zr 65.3 62.5 63.8 64.9 69.4 62.5 75.2 64.8 0.8 0.4
Hf 1.79 1.63 1.69 1.72 1.88 1.68 2.01 1.73 0.2 0.09
Ta 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.17 0.03 0.04
Pb 35.1
Th 0.94 0.87 0.9 0.9 0.83 0.74 0.87 0.97 0.07 0.09 0.00
U 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.21 0.03 0.09 0.00
La 5.04 5.74 4.7 4.65 4.71 6.39 4.02 6.13 2 2.2 0.75 1.00 1.43
Ce 13 14.2 12 11.5 12.2 15.2 11.1 15 2.84 2.44 0.82 0.86 2.57
Pr 1.93 2.03 1.77 1.73 1.85 2.18 1.73 2.14 0.46 0.26 0.10 0.09 0.33
Nd 9.46 9.73 8.61 8.37 9.31 10.6 8.84 10.1 1.97 1.1 0.48 0.35 1.38
Sm 2.84 2.77 2.56 2.54 2.9 2.94 2.8 2.73 0.67 0.25 0.17 0.09 0.35
Eu 0.95 0.95 1.02 0.8 0.88 1.2 1.03 0.87 0.56 0.23 0.27 0.11 0.28
Gd 3.41 3.26 3.07 3.09 3.58 3.66 3.58 3.18 0.81 0.41 0.42 0.14 0.46
Tb 0.59 0.56 0.54 0.54 0.63 0.61 0.63 0.53 0.11 0.05 0.07 0.02 0.07
Dy 3.37 3.21 3.1 3.07 3.63 3.57 3.72 3.06 0.89 0.4 0.54 0.10 0.38
Ho 0.68 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.73 0.7 0.75 0.61 0.21 0.11 0.14 0.03 0.07
Er 1.86 1.73 1.72 1.7 2.04 1.98 2.13 1.7 0.58 0.3 0.42 0.07 0.18
Tm 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.02
Yb 1.66 1.55 1.54 1.5 1.83 1.72 1.91 1.52 0.56 0.29 0.40 0.06 0.15
Lu 0.24 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.27 0.25 0.27 0.22 0.09 0.04 0.06 0.01 0.02
A. P. Nutman and Others—Geodynamic environment of the ca. 3800 Ma
methods XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-Cph XRF-UOW
ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ALS ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU
TABLE 1
(continued)
c c c c c
sample G17/47 G17/49 G17/44 G17/52A G17/52B G17/56 G17/59 G17/66 G93/24 G04/68 G04/69 248203 G11/78
lithology dolostone dolostone layered sediment layered sediment layered sediment felsic schist felsic schist felsic schist felsic schist felsic schist felsic schist felsic schist clast felsic schist matrix
affinity Sedimentary fm. Sedimentary fm. Sedimentary fm. Sedimentary fm. Sedimentary fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm.
age (Ma) ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 3802±5 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 3806±2 ca. 3805
lat. (N) 65°06.89' 65°06.89' 65°07.13' 65°07.00' 65°07.00' 65°06.90' 65°06.97' 65°06.97' 65°09.46' 65°09.46' 65°05.76' 65°05.76'
long. (W) 50°13.03 50°13.03 50°13.07 50°12.78 50°12.78 50°12.75 50°12.23 50°12.23 49°49.96 49°49.96 50°00.39 50°00.39
SiO2 21.44 38.24 74.59 55.32 28.29 51.48 62.7 64.69 62.58 66.45 66.71 68.92 49.57
TiO2 0.19 0.16 0.01 0.07 0.07 0.34 0.47 0.51 0.56 0.45 0.55 0.44 0.26
Al2O3 4.55 3.8 0.39 1.16 1.87 18.18 15.4 16.44 15.99 14.83 15.24 15.30 8.73
Fe2O3 11.96 10.59 6.61 5.91 9.27 9.25 4.7 3.4 4.62 3.32 3.35 0.69 5.69
FeO
MnO 0.6 0.39 0.32 0.44 0.73 0.1 0.18 0.08 0.08 0.14 0.16 0.02 0.39
MgO 9.61 7.38 3.26 5.64 8.99 10.99 2.58 1.41 2.10 2.19 1.89 0.69 4.61
CaO 19.82 15.47 8.06 12.38 19.83 3.02 5.31 2.68 4.47 4.48 3.83 0.84 11.91
Na2O 0.55 0.24 < 0.020 0.09 0.45 0.54 0.26 0.25 0.27 0.12 0.19 0.58 0.18
K2O 1.23 0.96 0.01 0.32 0.36 3.57 8.05 9.23 5.76 4.71 5.42 11.09 4.64
P2O5 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.16 0.15 0.22 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.11
LOI 28.85 22.08 6.35 17.99 29.53 2.33 0 1.02 3.13 3.06 2.40 1.03 12.06
SO3 0.44 0.19 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.01 0.02 0.02
total 99.29 99.54 99.93 99.66 99.76 99.83 99.82 99.86 99.76 99.87 99.90 99.78 98.16
trace elements
Cr 1450 1290 153 692 611 190 118 77 56.0 47.0 57.2 29.5 47.2
Ni 2000 1080 98.5 260 386 228 25.9 23.8 12.3
V 81 68 5 25 28 189 53 56 69.4 57.8 61.3 43.2
Rb 35.1 32.3 0.3 7.4 9 88.5 122 141 132 95 100 116 88
Sr 61.7 30.9 24 9.4 15.6 36.3 64.4 36.3 46.0 30.1 21.1 18.1 24.19
Ba 280 90 9 80 120 450 550 420 505 63.5 42.4 1230 652
Y 5.7 5.3 2.2 1.6 2.6 5.6 10.2 10.4 10.7 8.13 9.27 5.48 5.53
Nb 3.1 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.9 5.3 5.5 4.90 4.35 4.41 4.71 2.63
Zr 9.8 6.3 2 3.1 3.3 19.9 136.5 160 146 118 110 138 73.9
Hf 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.7 3.7 4.4 3.79 2.94 2.77 3.52 2.05
Ta 0.17 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.11 0.35 0.37 0.88 1.22 0.62 1.34 0.29
Pb 17.8 13.5 1.2 532 17.9 22.6 19.3 17.3 7.83
Th 0.27 0.08 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.34 5.57 6.53 7.13 4.93 4.65 4.79 2.68
U 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.1 1 1.2 1.31 0.71 0.63 0.66 0.527
La 2.7 1 0.5 0.5 0.7 1.9 31 33.4 33.2 23.1 24.2 28.6 19.6
Ce 5.22 2.12 0.97 0.53 1.61 3.87 64.1 70 70.7 49.0 50.4 63.3 36.1
Pr 0.69 0.31 0.14 0.07 0.24 0.51 7.69 8.14 8.65 5.74 5.90 7.48 3.98
Nd 3.3 1.6 0.6 0.4 1.2 2.4 29.1 30.5 33.2 21.7 22.5 26.8 15.9
Sm 0.84 0.52 0.16 0.13 0.32 0.7 4.33 4.47 5.60 3.69 3.77 4.23 2.59
Eu 0.41 0.22 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.21 1.09 1.03 1.34 0.94 0.96 0.77 0.69
Gd 1.00 0.73 0.23 0.19 0.38 0.78 3.01 3.08 3.51 2.51 2.54 2.24 1.4
Tb 0.15 0.13 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.14 0.36 0.38 0.47 0.36 0.37 0.29 0.21
Dy 0.97 0.81 0.25 0.22 0.38 0.91 1.94 2.11 2.34 1.71 1.99 1.20 1.04
Ho 0.2 0.18 0.06 0.05 0.08 0.22 0.35 0.36 0.41 0.31 0.37 0.19 0.23
Er 0.54 0.52 0.18 0.16 0.23 0.71 0.97 0.95 1.01 0.74 0.90 0.56 0.48
Tm 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.11 0.14 0.14 0.07
Yb 0.47 0.47 0.19 0.14 0.25 0.83 0.87 0.9 0.92 0.55 1.02 0.52 0.42
Lu 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.08 0.16 0.08 0.05
methods XRF-UOW XRF-UOW XRF-UOW XRF-UOW XRF-UOW XRF-UOW XRF-UOW XRF-UOW XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-Cph XRF-GA
ICP-ALS ICP-ALS ICP-ALS ICP-ALS ICP-ALS ICP-ALS ICP-ALS ICP-ALS ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU
653
TABLE 1
654
(continued)
c c c d d d
sample G11/79 G11/76 G11/77 G97/102 229461 229464 225951 225937 229459 225932 292128 G97/18 G97/38
lithology felsic schist matrix felsic schist clast felsic schist clast felsic schist hypabyssal tonalite hypabyssal tonalite hypabyssal tonalite hypabyssal tonalite hypabyssal tonalite hypabyssal tonalite southern quartz southern tonalite southern tonalite
diorite
affinity Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm. Felsic Volcanic fm Felsic Volcanic fm. intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion
age (Ma) ca. 3805 ca. 3805 ca. 3805 3807±6 ca. 3803 ca. 3803 ca. 3803 ca. 3803 ca. 3803 ca. 3803 3806±5 3808±4 3811±6
lat. (N) 65°05.76' 65°05.76' 65°05.76' 65°05.18' 65°00.63' 65°00.63'
long. (W) 50°00.39 50°00.39 50°00.39 50°09.23 50°15.04 50°15.04
SiO2 47.39 62.34 61.25 67.12 65.49 67.15 65.6 66.59 64.69 54.73 69.79 70.13
TiO2 0.26 0.46 0.40 0.44 0.46 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.91 0.25 0.25
Al2O3 8.48 15.49 12.86 15.69 15.18 15.45 15.53 15.84 15.37 19.1 16.7 16.74
Fe2O3 6.32 1.08 3.00 0.39 0.52 0.4 0.77 0.56 0.77 7.16 2.12 2.05
FeO 2.27 3.16 2.8 2.54 2.66 2.88
MnO 0.43 0.07 0.15 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.06 0.09 0.1 0.03 0.03
MgO 5.08 0.68 1.88 1.39 1.69 1.38 1.43 1.39 1.53 3.37 0.94 0.89
CaO 12.90 3.16 5.04 3.45 3.71 3.58 3.62 3.56 3.81 7.71 3.94 3.93
Na2O 0.29 0.47 0.15 3.6 3.48 4.7 3.5 3.93 3.75 4.87 5.22 5.33
K2O 4.63 11.46 7.16 1.08 1.81 1.58 2.45 2.34 2.41 1.28 0.93 0.98
P2O5 0.11 0.23 0.15 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.29 0.08 0.07
LOI 13.49 3.36 5.61 2.34 2.91 1.72 3.73 2.29 3.04
SO3 0.19 0.01 0.01
total 99.37 98.81 97.64 97.92 98.61 99.34 99.81 99.81 98.93 99.81 100.07 100.46
trace elements
Cr 42.8 69 42.5 80 25 59 22 24 19 32
Ni 9.9 11.4 10.4 12 26 11 13 10 11 44 17 15
V 40 47 55 46 45 49 46 115 21 19
Rb 105 120 99.4 85.1 30 49 67 64 57 69 35 31 37
Sr 31.5 15.4 16.4 65.9 351 343 399 301 256 269 642 429 431
Ba 540 599 971 221 307 392 453 323 361 341 163 100 122
Y 6.35 8.08 6.39 5.9 13 12 14 11 10 12 18.2 2.9 3
Nb 3.01 4.92 3.7 4.4 4 6 6 6 5 3 5.6 1.3 1.3
Zr 80.5 116 103 139 145 142 130 121 115 120 54 121 125
Hf 2.23 3.06 2.84 3.6 1.8 3.2 3.4
Ta 0.324 0.50 0.46 0.4 0.51 0.21 0.2
Pb 9.62 15.7 12.2 600 17 13 10 17 17 15 15.2 6.5 9
Th 3.15 4.29 3.6 5.43 5 8 8 9 7 8 1.31 0.77 0.79
U 0.656 1.40 0.70 1.42 1.05 0.32 0.33
La 22.6 32.2 25.8 18.1 20.2 5.81 5.17
Ce 43.4 61.3 49 35 53.6 11.4 10.3
Pr 4.74 6.77 5.28 4.08 8.29 1.48 1.31
Nd 18.3 27 21.2 14.8 37.4 6.05 5.89
Sm 2.9 4.13 3.28 2.35 7.41 1.3 1.38
Eu 0.83 0.96 0.88 0.52 1.94 0.48 0.45
Gd 1.97 2.43 1.97 1.61 5.19 0.91 0.98
Tb 0.22 0.33 0.30 0.21 0.66 0.13 0.19
Dy 1.23 1.46 1.26 0.96 3.63 0.63 0.56
Ho 0.25 0.29 0.22 0.21 0.68 0.12 0.1
Er 0.56 0.69 0.61 0.63 1.74 0.27 0.26
Tm 0.07 0.12 0.09 0.09
Yb 0.53 0.61 0.56 0.62 1.52 0.28 0.3
A. P. Nutman and Others—Geodynamic environment of the ca. 3800 Ma
Lu 0.06 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.2 0.039 0.035

methods XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-Cph XRF-Cph XRF-Cph XRF-Cph XRF-Cph XRF-Cph XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA
ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU
TABLE 1
(continued)
d d d d
sample G97/31 G93/44 G97/97 G97/98 225943 225841 225909
lithology southern tonalite southern tonalite southern southern southern southern southern
granodiorite granodiorite granodiorite granodiorite granodiorite
affinity intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion intrusion
age (Ma) 3809±8 3806±8 ca. 3795 3795±3 ca. 3795 ca. 3795 ca. 3795
lat. (N) 65°00.75' 65°04.89' 65°04.89'
long. (W) 50°13.08 50°10.66 50°10.66
SiO2 66.79 70.02 71.75 69.23 70.69 68.04 71.47
TiO2 0.31 0.27 0.3 0.33 0.32 0.38 0.26
Al2O3 17.93 16.45 15.1 16.19 15.75 15.27 14.9
Fe2O3 2.36 1.95 2.47 2.61 0.43 1.31 0.29
FeO 1.87 1.74 1.69
MnO 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.04
MgO 1.2 0.96 0.71 0.96 0.71 1.45 0.63
CaO 5.02 3.57 2.82 3.44 3.11 3.35 2.52
Na2O 5.4 5.14 4.73 4.89 5.03 4.28 4.71
K2O 0.79 1.08 1.86 1.66 1.23 2.24 2.27
P2O5 0.07 0.08 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.13 0.08
LOI 0.59 1.66 0.66
SO3 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.09
total 100.00 99.66 99.86 99.53 99.86 99.81 99.52
trace elements
Cr 10 30 16
Ni 18 12 12 17 2 16 5
V 26 19 17 22 18 39 18
Rb 26 53 78 72 51 73 71
Sr 469 394 236 294 483 466 258
Ba 87 136 212 204 399 520 331
Y 3.5 1.4 8.6 16.3 6 13 9
Nb 1.2 1.6 4.3 3.8 7 7 6
Zr 115 109 124 86 180 108 103
Hf 2.9 3 3.6 2.7
Ta 0.16 0.26 0.45 0.81
Pb 10.3 12 13.9 15.1 16 16 18
Th 4.83 4.23 21.6 15
U 9.8 7.7 41.1 25
La 1.38 0.9 4.68 3.34
Ce 6.18 3.37 16.6 13.5
Pr 1.23 0.64 2.81 2.92

Nd 0.54 0.37 0.74 0.65
Sm 1.14 0.47 1.93 2.79
Eu 0.15 0.05 0.28 0.39
Gd 0.75 0.29 1.58 2.86
Tb 0.11 0.06 0.29 0.54
Dy 0.3 0.15 0.92 1.58
Ho
Er 0.29 0.17 0.88 1.62
Tm 0.045 0.027 0.13 0.25
Yb 4.83 4.23 21.6 15
Lu 9.8 7.7 41.1 25
methods XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-GA XRF-Cph XRF-Cph XRF-Cph
ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU ICP-ANU
GPS positions according to the WGS84 datum. Samples without GPS positions were collected 1974-1993.
Methods: XRF-GA = XRF at Geoscience Australia; ICP-ANU = ICPMS at the Australian National University; XRF-Cph = XRF at the Geoscience Institute, Copenhagen; NA-
655
Risø = Neutron activation at the Risø reactor facility, Denmark; XRF-UOW = XRF at the University of Wollongong; ICP-ALS = ICP at ALS (Brisbane).
a from Jenner and others (2009); b from Nutman and others (2010), c from Nutman and others (2015), d from Nutman and others (1999).
Jenner and others, 2009; Hoffmann and others, 2011a) have revealed an enrichment
of the light rare earth elements (REE) versus the heavy REE and the presence of dis-
tinct negative Ti, Nb and Ta anomalies in primitive mantle-normalized trace element
plots (fig. 5A; using data of Jenner and others, 2009).
The associated ultramafic schist units have been much less studied. This is
because the most prominent unit near the structural (and stratigraphic) top of the
formation has been largely metasomatized/altered, including carbonate and calc-sili-
cate veins that formed via the injection of CO2-rich fluids that caused the growth of
coarse-grained secondary carbonate and calc-silicate minerals (fig. 4B; for example,
Nutman and others, 1984; Rosing and others, 1996). However large pods in these
ultramafic schist units are, in fact, massive and dominated by amphibole 6 chlorite
and devoid of obvious metasomatic effects such as carbonate and calc-silicate veins. At
one locality near the western termination of the belt (65°06.891'N 50°12.681'W) possi-
ble relict pillow structure is present in a lacuna within these ultramafic schists. Two
samples of homogeneous massive mafic schists (G93/23 and G05/07) from the west-
ern and eastern ends of the belt, respectively, have remarkably similar whole rock
major and trace element compositions (table 1), indicating that they still preserve
some original signatures of their igneous protoliths. These schists have high MgO
(.25 wt%) and modest Al2O3 (.5 wt%; table 1), and plot on the high Al/Si side of
primitive mantle compositions on the Mg/Si versus Al/Si diagram (fig. 5C). Based on
these data, the rocks do not lie on the variably-depleted mantle trend, as found for
³3800 Ma peridotites ca. 10 km south of the Isua supracrustal belt described by Friend
and others (2002; fig. 5C). Instead they have higher Al/Si, typical of magmatic rocks
derived from the mantle, such as Isua 3700 Ma picrite and 3800 Ma layered gabbros
ca. 10 km south of Isua (fig. 5C; data from Friend and others, 2002; D'Andres and
others, 2019).
One of the thin siliceous units within the Mafic Volcanic formation is exposed
over .5 km west of lake 678 m (maps in Nutman and Friend, 2009). This siliceous
unit is magnetite-bearing with low TiO2 (0.01 wt%) and Al2O3 (0.24 wt%; Nutman
and Friend, unpublished data) and is interpreted as originating from a siliceous
banded iron formation protolith (see the Appendix for a summary of zircon geochro-
nology on the sample G07/02 -04 from this unit, published in Nutman and others,
2009). At 65°05.28'N 50°10.75'W (fig. 3) this unit is intruded by a very fine-grained to-
nalite sheet (fig. 4C), resembling one <100 m to the north dated at 3803 6 3 Ma by
Crowley (2003). Therefore, these thin laterally continuous siliceous units are inter-
preted as sedimentary in origin with an age of .380363 Ma, and to represent breaks
in basaltic volcanism when deep marine background sedimentation occurred.
Alternatively, if they mark cryptic, layer-parallel tectonic breaks within the volcanic
pile, then tectonism must have occurred at ³3803 Ma, because the tonalite sheet at
the G07/02, -04 locality is not sheared.
Mafic Volcanic Formation Upper Boundary and the Sedimentary Formation

Along much of its strike, the upper part of the Mafic Volcanic formation com-
prises the thickest unit of ultramafic schists with a likely picritic protolith. The upper
boundary of this unit is marked by seams of siliceous and carbonate rich rocks. Some
of the siliceous rocks are interpreted as quartz veins, which commonly bear fuchsite
(Cr-bearing muscovite) with the chromium being derived from the adjacent ultra-
mafic schists. Samples of likely vein origin, such as the one shown in figure 4E (65°
06.89'N 50°13.03'W), yielded no zircons. Mineral exploration companies have found
sub-economic gold mineralization associated with the fuchsite-bearing veins. At other
localities, thin (<2 m wide) discontinuous quartz-rich rocks such as G93/25 at the
margin of underlying ultramafic schists (fig. 4B) have yielded oscillatory-zoned
zircons, with ages from 3890 to 3805 Ma and are interpreted as having sedimentary
protoliths (Nutman and Collerson, 1991; Nutman and others, 2009). Detailed map-
ping throughout the ISB (condensed in fig. 3 and maps of the entire belt in Nutman
and Friend, 2009) shows that this boundary, together with the seams of locally miner-
alized quartz veins and rarer detrital quartzite, truncates an ultramafic schist and am-
phibolite contact in the underlying unit. Given the presence of both detrital
quartzites and tectonized, mineralized quartz veins at this contact, our preferred inter-
pretation is that it was originally an angular unconformity, which has been tectonically
modified, in many places to the extent of excision of lithologic units. The strong com-
petency of the adjoining units would be a likely reason for strain partitioning along
this boundary.
Also associated with the rare detrital quartzites at the base of the Sedimentary for-
mation are discontinuous units of carbonate and carbonate 1 calc-silicate rocks whose
thickness varies considerably along strike. In the cores of folds at the western termina-
tion of the belt outcrops are locally .100 m wide (fig. 3), whereas on fold limbs, they
are reduced considerably in thickness, and may be entirely excized. The variable char-
acter of this unit is because its abundance in carbonate makes it extremely ductile
and, combined with the presence of quartz, there is very widespread development of
coarse-grained calc-silicate minerals, obliterating early textures.
The origin of these carbonate-rich rocks has been debated for several decades,
with some workers suggesting all ISB carbonate-bearing lithologies are mafic and fel-
sic silicate rocks that were strongly modified by Eoarchean carbonation (for example,
Rosing and others, 1996; Myers, 2001). Others, whilst agreeing that metasomatism has
left a substantial imprint on many ISB rocks, argue there are also present relicts of sed-
imentary carbonate rocks (Allaart, 1976; Nutman and others 1984, 2010, 2019). The
latter authors point out that CO2 metasomatism is a widespread feature of most meta-
morphosed and deformed volcanic and sedimentary rocks, and that the presence of
metasomatic carbonate veins and calc-silicate mineralization does not preclude that
sedimentary carbonate protoliths may also be present; all that metasomatic processes
do is to make it more difficult to unravel the protoliths. A key problem caused by the
superimposed amphibolite facies metamorphism is that if carbonate sedimentary
rocks also contained silicate phases, then unless intergranular H2O-rich fluid is
excluded, the silicates and carbonates will react together to give calc-silicate minerals.
If silicates and carbonate are present in the correct proportion, then at ³500°C the
influx of H2O-rich fluid will result in massive amphibole rocks, which in the field
superficially resemble altered mafic igneous rocks.
1974 to 1975 mapping by the late J. H. Allaart recognized elongate lenses of mas-
sive dolomite rock (fig. 4D) in the western part of the belt (65°05.46'N 50°07.04'W).
These rocks occur in a <20 m broad belt of mixed calc-silicate and carbonate rocks
between ultramafic schists to the north and the laterally-continuous felsic schist unit
(Felsic Volcanic formation) to the south (fig. 3). Allaart's original dolomite rock sam-
ple (170728, table 1) has very low SiO2 (3.19 wt%), Al2O3 (0.04 wt%), TiO2 (0.02 wt
%) with Rb/Sr <0.005 and a PAAS-normalized REE1Y trace element signature resem-
bling that of seawater throughout Earth' s history (fig. 6A). This led Nutman and
others (2010) to conclude this is a rare relict dolostone sedimentary rock. More trace
element analyses from the dolomite rocks at this locality confirm the consistency of
the REE1Y seawater-like trace element signature (fig. 6A). Additionally, the dolo-
stone's d13CVPDB is ca. 11%, within the range of modern marine carbonate (table 2).
This REE1Y signature is similar to that seen in Paleoarchean dolomitized stromato-
lites – rocks of unquestioned shallow marine origin (Van Kranendonk and others,
2003). On the other hand, a carbonate vein (sample G17/64) cutting Sedimentary
Fig. 6. Geochemistry of the Sedimentary formation. (A) PAAS-normalized REE1Y plot for ‘pure'
dolostone. Shown for comparison is a ca. 3700 Ma dolomitic stromatolite from the ISB Inner Arc Group
(Nutman and others, 2016), a Paleoarchean Pilbara dolomitic stromatolite (Van Kranendonk and others,
2003) and a discordant carbonate vein in the Sedimentary formation. (B) Zr – Al2O3 plot. (C) PAAS-nor-
malized REE1Y plot for Al-bearing dolomitic samples (some with relict sedimentary structures (fig. 4F).
Numerals on lines are the Al2O3 (wt%) of the sample. (D) Y/Dy – Al2O3 plot (symbols the same as in
panel B).
formation dolostone displays a completely different REE1Y signature, indicative that,

by contrast, it is of intracrustal origin (fig. 6A).
Note in figure 4D that only 1 to 2 m away from the sampled pure dolostone, the
unit has developed extensive growth of calc-silicate minerals (dol and c-s respectively
in fig. 4D). This is because of the higher silica content in the protolith combined with
the influx of H2O-rich intergranular fluid during tectonothermal events. A thin meta-
diabase Ameralik dyke (ca. 3500 Ma) at this locality shows only minor carbonate reac-
tion, indicating that most of the reaction between carbonates and silicates occurred in
the Eoarchean.
In low-strain zones in fold hinges in the northwestern end of the ISB (fig. 3),
transects through the carbonate-rich lithologies from ultramafic schists at the top of
the Mafic Volcanic formation towards the base of the Felsic Schist formation have an
overall trend from massive very dolomite-rich to more layered, less-dolomitic litholo-
gies, in which are some hitherto unrecognized low strain zones. In one fold core at
65°07'N 50°12.78'W delicate layering on a scale of a few centimetres or less is pre-
served over a few m2 of outcrop (fig. 4F). This layering is graded, with sharp quartz-
rich bases that grade up into a more dolomite-rich top. These rocks display quartz
and dolomite largely in equilibrium, with only sparse reaction to give rise to calc-sili-
cate minerals forming local selvedges. Farther west, near the margin of the ISB at 65°
07.13'N 50°13.07'W, similar layered rocks are preserved in another fold core, but
there has been reaction between quartz and dolomite, giving rise to extensive growth
of tremolite. Sample G17/62 from this second fold core yielded sparse small oscilla-
tory-zoned zircons, with ages between ca. 3820 and 3805 Ma (see Appendix for
details).
Geochemical analyses have been undertaken on a spectrum of these rocks, from
the pure dolostones (sample 170728, fig. 6A) to increasingly layered and silicate-bear-
ing ones (table 1). Using Al2O3 as indicator of silicate content, these rocks show a
clear correlation with trace elements such as Zr (fig. 6B). Additionally, the corruption
of the REE1Y(PAAS normalized) seawater-like signature recorded in the pure dolostones
is linked with increase in Al2O3 (fig. 6C). This is also demonstrated by the
Y/Dy(PAAS normalized) ratio from 2.6 in pure dolostone 170728 with Al2O3 of 0.04 wt%,
reducing to unity in G17/47 with Al2O3 of 4.55 wt% (fig. 6D). Given that two of the
analyzed samples (G17/52A, -B) have relict graded sedimentary layering (fig. 4F), we
interpret these geochemical trends as sedimentary, with dolomite deposition being
increasingly ‘polluted' by an alumino-silicate component. This is supported by plots
such as Zr versus Al2O3 (fig. 6B) showing the trend for the mixed sedimentary rocks is
towards the field of volcanic Outer Arc Group rocks.
Felsic Volcanic Formation Field Characteristics

The Felsic Volcanic formation is in sharp contact with the underlying
Sedimentary formation. The interpretation of the unit has been controversial due to
the high strain and associated metamorphism, predominantly reducing the rocks to
felsic schists. Because this formation forms the core of an early isoclinal fold (fig. 1),
its top is not observed. This felsic schist unit is continuous for the length of the ISB
for almost 30 km (fig. 1). Throughout the 1970s it was interpreted as an acid volcanic
unit with large bombs preserved at one locality (Allaart, 1976). The unit was then
investigated by Rosing and others (1996) who concluded that it represents a strongly
metasomatized, carbonated tonalite sheet intruded into the belt, whilst Myers (2001)
reinterpreted the felsic schists as a strongly metasomatized series of mafic volcanic
rocks. Nutman and others (1984, 2015) agreed with an acid volcanic and/or volcano-
sedimentary origin, but proposed that the local ‘bombs' are tectonic boudins formed
out of more competent layers. Lines of evidence supporting a felsic protolith are the
large yield of oscillatory-zoned igneous zircons from these rocks (Compston and
others, 1986; Nutman and others, 2015) and, whilst overall strain is high, there is the
local, rare preservation of graded layering, and survival of microtextures resembling
fiammé (fig. 4a in Nutman and others, 1984) and vesicles (fig. 7C and Nutman and
others, 2015) within the putative volcanic bombs. These latter authors also docu-
mented the deviation from igneous compositions, particularly high K2O correlated
with low Na2O. Nutman and others (2015) also noted the high d18OVSMOW of the
whole rocks versus the ‘normal' mantle-like values for igneous zircons in the same
rocks (Hiess and others, 2009), which they interpreted as demonstrating near-surface
alteration soon after deposition.
Fig. 7. Outcrop photographs of the Felsic Volcanic formation and the 3809-3803 Ma tonalites south
of the Isua supracrustal belt. (A) Graded layering near base of the formation. There are repeated cycles of
felsic schist units with a sharp base (right hand margins in the photograph), grading into calc-silicate-rich
rock (product of metamorphic reaction between silicate minerals and dolomite, then into dolomite-rich rock.
Proposed facing direction is shown by the red arrow. Pen for scale is 15 cm. (B) Massive felsic schist with relict
vesicular texture (carbonate filled and then weathered-out on the surface) at the dating sample G17/59 local-
ity. Pen for scale is 15 cm. (C) Photomicrograph of quartz-filled vesicle in felsic boudins within carbonate-rich
layers (reproduced from Nutman and others, 2015). (D) Rare preservation of millimeter-scale lamination in
the eastern exposures of the formation. Pen for scale is 15 cm. (E) Sampling locality of tonalite G97/18 (table
1 and analyses shown on fig. 8). The white speckled appearance is due to the presence of (recrystallized) plagi-
oclase phenocrysts (note the positive Sr and Eu anomalies for this sample in Fig. 8C). Tonalite (ton) and ca.
3500 Ma Ameralik dyke (ad). Lens cap for scale is 5 cm diameter. (F) Flame-margined quartz diorite (q-d) co-
eval with ca. 3800 Ma tonalite (ton). Lens cap for scale in center of picture is 5 cm diameter.
Additionally, further low strain zones have been found in fold cores at the west-
ern end of the belt (fig. 3) that preserve relicts of other primary structures, which
have not been reported previously. At 65°06.90'N 50°12.75'W, the margin of the Felsic
Volcanic formation is separated from ultramafic schists to the west by a ca. 1 m thick
unit of calc-silicate rocks with relict carbonate (Sedimentary formation). The felsic
schists display distinct compositional layering on a scale of 10 to 20 cm, whereby felsic
schist grades into calc-silicate and then into dolomite-rich rock, with a sharp base with
the next felsic schist layer (fig. 7A). The lithological cycle (from thin but massive
quartzo-feldspathic rock to calc-silicate to carbonate) is repeated several times on this
single outcrop. The inferred sense of the grading from felsic carbonate suggests
younging away from the ultramafic schist outcropping to the west. The repeated asym-
metry of these units is not compatible with metasomatic CO2 introduction to give rise
to the dolomite and calc-silicate. Instead we propose this is an original feature of the
rock. Most likely is that between individual volcanic events there were interludes, dur-
ing which the tops of volcanic layers were severely altered, plus carbonate was
deposited.
At the center of a fold interference pattern (65°06.92'N 50°12.47'W; G17/59 lo-
cality), the Felsic Volcanic formation is dominated by massive felsic layers, some up to
10 m thick, separated by narrower zones with carbonate. Here, the massive felsic rocks
are very fine-grained and consist of quartz 1 feldspar 1 muscovite. These have circu-
lar features of carbonate up to a few Millimeters across which weather-out on outcrop
surfaces and are interpreted as vesicles (fig. 7B). We propose that these rocks formed
as thick vesicular volcanic flows. Massive felsic schist sample G917/59 at this locality
has small, oscillatory-zoned igneous zircons with a single weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb
age of 380265 Ma (see Appendix).
Eastwards along the belt, the Felsic Volcanic formation becomes overall more
finely-layered, with massive units much less common. The layering is more regular
and continuous, with occasional thin interludes rich in carbonate and calc-silicate
minerals. In rare domains of lesser strain, delicate sub-Millimeter-scale layering is pre-
served (fig. 7D). Therefore, following Nutman and others (2015), the layering in
these rocks is regarded as volcano-sedimentary in origin, but in most places trans-
posed by strong superimposed deformation.
Felsic Volcanic Formation and Coeval Tonalite's Geochemistry (3809–3803 Ma)

The most obvious non-magmatic feature in the major element chemistry of the
Felsic Volcanic formation schists is the high K2O (between 4 and 12 wt%) coupled
with <1 wt% Na2O (table 1; fig. 8A). The Rb-Sr variation in the felsic schists is also
non-magmatic, with anomalously low Sr but similar Rb abundances compared to those
in unaltered Eoarchean felsic plutonic rocks (fig. 8B and Nutman and others 2015).
The REE and HFSE are generally thought to be resistant to post-magmatic alteration
in igneous volcanic systems on which regional metamorphism has been superimposed
(for example, Polat and Hofmann, 2003 and references therein). In a trace-element
spider-plot (fig. 8C; normalized to primitive mantle values of McDonough and Sun,
1995), igneous features are strong negative Ti, Nb and Ta anomalies, as seen in plu-
tonic tonalites to the south (demonstrated by sample G97/18 in fig. 8C). These fea-
tures are likely to indicate supra-subduction magmatic systems, involving subcrustal
retention of Ti, Nb and Ta during melt production (Nutman and others, 1999, 2015;
Hoffmann and others, 2011b, 2019; Friend and Nutman, 2011).
The coarse-grained plutonic southern tonalites reported in Nutman and others
(1999) are plagioclase phyric (fig. 7E) and generally have positive Sr and Eu anoma-
lies (represented by sample G97/18 in fig. 8C). We contend that the 3808 to 3803 Ma
southern tonalites and the igneous protoliths of the Outer Arc Group felsic schists are
not only coeval but also consanguineous, such that the tonalites represent an intra-
crustal magma chamber, where crystallization and accumulation of phenocrystic plagi-
oclase left the residual magma with negative Eu anomalies and overall higher total
REE element content. Some of this residual magma was erupted, giving the
Fig. 8. Geochemistry of the Felsic Volcanic formation and coeval tonalites to the south. This uses anal-
yses from Baadsgaard and others (1986b), Nutman and others (1999 and 2015), Hiess and others (2009)
plus new data presented here. (A) K2O –Na2O (wt%) plot. (B) Rb/Sr – d18OVSMOW (whole-rock) plot. (C)
Primitive mantle normalized trace element plot (normalized with values of McDonough and Sun, 1995).
(D) Nb-Y plot. (E) La/Yb-Yb plot (Martin, 1986).
TABLE 2
Oxygen isotope data
sample type δ18OVSMOW (‰)
Intrusive rocks
G97/18a tonalite 7.4
G97/18b zircon 5.0
G93/44a tonalite 7.6
292128a quartz diorite 6.6
225858c tonalite 6.5
c
225841 tonalite 7.3
c
225942 tonalite 7.5
Felsic Volcanic formation
G93/24a felsic schist 14.7
a
248203 felsic schist 16.2
G17/59c felsic schist 10.7
G17/66c felsic schist 12.2
248202b zircon 5.0
248203b zircon 4.9
Mafic Volcanic formation
14-07d basalt 6.3
15-07d basalt 6.8
16-07d basalt 5.1
Sources: a. UOW stable isotope laboratory; b. Hiess and others (2009); c. Baadsgaard and others (1986b); d.
Pope and others (2012).
geochemical signature seen in the felsic schists of the Felsic Volcanic formation (fig.
8C). The Nd and Hf isotopic signatures support this genetic linkage between the 3808
to 3803 southern tonalites and the Outer Arc Group felsic schist unit, because they
have the same juvenile crustal 176Hf and 143Nd initial isotopic signatures (data com-
piled from Jacobsen and Dymek, 1988; Bennett and others, 2007; Hiess and others,
2009).
On the other hand, the southern tonalites and the Felsic Volcanic formation fel-
sic schists display different oxygen isotopic signatures (fig. 8B). The magmatic zircons
in felsic schist sample 248203 and representative southern tonalite sample G97/18
have the same d18OVSMOW values of ca. 15% (Hiess and others, 2009). In contrast,
the whole rocks from which the zircons were derived show different oxygen isotope
signatures (Nutman and others 2015 and table 2), with the d18OVSMOW of the tonalites
at 17 to 18% versus the felsic schists at 110 to 116% (fig. 8B). In the felsic schists,
less-altered massive vesicular samples G17/59 and 66 have both the lowest
d18OVSMOW and Rb/Sr values. This supports the conclusion of Nutman and others
(2015) that the felsic schists are volcanic rocks that experienced strong alteration in a
low temperature environment, with the shift in Rb/Sr caused by the breakdown of pla-
gioclase, releasing Sr. This process would not be expected to fractionate Eu versus Gd
and Sm, but would lead to significant reduction of Sr versus Nd and Pr. This is shown
in figure 8C, where the size of the Sr negative anomaly is much more pronounced
than the Eu negative anomaly (Eu*/Sr* is 7 to 26; where Sr*=Sr/(Pr1Nd)*0.5 and
Eu*=Eu/(Sm1Gd)*0.5). As concluded by Nutman and others (2015), the more
marked depletion of Sr could be related to low temperature breakdown of plagio-
clase, with Sr (and Na) removal in solution. A similar signature is seen in other early
Archean volcanic rocks, such as ca. 3460 Ma Kittys Gap rocks of the Warrawoona
Group, Pilbara craton (Smithies and others, 2007).
discussion
U-Pb Zircon Geochronology of the Outer Arc Group and Tonalite-dominated
Terrane to the South
This geochronological appraisal is based on new data from samples G17/59 and
G17/62 combined with previous results by the authors of this paper (see Nutman and
Friend, 2009) plus one age determination by Compston and others (1986) and several by
Crowley (2003). For the new data, see Nutman and others (2019) for the analytical, data
reduction and assessment methods and Appendix 1 for the data and detailed
interpretation.
The Mafic Volcanic formation amphibolites and associated meta-picrites are
devoid of protolith zircon, but their age is constrained to ³380363 Ma via a tonalite
sheet that cuts them (figs. 2 and 3; Crowley, 2003). In the southern tonalite area, a
similar age constraint is derived for amphibolite enclaves (with both volcanic and gab-
bro protoliths), because they are cut and enveloped by tonalites with ages of up to
380964 Ma (Friend and others, 2002).
At the base of the Sedimentary formation are found vestiges of a sedimentary
quartzite unit, which contains detrital zircons ranging in age from 3890 to 3805 Ma (fig.
2). Of note is the preponderance of ca. 3850 Ma zircons in these quartzites (data com-
piled by Nutman and others, 2009). 3850 Ma does not match ages of rocks in the tonal-
ite-dominated terrane for .15 km south of the ISB, but rare tonalites of that age are
found scattered in the southern part of the Itsaq Gneiss Complex, up to 150 km away
(Nutman and others, 2007b). Thus, the provenance of the quartzites is mixed, with detri-
tal components having an age span of ca. 80 million years.
Detailed mapping of the fold interference pattern in the western end of the belt
which was compiled into the small-scale map shown in figure 3, combined with whole
rock geochemistry (fig. 6), suggests the amount of felsic material in these sedimen-
tary rocks increases in the direction of inferred younging. These rocks give a low
yield of detrital zircons, as demonstrated by sample G17/62 (detailed discussion
in Appendix), which displays a much narrower age range of ca. 3820 to 3805 Ma
than the quartzites lower down in the formation. The ages of these grains are con-
gruent with that of the tonalites south of the ISB (Nutman and others, 1999;
Crowley, 2003) and, except for the few ca. 3820 Ma grains, are congruent with the
volcanic protolith ages for the Felsic Volcanic formation. The felsic schists derived
from volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks in the overlying Felsic Volcanic for-
mation all have unimodal zircon populations ranging in age from 380264 to 3807
66 Ma. Combining these individual age determinations into a single weighted
mean calculation yields an age of 380663 Ma (95% confidence, MSWD=0.27).
Thus, it is probable that the felsic volcanism lasted less than 6 million years.
Integrated Evolution of the Outer Arc Group and Tonalite-dominated

Combined field observations and mapping, with geochemistry and geochronol-
ogy, provide a detailed evolutionary history for the Outer Arc Group and the tonalite-
Fig. 9. Time sequence cartoon showing evolution of the Outer Arc Group and the tonalite-dominated
terrane to the south, from .3809 Ma to ca. 3805 Ma. See text for explanation.
dominated terrane to the south that lasted for a short time around 3800 Ma. The
Outer Arc Group Mafic Volcanic formation and the amphibolite, ultramafic and rare
sedimentary enclaves in the southern tonalites have not been dated directly, but they
must be .3800 Ma based on ages of the intrusive tonalite sheets. In the southern tona-
lites, detailed mapping reveals that amphibolites of both volcanic and gabbroic proto-
liths were intercalated with depleted mantle abyssal peridotite lenses before the
tonalites were intruded, pointing to an important tectonic event at ³380964 Ma (fig.
9A; Friend and others, 2002). We propose that this tectonic intercalation of upper
mantle (Friend and others, 2002) and crustal rocks resulted in crustal thickening and
is possibly reflected by the proposed angular unconformity (later tectonically modi-
fied) at the top of the Mafic Volcanic formation (fig. 9A).
Deposition of the Sedimentary formation started with the rare fuchsite quartzites,
in which the youngest detrital zircons are 3805 to 3810 Ma, giving the maximum time
of deposition (fig. 9B). ‘Pure’ dolostones in this sedimentary unit have a seawater-like
REE1Y signature (fig. 6A), which from the detailed analysis of ancient chemical sedi-
mentary rocks by Kamber and others (2014) indicates deposition was most likely in an
open marine environment, rather than an enclosed basin. Upper parts of the sedimen-
tary unit show influx of a felsic component into the deposition of dolomite and silica,
with rare detrital zircons matching the age of overlying felsic volcanic rocks and the coe-
val southern tonalites. Furthermore, at rare low strain localities in the likely base of the
Felsic Volcanic formation, there is graded interlayering between the felsic schists and
dolomitic rocks (fig. 7A). We propose that the deposition of ca. 3805 Ma dolostones and
interlayered siliceous rocks was progressively swamped by increasing felsic volcanism,
and as such in figure 2 and figure 9 this boundary is shown as transitional.
We propose that the southern tonalites represent the magma chamber that fed
the felsic volcanism of the Felsic Volcanic formation. The cooling magma in the cham-
ber was crystallizing plagioclase phenocrysts (shown schematically in the lower part of
fig. 9C), whose accumulation gave the positive Eu and Sr anomalies of tonalites such
as sample G97/18. Batches of the residual tonalitic magma erupted as the volcanic
protoliths of the felsic schists, which show the expected muted negative Eu anomalies.
There are volumetrically minor quartz diorites associated with the tonalites, as demon-
strated not only by zircon U-Pb geochronology (for example, sample 292128; table 1),
but also by the flamed-margins of small quartz diorite sheets in the tonalites, indicat-
ing coexisting magmas of different composition (fig. 7F). The volcanic equivalents
are probably rare andesitic bodies within the Felsic Volcanic formation. The felsic vol-
canic rocks underwent severe near surface alteration or weathering. This gave rise to
their elevated d18OVSMOW values, almost complete loss of Na and gain in K, attributed
to breakdown of plagioclase (Nutman and others, 2015), which can explain the ampli-
fication of the negative Sr anomaly over the Eu anomaly.
The mapping of the Felsic Volcanic formation indicates that more massive lithol-
ogies occur in the west, including units up to several metres thick in which vesicular tex-
ture is preserved (fig. 7B). Eastwards, the schists become overall more closely layered,
and in rare low strain zones, very fine-scale lamination is preserved (fig. 7D). Therefore,
we interpret that the rocks at the western end of the belt were originally more proximal
to the feeder vent(s). At the western termination of the ISB, the amphibolites of the
Mafic Volcanic formation are truncated by intrusions of very fine-grained tonalite and
quartz diorite, in proximity to the overlying felsic volcanic rocks (fig. 3). These field rela-
tionships are consistent with this being the feeder stock, but more work is needed on this
poorly exposed part of the belt to confirm this (figs. 2, 3 and 9).
The final event in the ca. 3800 Ma crustal evolution was the intrusion of ca. 3795
Ma tonalite/granodiorite along the southern margin of the Inner Arc Group (figs. 1,
2, 3 and 9). Besides the age difference, the ca. 3795 Ma intrusions are more potassic
than the ca. 3805 Ma tonalites, and at the margin of the belt they are distinctly more
coarse-grained than the very fine-grained tonalite sheets dated at 380363 Ma by
Crowley (2003).
Geochemistry and Geodynamic Setting of the Outer Arc Group and Tonalite-dominated
The .3803 Ma Mafic Volcanic formation amphibolites derived largely from pil-
low basalts, display enrichment of the LREE over the HREE and negative Nb, Ta and
Ti anomalies (fig. 5A; Polat and Hofmann, 2003; Jenner and others, 2008; Hoffmann
and others, 2011a). On the Th/Yb versus Nb/Yb discriminant plot (fig. 5B) the
amphibolites lie in the arc field, for magmas generated by the fluid fluxing of perido-
tite by subduction-related fluids. Thus, their compositions are neither in the N-
MORB–E-MORB mantle decompression melting array, nor do they match in composi-
tion komatiite and komatiitic-basalt compositions, as shown by the data compiled
from Sossi and others (2016; fig. 5B). Thus, we concur with Polat and Hofmann
(2003), Jenner and others (2009) and Hoffmann and others (2011a) that these rocks
have geochemical signatures resembling Phanerozoic arc-related basalts. Oxygen iso-
tope data on these amphibolites extracted from the literature (Pope and others,
2012) shows whole rock d18OVSMOW mostly between 15 and 17 %, demonstrating no
significant deviation from values expected for basaltic igneous protoliths. This would
indicate there was only limited seafloor alteration of these basalts when erupted.
The Felsic Volcanic formation schists and the coeval southern tonalite samples
share the same negative Nb, Ta and Ti anomalies in primitive-mantle-normalized plots
(fig. 8C). Using Nb and Y (fig. 8D), elements likely to have been least modified by
post-igneous processes, the southern tonalites and the felsic schist samples plot
well within the volcanic arc granites field of Pearce and others (1984), and the ec-
logite-melting field of Archean tonalites in the La/Yb versus Yb diagram of Martin
(1994; fig. 8E). Therefore, the igneous protoliths of both the tonalites and the fel-
sic schists are regarded to have formed from arc-related, evolved, siliceous
magmas.
Comparison of the Inner and Outer Arc Groups

Dominant lithologies within the ;3700 Ma assemblage of the Inner Arc Group
are amphibolites and schists derived from basaltic, picritic, boninitic and andesitic vol-
canic rocks, felsic volcanic rocks, felsic volcano-sedimentary, and chemical sedimen-
tary rocks, particularly chert and BIF, plus dolomitic rocks also of sedimentary origin
(for example, Allaart, 1976; Nutman and others, 1984, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2013,
2016; Dymek and Klien, 1988; Komiya and others, 1999; Polat and others, 2002;
Polat and Hofmann 2003, Bolhar and others, 2004, 2005; Furnes and others,
2007). Gabbros and ultramafic rocks are volumetrically minor compared to sedi-
mentary and volcanic rocks (for example, Dymek and others, 1988; Friend and
Nutman, 2011). In both the Inner and Outer Arc Groups basalts and picrites
erupted in submarine environments are the oldest lithologies, and were followed
by a transition to more silica-rich volcanic rocks. In both groups, early volcanic
packages are succeeded by chemical sedimentary rocks. In the northeast of the
ISB, there is a locally-preserved unconformity, albeit in most places this relation-
ship has been obliterated by Eoarchean tectonothermal events (Nutman and
Friend, 2009; Nutman and others, 2019). In the Outer Arc Group an unconformity
is inferred between the top of the Mafic Volcanic formation of pillow basalts and
the Sedimentary formation sedimentary rocks (fig. 2).
Eoarchean Geodynamic Regime of the Isua Area

More than fifty years ago, similarities between the ISB rocks and ophiolitic
assemblages were documented by Keto and Kurki (1967). The reason for this was the
ISB's lithological association resembling the ‘Steinman trinity' (Steinman, 1905) of
(meta) basalts, peridotite and chemical sedimentary rocks. In the following decades
this view has been modified into a suprasubduction zone setting, with most rocks
interpreted as having formed in arc-like environments (for example, Polat and
Hofmann, 2003; Dilek and Polat, 2008). Where best preserved in the ISB, ca. 3700
Ma Inner Arc Group intercalated lithologies are boninite-like volcanic rocks,
basalts, andesites, andesitic volcano-sedimentary rocks, dacites and mantle meta-

serpentinite with the latter exhumed from depths where the confining pressure
was .2Gpa (Polat and others, 2002, 2003; Appel and others, 2009; Friend and
Nutman, 2010, 2011; Nutman and others, 2020). The boninitic rocks, basalts and
andesites have geochemical features indicating melt production by fluid-fluxing of
peridotite, not (nominally anhydrous) decompression melting (Polat and others,
2002, Polat and Hofmann, 2003). This association, particularly with the presence
of boninite-like pillow lavas and exhumed high-Mg serpentinite, strongly resem-
bles sediment-starved Phanerozoic arc-forearc sequences, as summarized by Stern
and others (2012).
Because they considered that the models for Isua were based on an idiosyncratic
interpretation of the field geology and geochronology, Webb and others (2020) have
suggested a radical re-interpretation of the Isua area’ geology; that the 3800 and 3700
Ma crust formed vertically in a stagnant lid/heat pipe regime, followed by a single
metamorphic and structural event (Webb and others, 2020, their fig. 5D and 5E).
Here, we outline four key points where observations on the rocks and their geochem-
istry conflict with the Webb and others’ interpretation.
1. A major geological problem with Webb and others’ concept of forming the
ISB vertically in a stagnant lid is that ca. 3700 Ma mafic (³1000°C) and TTG
(³800°C) magmas must have ascended through the ca. 3800 Ma package
(both the Outer Arc Group and the extensive southern ca. 3800 Ma TTG).
However, nowhere in the ISB do the ca. 3800 Ma Outer Arc Group rocks
have intrusions of either Eoarchean mafic dikes or TTG rocks dated at
3700 Ma.
2. The mafic rock geochemical signatures all point to suprasubduction zone scenar-
ios for juvenile crustal genesis, via fluid-fluxing of mantle peridotite, with even
boninite-like rocks being significant (for example, Polat and others, 2002; Polat
and Hofmann, 2003; Jenner and others, 2009 and onwards). In connection with
the geochemical signatures for mafic rocks, it is noteworthy that no researchers
have found Eoarchean mafic volcanic rocks in the ISB with the geochemical signa-
tures of komatiites, komatiitic basalts or MORB-like rocks – whose genesis is by
‘dry’ adiabatic decompressional melting. Such magma genesis is the essential ele-
ment in ‘vertical’ crust formation scenarios such as exemplified by the
Paleoarchean of eastern Pilbara (Western Australia), yet it is absent from the ISB.
This is demonstrated here by a Th/Yb – Nb/Yb plot (fig. 5B) comparing Outer
Arc Group Mafic Volcanic formation rocks with average MORB, E-MORB and ko-
matiite samples from Sossi and others (2016).
3. Webb and others (2020) also propose that there is just one homogeneous
metamorphic event across the belt. This ignores the published data indicat-
ing that within the ISB there are panels of rocks with quite different
Eoarchean peak conditions and at different times. These range from the
kyanite-staurolite-garnet, Barrovian-style metamorphism found in metasedi-
mentary rocks in the northeast (Boak and Dymek, 1982; Rollinson, 2002;
Gauthiez-Putallaz and others, 2020) to the co-existence of olivine and tita-
nian humite group minerals that indicate exhumation from the mantle
(Friend and Nutman 2011; Guotana and others, 2019; Nutman and others,
2020). The Eoarchean juxtaposition of these metamorphic assemblages
with other units displaying higher T/P amphibolite facies conditions is not
explained by the vertical crustal evolution model.
4. The present arcuate geometry of the ISB is not the result of a single event, as
demonstrated by multiple previous publications (for example, Nutman and
others, 2002), and not due to vertical tectonics as would be expected in a heat-
pipe tectonic regime (for example, Collins and others, 1998). There was al-
ready a complex structural evolution before the Paleoarchean (ca. 3500 Ma)
Ameralik dykes were intruded (Nutman 1986), upon which was superimposed
a regional Neoarchean fold (coeval with amphibolite facies metamorphism).
This is demonstrated by the arcuate open folding of the Paleoarchean
Ameralik dykes and development of amphibolite facies assemblages within
them.
On this basis, we contend that a suprasubduction zone/arc followed by orogenic
crustal thickening interpretations are still the most viable options to explain the
Eoarchean crustal evolution of the entire Isua area.
conclusions
1. Despite subsequent repeated tectonic disruption and metamorphism episodi-

cally throughout the Archean, the Outer Arc Group of the Isua supracrustal
belt has a recognizable lithological sequence and is divided into three
formations.
2. The oldest part of the Outer Arc Group is the Mafic Volcanic formation
dominated by submarine basalts with arc-like geochemical signature,
lesser picrite and with some chemical sedimentary horizons. This forma-
tion’s age is definitely . 380363 Ma, but probably ³380963 Ma. The
mafic volcanic rocks have geochemical signatures of a supra-subduction
zone arc setting.
3. The top of the Mafic Volcanic formation is interpreted as an unconformity
upon which there are vestiges of a sedimentary detrital quartzite layer, strongly
modified by tectonism.
4. The overlying Sedimentary formation has scattered occurrences of tecton-
ized clastic quartzites at its base, where the youngest of its ca. 3805 to 3890
Ma detrital zircons provide the maximum age of deposition. ‘Pure’ dolo-
stones with seawater-like REE1Y trace element patterns in this formation
transition into carbonate-rich rocks ‘polluted' by a felsic (volcanic?)
component.
5. Uppermost is the Felsic Volcanic formation of 3807 to 3802 Ma felsic and in-
termediate volcanic rocks, which upon eruption were severely altered in a
surficial environment. Coeval tonalites south of the ISB represent the intra-
crustal magma chambers that fed the volcanism.
6. The ISB's Inner and Outer Arc Groups are products of convergent plate
boundary processes within a mobile lid geodynamic regime, not of a non-
uniformitarian stagnant lid regime postulated by some researchers.
acknowledgments
Current work on the Isua supracrustal belt is supported by Australian Research
Council Discovery Grants DP170100715 and DP180100103. Shane Paxton is
thanked for zircon separations from samples G17/59 and G17/62, and we thank
him for all the challenging mineral separations that he undertook for us over 2
decades. We also thank Guest Editor Simon Wilde and reviewer Stephen J. Mojzsis
for their helpful comments.
appendix
additional u-pb zircon geochronology

See Nutman and others (2019) for summary of analytical method, data reduction
protocol and assessment. Sample G17/62 (fig. A1; 65°07.127'N 50°13.072'W and 3
ppm Zr) is a layered metasedimentary rock with a dolomitic siliceous marly protolith.
It shows growth of tremolite, unlike the best-preserved dolomite 1 quartz and tremo-
lite-free examples described above. The more altered sample was chosen for geochro-
nology, so as not to sacrifice for zircon separation .1 kg of the best rare samples. The
sample gave a yield of <30 zircons. Several grains appear dull or patchy in cathodolu-
minescence (CL) imaging. Analyses on such grains registered high 204Pb count rates
showing disturbance, and hence these analyses were aborted. Twenty-three analyses
were completed on 21 grains (table A1). These gains are small (<100 mm) euhedral
to subhedral prisms with variably-preserved fine-scale oscillatory zoning parallel to the
grain exteriors. ;50 mm grain fragment #15 is dull in CL imaging and has a Th/U ra-
tio of 0.012. ;100 mm grain #20 has a core of oscillatory-zoned zircon and an over-
growth dull in CL imaging and a Th/U ratio of 0.005. Both of these low Th/U
analyses yield concordant Neoarchean ages, with a weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb age of
2622617 Ma (MSWD=0.32). They are interpreted as metamorphic in origin.
Metamorphic zircon is very rare in Isua supracrustal belt rocks. We propose that meta-
morphic zircon growth in this sample is due to its proximity to the western margin of
the belt, which is truncated by post-Paleoarchean shear zones. Continuation of these
shear zones ca. 15 km to the south (at 65°01.25'N 50°18'74W) contain syn-kinematic
pegmatites, which have a similar Neoarchean age of ca. 2635 Ma (Nutman, unpub-
lished data). The variably-recrystallized oscillatory-zoned zircons have much higher
Th/U (typically .0.5) and yield 207Pb/206Pb ages ranging from ca. 3710 to 3820 Ma.
Those with the apparently youngest ages are most discordant (fig. A1) and are
regarded to have undergone ancient loss of radiogenic Pb. This is supported by dupli-
cate analyses on two grains. Grain #10 yielded 207Pb/206Pb ages of 3713 and 3805 Ma,
whereas grain #6 yielded indistinguishable duplicate 207Pb/206Pb ages of 3808 Ma.
Based on the analyses with close to concordant U-Pb ages, the youngest grains with
most reliable ages are thus 3808 to 3803 Ma. Binned as a histogram, ³3803 ages do not
show a unimodal distribution (table A1, fig. A1). The problem with assessing these
analyses is that any difference in age is small relative to analytical error, and that only
21 small grains are suitable for analysis. Using the simplest statistically valid interpreta-
tion, they are all indistinguishable within analytical error, with a weighted mean
207
Pb/206Pb age of 381164 Ma (MSWD=0.42). However, if the granularity of the data
suggested by the binned data is authentic, three age components could be present;
380766 Ma (MSWD=0.11), 381268 Ma (MSWD=0.01) and 381969 Ma
(MSWD=0.03). Given the reproduction of a 3808 Ma age from two analyses on grain
#6, this second interpretation is preferred. In which case, the maximum time of deposi-
tion is placed at 3808 to 3803 Ma and the sample contains some slightly older grains,
which match in age some tonalites south of the ISB (Nutman and others, 1999).
Sample G17/59 (fig. 3; 65°06.967'N 50°12.233'W and 140 ppm Zr) is from a low
strain zone in a Felsic Volcanic formation massive unit with relict vesicles (fig. 7B).
The sample gave a high yield of small (<150 mm) euhedral to subhedral prismatic zir-
cons. CL images display variably-recrystallized fine-scale oscillatory zoning parallel to
the grain exteriors. Sixteen analyses were undertaken on 15 grains. All analyses have high
Th/U ratios (1.1 to 0.4) typical of magmatic zircon and all have close to concordant ages
(table A1, fig. A1). With the exclusion of analysis #5.1 with the lowest apparent
207
Pb/206Pb age, the remainder yielded a weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb age of 380265 Ma
(MSWD=0.36). This is interpreted as the eruption age of the sample's volcanic protolith.
Samples G07/02 and -04 of the siliceous banded iron formation in the Mafic
Volcanic formation yielded <20 zircons (Nutman and others, 2009), with most being
150 to 100 mm long, which is unusually large for detrital zircons extracted from
banded iron formation. Most grains have slightly discordant U-Pb ages with
Eoarchean 207Pb/206Pb ages of <3800 Ma, that is, younger than the likely age of the
intrusive tonalitic sheet. The smallest zircon yielded a 207Pb/206Pb age of 3898 Ma and
is considered a genuine rare detrital grain. The <3800 Ma larger grains generally have
higher U-content and less well-preserved oscillatory zoning (fig. 10 in Nutman and
others, 2009). These could be either disturbed .3800 Ma grains or could be labora-
tory contaminants, because Eoarchean orthogneisses rich in zircon were processed in
the same batch.
Petrographic Descriptions
Dolostones, sedimentary formation.— Two samples G12/84 and G17/40 show differ-
ent characteristics. Both samples have a granoblastic texture and consist of .95% do-
lomite, but in G17/40 quartz and dolomite are mostly in equilibrium, with localized
thin development of calc-silicate at mutual grain boundaries, but in G12/84 there is
no quartz, and dolomite is in equilibrium with diopside and tremolite (fig. A2). The
d 13CVPDB of G12/84 is 10.86%. Because CO2-liberating calc-silicate forming reactions
reduce the d 13C of the residual carbonate, the d 13C value in the sedimentary protolith
would have been slightly higher. Minor accessory minerals in the dolostones are tiny
(<20 mm) sulfide grains.
Layered quartz- and dolomite-rich rocks, sedimentary formation.— Sample G17/44B is
from the same outcrop as G17/52A,B for which we report geochemical analyses in this
paper. Sample G17/44B consists of predominantly fine-grained quartz with lesser car-
bonate with a granoblastic texture and scattered biotite flakes (fig. A3). On the scale
of the thin section, there is variation in the amount of carbonate, giving a composi-
tional layering. Equilibrium contacts between quartz and dolomite are observed
between many grains, but there is patchy development of tremolite between them.
Small disseminated opaque grains (sulfide?) are the commonest accessory mineral,
and very rare small zircons are observed.
Massive felsic unit, felsic volcanic formation.— Several samples are from the same out-
crop of massive felsic rocks (G17/59 (used for zircon geochronology), G17/65 and -66).
They have a very fine-grained matrix of quartz 1 feldspar 1 biotite 1 muscovite 6
carbonate, with the scattered micas forming a weak foliation (fig. A4). There are sparse
rounded quartz grains, which are interpreted as deformed corroded phenocrysts (fig.
A4). Also present are scattered rectangular aggregates of muscovite 1 epidote 6 quartz
6 carbonate (fig. A5). These we interpret as pseudomorphs after sparse euhedral plagio-
clase phenocrysts. Rarer are grains of amphibole exhibiting brown pleochroism with
green hornblende rims (fig. A6). These we interpret as rare, partly recrystallized, kaersu-
tite phenocrysts. In the illustrated example the phenocryst is within a domain with a larger
grain size (demarcated by red lines) than the typical matrix. In this case, the phenocryst
could be within a small clast of slightly coarser-grained rock.
Fig. A1. Summary U-Pb zircon geochronology for new results from the Outer Arc Group. (A)
207
Pb/206Pb - 238U/206Pb concordia diagram for layered metasedimentary rock G17/62 of the
Sedimentary formation. The inset is a histogram and cumulative frequency distribution diagram for the
analyses. (B) 207Pb/206Pb - 238U/206Pb concordia diagram for massive felsic schist G17/59 of the Felsic
Volcanic formation, interpreted as a vesicular felsic volcanic rock.
TABLE A1
Zircon U-Pb data
238
labels site U Th Th/U comm U/206Pb 207
Pb/206Pb 207
Pb/206Pb %conc
ppm ppm 206% ratio ratio date (Ma)
G17/62 layered sedimentary rock, Sedimentary formation
1.1 e,osc,p 81 43 0.53 0.14 1.287 ± 0.016 0.3769 ± 0.0023 3819 ± 9 97
2.1 e,osc,p 127 52 0.41 0.04 1.293 ± 0.015 0.3747 ± 0.0018 3811 ± 7 97
3.1 m,osc,p 356 189 0.53 0.03 1.237 ± 0.015 0.3751 ± 0.0016 3812 ± 6 100
4.1 e,osc,p 98 59 0.60 0.09 1.311 ± 0.016 0.3757 ± 0.0021 3815 ± 9 96
5.1 e,osc,p 139 70 0.50 0.05 1.273 ± 0.015 0.3732 ± 0.0020 3804 ± 8 98
6.1 e,osc,p 409 255 0.62 0.19 1.291 ± 0.015 0.3741 ± 0.0013 3808 ± 5 97
6.2 e,osc,p 452 270 0.60 0.07 1.245 ± 0.014 0.3741 ± 0.0016 3808 ± 6 100
7.1 m,osc,p 110 42 0.38 0.05 1.258 ± 0.016 0.3754 ± 0.0035 3813 ± 14 99
8.1 m,osc,p 153 90 0.59 0.36 1.431 ± 0.017 0.3513 ± 0.0019 3713 ± 8 92
9.1 e,osc,p 336 201 0.60 0.07 1.455 ± 0.033 0.3673 ± 0.0019 3781 ± 8 89
10.1 m,osc,p 438 185 0.42 0.06 1.346 ± 0.015 0.3734 ± 0.0015 3805 ± 6 94
10.2 e.osc,p 85 44 0.52 0.17 1.344 ± 0.018 0.3659 ± 0.0037 3775 ± 15 95
11.1 m,h,p 194 57 0.30 <0.01 1.186 ± 0.014 0.3513 ± 0.0027 3713 ± 12 106
12.1 m,osc,eq 116 71 0.61 0.04 1.244 ± 0.016 0.3768 ± 0.0020 3819 ± 8 100
13.1 e,osc,p 244 144 0.59 0.04 1.317 ± 0.015 0.3748 ± 0.0018 3811 ± 7 96
14.1 m,osc,p 120 85 0.71 0.08 1.290 ± 0.017 0.3760 ± 0.0024 3816 ± 9 97
15.1 r,h,p 341 4 0.01 <0.01 2.005 ± 0.022 0.1772 ± 0.0013 2627 ± 13 99
16.1 e,osc,p 93 52 0.56 0.08 1.321 ± 0.018 0.3773 ± 0.0036 3821 ± 15 95
17.1 e,osc,p 85 40 0.47 <0.01 1.321 ± 0.018 0.3767 ± 0.0036 3819 ± 14 95
18.1 e,osc,p 66 36 0.55 0.28 1.337 ± 0.019 0.3715 ± 0.0045 3798 ± 18 95
19.1 e,osc,p 427 225 0.53 0.22 1.476 ± 0.016 0.3295 ± 0.0017 3615 ± 8 92
20.1 r,h,p 575 3 0.01 0.09 2.046 ± 0.022 0.1762 ± 0.0013 2617 ± 13 98
20.2 m,osc,p 70 34 0.49 0.33 1.344 ± 0.020 0.3729 ± 0.0048 3803 ± 19 94
21.1 e,osc,p 94 40 0.43 0.11 1.476 ± 0.020 0.3675 ± 0.0038 3781 ± 16 88
G17/59 massive felsic schist, Felsic Volcanic formation
1.1 m,osc,p 154 164 1.06 0.05 1.238 ± 0.033 0.3639 ± 0.0101 3766 ± 41 101
2.1 m,osc,p 56 37 0.66 0.15 1.312 ± 0.029 0.3710 ± 0.0053 3795 ± 21 96
3.1 m,osc,p 115 89 0.78 <0.01 1.243 ± 0.017 0.3727 ± 0.0029 3802 ± 12 100
4.1 m,osc,p 190 167 0.88 <0.01 1.253 ± 0.015 0.3723 ± 0.0023 3801 ± 9 99
5.1 m,osc,p 212 102 0.48 0.04 1.256 ± 0.078 0.3536 ± 0.0181 3722 ± 76 101
6.1 e,osc,p 46 28 0.60 0.27 1.290 ± 0.024 0.3696 ± 0.0063 3790 ± 25 98
7.1 e,osc,eq 183 83 0.46 0.03 1.262 ± 0.015 0.3742 ± 0.0023 3808 ± 9 99
8.1 m,osc,p 1196 1146 0.96 0.01 1.218 ± 0.013 0.3725 ± 0.0010 3802 ± 4 102
8.2 e,osc,p 833 776 0.93 <0.01 1.240 ± 0.014 0.3708 ± 0.0017 3795 ± 7 100
9.1 m,osc,eq 160 71 0.44 0.11 1.253 ± 0.016 0.3693 ± 0.0026 3788 ± 10 100
10.1 e,osc,p 201 188 0.94 0.04 1.243 ± 0.015 0.3726 ± 0.0022 3802 ± 9 100
11.1 e,osc,p 280 241 0.86 0.03 1.238 ± 0.014 0.3737 ± 0.0019 3806 ± 8 100
12.1 e,osc,p 285 163 0.57 0.02 1.254 ± 0.015 0.3740 ± 0.0018 3808 ± 7 99
13.1 e,osc,p 177 230 1.30 0.04 1.274 ± 0.019 0.3737 ± 0.0027 3806 ± 11 98
14.1 e,osc,p 594 510 0.86 0.02 1.237 ± 0.042 0.3749 ± 0.0157 3811 ± 62 100
15.1 m,osc,p 48 31 0.65 0.18 1.238 ± 0.020 0.3720 ± 0.0045 3800 ± 18 100
All uncertainties in the Table are given at 1 sigma; Site: x.y, x = grain number, y = analysis number; Grain and site
character: p = prism, eq = small aspect ratio prism, m = middle of grain, e = edge of grain, r = rim overgrowth;
Cathodoluminescence character: osc = oscillatory zoned, h = homogeneous; Common Pb correction: comm 206% = per-
centage of 206Pb that is non-radiogenic, based on measured 204Pb and common Pb modelled according to Cumming and
Richards (1975) for likely age of zircon.
Fig. A2. Plane polarized light (left) and cross polarized light (right) photomicrograph of dolostone
G12/84; dol = dolomite and diop = diopside.
Fig. A3. Plane polarized light (left) and cross polarized light (right) photomicrographs of layered sed-
imentary rock G17/44B. Qtz = quartz, carb = carbonate and trem = tremolite.
Fig. A4. Plane polarized light (left) and cross polarized light (right) photomicrographs of felsic vol-
canic rock G17/59. In the very fine-grained matrix is a rounded quartz grain (qtz), breaking down into a
sub-grain mosaic. This is interpreted as a deformed, recrystallized corroded quartz phenocryst.
Fig. A5. Photomicrographs of felsic volcanic rock G17/59. Plane polarized light (left) and to right
details of area within red box (cross polarized light, lower). The boxed object is interpreted as a plagio-
clase phenocryst pseudomorphed by muscovite (musc) and epidote (epid).
Fig. A6. Plane polarized light photomicrograph of felsic volcanic rock G17/59. Brown (kaersutite?)
amphibole (kaer) phenocryst altered to green hornblende at its margins. This appears to reside in a
slightly coarser-grained domain (red box) than the general matrix.
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[AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. 321, JUNE, 2021, P. 643–679, DOI 10.2475/06.2021.

American Journal of Science

isua supracrustal belt

amphibolite facies (up to 650°C), in different panels separated by Eoarchean mylon-

the outer arc group

Mafic Volcanic Formation

segregations, indicating peak metamorphism at lower to middle amphibolite facies

Lu 0.06 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.2 0.039 0.035

Pr 1.23 0.64 2.81 2.92

Mafic Volcanic Formation Upper Boundary and the Sedimentary Formation

formation dolostone displays a completely different REE1Y signature, indicative that,

Felsic Volcanic Formation Field Characteristics

Felsic Volcanic Formation and Coeval Tonalite's Geochemistry (3809–3803 Ma)

Integrated Evolution of the Outer Arc Group and Tonalite-dominated

Comparison of the Inner and Outer Arc Groups

Eoarchean Geodynamic Regime of the Isua Area

basalts, andesites, andesitic volcano-sedimentary rocks, dacites and mantle meta-

1. Despite subsequent repeated tectonic disruption and metamorphism episodi-

additional u-pb zircon geochronology

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