ISC Physics Project

INTRODUCTION
The dual nature of matter and radiation is a fundamental concept in physics

that was introduced in the early 20th century. It refers to the fact that both
matter and electromagnetic radiation (such as light) exhibit both particle-like
and wave-like properties, depending on the experimental setup and
observations.
The idea of the dual nature of matter was rst proposed by Albert Einstein in
his 1905 paper on the photoelectric e ect, for which he later received the
Nobel Prize in Physics. Einstein showed that light can be thought of as
consisting of discrete packets of energy called photons. These photons
behave like particles and can transfer their energy to electrons, causing them
to be emitted from a material in a phenomenon known as the photoelectric
e ect.
Around the same time, the wave-like nature of matter was proposed by Louis
de Broglie. He suggested that if light can exhibit particle-like behaviour, then
perhaps particles like electrons, which were previously thought of as only
having mass and position, could also exhibit wave-like properties. This idea
was supported by experimental evidence, most notably the famous electron
di raction experiments performed by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in
1927, which demonstrated the wave-like nature of electrons.
The concept of wave-particle duality was further developed by Erwin

Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg, among others, in the formulation of
quantum mechanics. According to quantum mechanics, particles such as
electrons are described by wave-functions, which are mathematical functions
that exhibit wave-like properties. The square of the wave function gives the
probability density of nding a particle at a particular location.
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Double Slit Experiment
In the 17thcentury, Newton demonstrated that, similar to
wave, beams of light can also diffract and interfere with one
another by shining white light into a prism to collect seven
different colors and recombining them with a second prism to
produce white light. This wave theory of light (classical
physics) was confirmed by Young's double slit experiment in
1801 (figure 1).
Figure 1
This classical theory was also proven by Davisson and
Germer in 1925, when they aimed a beam of electrons at
nickel, and the diffraction of the electrons produced fringes
(Figure 2A). Fringes are properties of waves, and the
diffraction is explained using the interference properties of
waves. The dark fringes are produced when the waves are in
phase, and light fringes are produced when the waves are out
of phase (Electromagnetic Radiation).
Black Body Radiation
Based on the classical theory, light's energy will follow
Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
where
• ρ is the radiant energy,
• λ is the wavelength,
• k is Boltzmann constant, and
• T is temperature
According to this equation, radiance energy is continous and
will increase to infinity if the wavelength gets very small.
However, in 1899, Otto R. Lummer and Ernst Pringsheim
discovered blackbody radiation which showed that radiant
energy is discreet and has a max value. The energy doesn't
go to infinity as the classical physics had predicted but
declines after reaching a max value.
Photoelectron Effects
The first experiments towards Wave-Particle duality were
done by German Physicist Max Planck (1858-1947). Using
blackbody radiator (equal emitter and absorber of radiation at
all wavelengths), Planck derived the equation for the smallest
amount of energy that can be changed into light
E = hv
where h is Planck’s constant 6.626x10-34 J.S and v is the

frequency.
He also formulated the quantum theory by saying that light
that was emitted had discrete levels of energy, and that
energy that was radiated was quantized;
E=nhv
(where n is an integer, and can be zero or a positive number).
Quantization of energy states that there are discrete values or
states, and energies in between the values of n are forbidden.
Hence, he stated that if x number of particles were present
with a certain frequency value, than energy would be
E=xhv
Frequency is related to the wavelength where c=vλ or v=c/λ
Replace v=c/λ into the above equation, we have
E=xhc/λ
In 1905, Einstein assumed that Planck’s discrete energies are
packets of energy called photons. The total energy of a
system is equal to the kinetic energy plus the potential
energy, and as always the Law of Conservation of energy
applies. Einstein explained that in the photoelectric effect
energy each photon's energy is absorbed by one electrons in
a given metal, and as a result the electron was able to eject if
the photon's energy is equal or greater than the threshold
energy (Figure 2). The threshold energy is the amount of
energy needed to eject an electron, and is called work
function Φ.
Since E=hv
we can rewrite the equation to show that the total energy is
equal to Φ plus the kinetic energy
E = Φ + KE = hv
The photoelectric effect shows that light behaves like a
photon or a particle packed with energy, in other words light
waves behave like particles.
Figure 2
According to Particle theory of light, light energy will increase
to a discreet and finite value unless λ goes to zero, which will
never happen according to the Particle in a One-Dimensional
Box theory. This helps explain the blackbody radiation
observation.
Photoelectric Checklist
The number of electrons ejected from the metal increases as
the intensity of the light increases. An electron that is not held
strongly will have more kinetic energy. The threshold energy
must be absorbed in order for an electron to be ejected. Due
to conservation of energy, the kinetic energy (T) of the
electron is dependent on the frequency of the wavelength of
incident light. Remember, high frequencies have short
wavelengths therefore photons with short wavelengths will be
higher in energy. There is a linear relationship between kinetic
energy of the ejected electron and frequency. After the work
function energy is absorbed by the electron, the rest of the
energy that was provided by the photon changes into kinetic
energy T=1/2mv2, and hence the equation E=Φ+T=hv. An
electron that only absorbs the threshold energy has no kinetic
once it has traveled outside the metal.
Wave-Particle Duality
Since both particle and wave theories of light seem to explain
a portion of light properties correctly, which is the correct
one? In 1924, de Broglie (1892-1987) proposed an answer to
this question. He assumed that all moving objects have wave-
like properties. He combined Planck's constant and linear
momentum
E = hv = hc/λ
so
(1) and
p = E/c = mv
(p is the momentum of the object, m is the object's mass, and
v is the velocity of the object) so
E = mvc
Plug this into (1), we have
λ = hc/mvc = h/mv
This equation postulates that all moving object with a mass
will have a wavelength which is called de Broglie wavelength,
but these wavelengths are only seen with objects that have a
very small mass. Since h is very small (6.626 x 10-34Js), any
object that has a large mass will have its wavelength close to
zero. That is why we cannot see a walking human's
wavelength. This relationship was confirmed by the Davisson
and Germer diffraction experiments, where the wavelengths
of the electrons, that gave diffraction patterns were same as
the predicted wavelength using de Broglie relationship.
CONCLUSION
the dual nature of matter and radiation refers to the
observation that both particles (matter) and
electromagnetic waves (radiation) can exhibit
characteristics of both particles and waves. This
concept, supported by experimental evidence and
theoretical frameworks such as quantum mechanics,
has had a profound impact on our understanding of
the fundamental nature of the universe.
The discovery of the quantized nature of energy by
Max Planck and the explanation of the photoelectric
e ect by Albert Einstein provided crucial insights into
the particle-like behavior of electromagnetic radiation.
These ndings demonstrated that light can behave as
discrete packets of energy (photons) when interacting
with matter.
Louis de Broglie's hypothesis extended the wave-
particle duality to matter itself, proposing that
particles such as electrons also possess wave-like
properties. This idea was supported by experiments
showing the di raction and interference patterns
exhibited by electrons, con rming their wave-like
nature.
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INTRODUCTION

The dual nature of matter and radiation is a fundamental concept in physics

The concept of wave-particle duality was further developed by Erwin

where h is Planck’s constant 6.626x10-34 J.S and v is the

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