1. What is language and its development.

2.
Language is a complex system of communication that allows humans to
express and convey meaning through a set of structured sounds,
gestures, symbols, or written symbols. It is a fundamental aspect of
human culture and plays a crucial role in various aspects of our lives,
including social interaction, cognitive development, education, and
cultural identity.

Language development refers to the process by which individuals

acquire and learn language skills, starting from infancy and continuing
throughout childhood and into adulthood. It involves the acquisition of
linguistic knowledge, including vocabulary, grammar, syntax, phonetics,
and pragmatics, as well as the ability to comprehend and produce
meaningful utterances.

Language development begins at birth, and infants gradually start to

communicate through pre-linguistic forms, such as crying, cooing, and
babbling. As they grow, children start to recognize and imitate sounds,
words, and gestures from their immediate environment. They engage
in language play, explore linguistic patterns, and learn the rules and
structures of their native language(s).

The development of language is influenced by various factors, including

biological, cognitive, social, and environmental factors. Innate biological
mechanisms, such as the human brain's predisposition for language,
contribute to language development. Cognitive processes, such as
attention, memory, and problem-solving, play a role in acquiring and
processing linguistic information.

Social interaction and environmental input also play a crucial role in

language development. Children learn language through interactions
with caregivers, family members, peers, and their surrounding
community. They imitate and receive feedback on their language use,
gradually internalizing the linguistic patterns and rules of their
language.

Language development typically progresses through different stages,

characterized by milestones in vocabulary expansion, sentence
structure, and communicative competence. Children move from single-
word utterances to producing more complex sentences, demonstrating
an understanding of grammar and syntax.

Language development continues throughout life, with individuals

continually refining and expanding their language skills. It is influenced
by ongoing learning experiences, exposure to diverse linguistic
contexts, and individual language abilities and motivations.

Overall, language development is a remarkable and complex process

that reflects the innate human capacity for language acquisition and
the interaction between biological, cognitive, social, and environmental
factors. It is a key aspect of human development, enabling
communication, expression of thoughts and emotions, and the sharing
of knowledge and culture among individuals and communities.

Linguistics concept of ferdinand de saussure.

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Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist who is widely known for his
contributions to the field of linguistics, particularly in the area of
structuralism. He introduced several key concepts that have had a
significant influence on the study of language. One of his most famous
concepts is the sign, which forms the basis of his theory of structural
linguistics.
The Sign: Saussure proposed that a sign is composed of two components:
the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the perceptible form of the
sign, such as a sound pattern or a written word. It is the physical
manifestation or representation of the sign. The signified, on the other
hand, is the mental concept or meaning associated with the sign. It is the
abstract, cognitive representation of the sign.

According to Saussure, the relationship between the signifier and the

signified is arbitrary and conventional. There is no inherent connection or
resemblance between the two. The association between the signifier and
the signified is established through social and cultural agreements within a
linguistic community. This concept challenges the notion that meaning is
derived from a direct connection between a word and its referent.

Langue and Parole: Another important concept introduced by Saussure is

the distinction between langue and parole. Langue refers to the overall
structure, system, or grammar of a language, which is shared by members
of a linguistic community. It represents the underlying, abstract rules and
patterns that govern a language. Parole, on the other hand, refers to the
actual instances of speech or individual language usage by speakers. It
represents the concrete, observable expressions of language within specific
contexts.

Saussure emphasized the importance of studying langue as a system

separate from individual instances of parole. He believed that the study of
language should focus on the underlying structure and principles that
enable communication rather than on individual acts of speaking.

Synchrony and Diachrony: Saussure also made a distinction between

synchrony and diachrony in the study of language. Synchrony refers to the
analysis of a language at a specific point in time, focusing on its structure
and system as it exists in the present moment. Diachrony, on the other
hand, involves studying language development and change over time,
looking at the historical evolution of a language.
 Saussure argued that synchronic analysis, which examines language as a
static system, is crucial for understanding the internal relationships and
functioning of a language. He believed that synchrony provides a more
fundamental understanding of language structure compared to diachronic
analysis.

These concepts introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure laid the foundation

for modern linguistics and influenced subsequent linguistic theories and
approaches, such as structuralism and semiotics. His work has had a
profound impact on the understanding of language structure, sign systems,
and the relationships between language and society.

Roman Jakobson was a prominent linguist and literary theorist known

for his contributions to structural linguistics and semiotics. He proposed
several key notions and functions that are widely studied in the field of
linguistics. The following are some of Jakobson's notable concepts and
functions:

1. Six Functions of Language: Jakobson identified six functions or aspects

of language, each serving a different communicative purpose:
 Referential Function: The referential function focuses on conveying
information and referring to objects, events, or ideas in the world. It
emphasizes the context-independent denotative meaning of language.
 Expressive Function: The expressive function centers on expressing the
speaker's emotions, attitudes, or subjective states. It emphasizes the
speaker's affective or emotive stance.
 Conative Function: The conative function emphasizes the language as a
means of influencing or persuading the listener. It focuses on the
 speaker's attempts to influence or direct the behavior or thoughts of
the listener.
 Phatic Function: The phatic function is concerned with establishing and
maintaining social relationships and interactions. It focuses on social
rapport and the channel of communication itself, rather than conveying
specific information.
 Metalinguistic Function: The metalinguistic function involves language
use to talk about language itself, including clarifying meaning,
discussing grammar, or making linguistic references.
 Poetic Function: The poetic function emphasizes the aesthetic and
artistic aspects of language. It focuses on the form, structure, and
creativity of language, such as in poetry or literature.
2. Linguistic Sign and Semiotics: Jakobson contributed to the study of
semiotics, the analysis of signs and symbols. He viewed language as a
system of signs, where the linguistic sign consists of a signifier (the
sound or form) and a signified (the concept or meaning). His work
influenced the development of semiotics as a broader field of study
beyond language.
3. Binary Oppositions: Jakobson highlighted the importance of binary
oppositions in language and meaning. He argued that language relies
on a system of oppositions, where the meaning of one element is
defined in relation to its opposite. For example, hot/cold, good/bad, or
high/low.
4. Poetics and Linguistic Stylistics: Jakobson made significant contributions
to the study of poetics and linguistic stylistics. He examined the
distinctive features of poetic language, such as metaphors, wordplay,
and sound patterns. His analysis focused on the poetic function of
language and its role in artistic expression.

Jakobson's concepts and functions continue to be influential in

linguistics, semiotics, and literary theory. His work emphasized the
multifaceted nature of language and its various functions in
 communication, providing insights into how language works and how
meaning is constructed and conveyed.

MA’AM KOMAL

Three definitions of linguistics • Traditional linguistics • Modern

linguistics • Post modern linguistics.
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1. Traditional Linguistics: Traditional linguistics refers to the study of
language based on the principles and methodologies established prior
to the 20th century. It often focuses on descriptive analysis of specific
languages, examining their phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax,
and semantics. Traditional linguistics aims to understand the structures
and systems of language, uncovering regularities and patterns in
linguistic phenomena. It typically adopts a structuralist approach,
emphasizing the formal properties of language and the study of
language as a closed system.
2. Modern Linguistics: Modern linguistics emerged in the mid-20th
century as a reaction to the limitations of traditional linguistics. It
encompasses various theoretical frameworks and methodologies that
take into account broader aspects of language, including
sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and functional
linguistics. Modern linguistics seeks to not only describe language
structures but also understand how language is used, acquired, and
processed by individuals and communities. It explores the relationship
between language and society, cognition, and culture, incorporating
interdisciplinary perspectives and empirical research.
3. Postmodern Linguistics: Postmodern linguistics, also known as critical
or sociocultural linguistics, emerged as a response to the limitations
and biases of both traditional and modern linguistic approaches. It
challenges the notion of language as a neutral and objective system,
instead considering language as deeply intertwined with power,
ideology, and social structures. Postmodern linguistics examines how
language shapes and is shaped by social and cultural contexts,
emphasizing issues of identity, discourse analysis, language variation,
and language policy. It explores the role of language in constructing and
perpetuating social inequalities and advocates for the inclusion of
marginalized voices and perspectives in linguistic analysis.

It is important to note that the definitions provided are broad

categorizations, and there are diverse subfields and theoretical
perspectives within each category. Linguistics as a discipline continues
to evolve, incorporating new theories, methodologies, and
interdisciplinary approaches to further our understanding of language
and its role in human communication and society.

language comprehension • Language production • Language

acquisition
Language Comprehension: Language comprehension refers to the
ability to understand and interpret spoken or written language. It
involves the process of extracting meaning from linguistic input,
whether it's listening to someone speak, reading a text, or engaging in a
conversation. Language comprehension involves various cognitive
processes, including phonological processing (decoding sounds),
syntactic processing (parsing sentence structure), semantic processing
(interpreting word meanings and relationships), and pragmatic
processing (interpreting language in context). It also involves drawing
on background knowledge, making inferences, and integrating
information to create a coherent understanding of the message.

Language Production: Language production refers to the process of

generating and expressing linguistic output, whether it's speaking or
writing. It involves formulating thoughts, selecting appropriate words
and grammatical structures, and organizing them into coherent and
meaningful utterances. Language production requires coordination
between various cognitive processes, including lexical retrieval
(accessing and selecting words from memory), syntactic planning
(structuring sentences), and phonological planning (organizing sounds
and articulatory movements). It also involves monitoring and self-
correction to ensure the intended message is conveyed accurately.

Language Acquisition: Language acquisition refers to the process

through which individuals acquire their first language or subsequent
languages. It involves the development of language skills, including
comprehension and production, in a natural and spontaneous manner.
Language acquisition begins in early childhood, and it occurs primarily
through exposure to linguistic input and interaction with caregivers and
the surrounding environment. Children gradually acquire the sounds,
words, grammar, and communicative skills of their native language(s)
through a combination of innate predispositions and environmental
influences. Language acquisition involves both receptive skills
(understanding language) and expressive skills (producing language)
and progresses through different stages and milestones as children
grow and develop their linguistic abilities.

Understanding the processes of language comprehension, production,

and acquisition is essential in studying how humans communicate and
use language. Research in these areas helps to shed light on the
 cognitive mechanisms underlying language use, the factors influencing
language development, and the nature of language itself.

Intro to modern linguistics:

Modern linguistics is a field of study that investigates the structure, use,
and development of language using rigorous scientific methods. It
emerged as a distinct discipline in the 20th century, drawing on
advancements in various fields such as anthropology, psychology, logic,
and computer science. Modern linguistics seeks to understand the
nature of language, how it is structured, how it is used in
communication, and how it is acquired and processed by individuals
and communities.

One of the key features of modern linguistics is its focus on descriptive

analysis and empirical research. Linguists collect and analyze large
amounts of data from different languages and language varieties, using
systematic methods to uncover patterns and regularities in linguistic
phenomena. This data-driven approach allows linguists to formulate
theories and models that provide insights into the underlying principles
and mechanisms of language.

Modern linguistics encompasses several subfields, each addressing

different aspects of language:

1. Phonetics and Phonology: Phonetics is the study of the physical

properties of speech sounds, while phonology examines the abstract,
systematic organization of sounds within a particular language or
languages.
2. Morphology: Morphology investigates the structure and formation of
words, including the study of morphemes (the smallest meaningful
units of language) and how they combine to create words.
3. Syntax: Syntax focuses on the structure of sentences and the rules
governing the arrangement of words and phrases to create
grammatical and meaningful utterances.
4. Semantics: Semantics explores the meaning of words, phrases, and
sentences, and how meaning is constructed and interpreted in
language.
5. Pragmatics: Pragmatics studies how language is used in context and
how meaning is influenced by factors such as social norms, cultural
conventions, and speaker intentions.
6. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics examines the relationship between
language and society, including language variation and change,
language attitudes, and the social factors that shape language use.
7. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics investigates the cognitive processes
involved in language comprehension, production, and acquisition,
drawing on insights from psychology and cognitive science.

Modern linguistics also incorporates computational methods and

theories, using computational models to simulate language processing
and analyze large datasets.

Overall, modern linguistics strives to provide a scientific understanding

of language and its complex systems, shedding light on the
fundamental aspects of human communication and contributing to
various fields such as education, translation, language technology, and
cross-cultural communication.
 Three approaches: • Essentialism • Externalism • Emergentism
Three approaches in linguistics that provide different perspectives on
language are:

1. Essentialism: The essentialist approach in linguistics views language as

an innate and predetermined system that exists independently of
individual speakers. It posits that there are universal linguistic
structures and rules that are inherent to all languages. Essentialists
emphasize the formal properties of language and seek to uncover the
underlying structures that are shared across different languages. This
approach often focuses on the study of grammatical rules and syntactic
structures, aiming to identify the fundamental principles that govern
language.
2. Externalism: The externalist approach emphasizes the external factors
that shape and influence language. It considers the social, cultural, and
historical contexts in which language is used and acquired. Externalists
argue that language is not solely determined by internal cognitive
factors but is also influenced by social interactions, power dynamics,
and cultural norms. This approach recognizes that language is a social
phenomenon and investigates how linguistic choices and practices are
influenced by social factors such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and
geographical location.
3. Emergentism: The emergentist approach combines elements of
essentialism and externalism and posits that language emerges from
the interaction between cognitive, social, and environmental factors. It
suggests that language is not solely determined by innate linguistic
structures or external social influences but arises through complex,
dynamic processes. Emergentists focus on the interactions between
individuals and their environment, studying how linguistic knowledge
and skills develop through exposure to linguistic input and social
interactions. This approach acknowledges the role of both internal
cognitive processes and external social factors in shaping language.

These three approaches provide different theoretical perspectives on

language and contribute to the diverse range of research and theories
in linguistics. While essentialism emphasizes the innate and universal
aspects of language, externalism focuses on the social and cultural
dimensions, and emergentism highlights the interaction between
cognitive and environmental factors. Each approach offers valuable
insights into the nature of language and its acquisition, use, and
development.