Why is CMOS preferred over NMOS and PMOS although any one of them provide

the same result?

CMOS is also sometimes referred to as complementary-symmetry
metal–oxide–semiconductor (or COS-MOS). [1] The words “complementary-symmetry" refer
to the fact that the typical digital design style with CMOS uses complementary and symmetrical
pairs of p-type and n-type metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) for
logic functions.
Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low static power
consumption. Since one transistor of the pair is always off; the series combination draws
significant power only momentarily during
switching between on and off states. Consequently, CMOS devices do not produce as much
waste heat as other forms of logic, for example transistor-transistor logic (TTL) or NMOS
logic, which normally have some standing current even when not changing state. CMOS also
allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily for this reason, that CMOS
became the most used technology to be implemented in VLSI chips.
The phrase "metal–oxide–semiconductor" is a reference to the physical structure of certain
field-effect transistors,
having a metal gate electrode placed on top of an oxide insulator, which in turn is on top of a
semiconductor material. Aluminium was once used but now the material is polysilicon. Other
metal gates have made a comeback with the advent of high-k dielectric materials in the CMOS
process, as announced by IBM and Intel for the 45nanometre node and beyond. [2]

Why do we always use PMOS as a pull up and NMOS as a pull down?

A normally-off NMOS (i.e. Vt >0) can’t pull all the way up to VDD (VDD being the supply
voltage), much like a normally-off (Vt<0) PMOS can’t pull all the way down to GND. You
can see this as follows:
Consider an NMOS with the drain at VDD, and the gate connected to the input signal also at
VDD. We’re trying to pull the source of the NMOS “high”. The node at the source of the
NMOS is denoted as ‘x’ (just a name).
The voltage at node x (i.e. V(x)) gets pulled up to the point where Vgs on the NMOS is
approximately equal to the Vt (threshold voltage) of the device. At that point, Vgs=Vt=VDD-
V(x) (since the gate is at VDD), or V(x)=VDD-Vt. Once this condition is reached, the NMOS
is in a very weakly conducting state (near threshold).
As Vgs=Vt (from step (2)), the current flowing through the NMOS is small. As V(x) continues
to (slowly) increase, the NMOS is rapidly shutting off (now Vgs<Vt, and the transistor is in
sub-threshold). So, roughly speaking, for V(x)>VDD-Vt the NMOS is no longer conductive
and no longer pulls up the voltage at node x.
From (3), we argue that the most an NMOS can pull up to is approximately VDD-Vt.
Pulling down to GND is not a problem with the NMOS. Consider an NMOS with a drain at
node x (pulling down node x), source at GND, gate at VDD.
Vgs-Vt=VDD-Vt, constant during the pull-down. So the NMOS stays on during the entire pull
down, even as V(x)→0.
The above arguments can be reversed for a PMOS, so a PMOS can pull up to VDD, but only
pull down to GND-Vt (and Vt<0).

What will happen if the PMOS and NMOS of the CMOS inverter circuit are
interchanged with respect to their positions?
Assume that the PMOS and NMOS positions are interchanged.
Since in an NMOS, the Drain gets the Higher voltage; in our case, Drain is connected to VDD
and Source becomes the output node.
Apply a VDD i.e Logic 1 to the Gate. The NMOS turns ON and the ouput node charges towards
VDD. But you need a Vgs >= Vth to keep the NMOS in ON state. Currently Vg is at VDD and
Vs charging towards VDD.
Now, when Vs approaches VDD - Vth, you have Vgs = VDD - (VDD - Vth) = Vth. Any extra
voltage at Vs would turn the NMOS off and thus, you would never get a Strong 1 ( i.e VDD)
at the output. Thus NMOS passes a Weak 1 (VDD - Vth). You could apply the similar analysis
to the PMOS and prove it passes a weak Zero. (i.e Vth)
Why mobility of HOLE is less than Electron mobility?
Hole mobility has less velocity because it mass has more than electron mass, from this equation
(u = e*t/m) or mobility = (electron x tau / mass).
Why do we value the area of a PMOS transistor above an NMOS transistor?
Maximize the switching speed of a logic gate, for example an inverter, it is best if the rise and
fall time of the logic gate’s output signal is the same. For this to occur, the top side transistors
of the logic gate must switch current into the output of the logic gate at the same magnitude as
the low side transistors. Since PMOS transistors (high side) have approximately half the
mobility of NMOS transistors (low side), it is necessary to add two parallel PMOS devices to
the high side to achieve the equivalent magnitude currents.
NMOS has electrons as majority charge carriers and PMOS has holes as majority charge
carriers.
Reason #1:
Electrons has mobility ~2.7 times higher the holes.
(The main reason behind making PMOS larger is that rise time and fall time of gate should be
equal and for this the resistance of the NMOS and PMOS should be the same.)
This can be achieved only by sizing the PMOS ~ 2.5 to 3 times to the NMOS sizing.
Reason #2:
For making equal resistance of both transistors.
(As we want our output signal's rise time and fall time equal for next stage, or you can say less
rise time and fall time, because short circuit current depends upon rise time and fall time of
input.)
BUT
For 28nm,16nm and lesser technology, very less difference in mobility for holes and electrons
and the size PMOS and NMOS are equal unless specified.

Why does a MOS not gate (or inverter) need two transistors? If there wasn't the
NMOS transistor, what would happen if A is high?
The PMOS transistor would switch off (essentially becoming open circuit), and the output
won't be connected to anything. It would be floating (which is different from Vss). It can
essentially be at any voltage, just like a free piece of conductor.
Now you CAN replace the NMOS transistor with a resistor (called a pull-down resistor), so
that if the PMOS is open, output gets pulled to ground. This is called PMOS logic.
There are 2 main problems with PMOS (or NMOS) logic -
Switching speed is slow. In real life, all the traces and components have capacitances, and the
pull-down resistor would have to discharge the capacitances every time the output switches to
low. That discharge time limits how fast you can clock the circuit (or increases delay if it's a
combinational circuit). Using 2 transistors allows you to have low resistance path to either
VDD or Vss at any time, and that means you can charge/discharge the capacitances faster.
Static power consumption. There would be a constant current flow from VDD to Vss when the
circuit is outputting Vss. If you increase the resistance, you increase the delay mentioned above.
If you decrease the resistance, you increase static power consumption. There is no good
solution. When you use two transistors, there is virtually no current flow in either of the static
states.
Why we not use single MOS transistor in transmission gate instead of using both PMOS and
NMOS transistor?
The problem is that a transistor is controlled by the Vgs voltage, and the signal you're switching
determines the source voltage. The issue is that if you only use, say, the NMOS with the gate
tied to VDD, when the signal level goes high on one side, the transistor will turn off when the
output level reaches VDD-Vt and then it will no longer be driven through the NMOS (you
could pull it high with a pull-up resistor, but this will be slower than driving it high). If you get
an NMOS and you drive the gate voltage to at least VDD +Vt, then you only need one
transistor. However, this requires a transistor that can handle that high of a gate voltage, and it
requires an extra power supply rail. So what's usually done is to connect an NMOS and PMOS
in parallel and turn them both on (NMOS gate to VDD, PMOS gate to GND) or off (NMOS
gate to GND, PMOS gate to VDD) to switch the signal.
Another issue is that if you use one transistor, you'll get capacitive coupling between the gate
drive signal and the signal being switched. If you use two transistors, then the coupling through
the NMOS gate is mostly cancelled out by the opposite coupling through the PMOS gate.

Why PMOS and NMOS are sized equally in a Transmission Gates?

n transmission gates, PMOS (P-channel Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) and NMOS (N-channel
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) transistors are often sized equally for specific reasons. Here’s
why:
PMOS passes to good 1 and NMOS pass good 0
Sizing PMOS and NMOS transistors equally in transmission gates simplifies control, ensures
balanced operation, achieves symmetrical performance, optimizes trans conductance, and
enhances design simplicity. These benefits contribute to the effective and reliable operation of
transmission gates in various digital circuit applications.
Simplifying Control: By sizing the PMOS and NMOS transistors equally, it simplifies the
control mechanism of the transmission gate. Both transistors can be driven by the same control
signal, making the circuit design more straightforward and efficient.
Balanced Operation: Equal sizing ensures balanced operation of the transmission gate. When
the control signal is high, the PMOS transistor turns on, allowing the passage of signals from
the input to the output. Simultaneously, the NMOS transistor turns off, preventing any signal
interference or distortion. This balanced operation maintains signal integrity and minimizes
signal degradation.
Symmetrical Performance: Equal sizing of PMOS and NMOS transistors helps achieve
symmetrical performance characteristics. It ensures that both transistors have similar electrical
properties, such as resistance and capacitance, leading to balanced signal propagation and
improved overall circuit performance.

How do we lower resistance if we only have one metal?

By using multiple VIAS on it.
By increasing its width, because if we increase its width resistance will automatically decrease
by this formula, R = p.L/ (t.w).
Here R is inversely proportional to 'w'.

Different types way to shield the victim wire when limited area?
If we do coaxial shielding to save the victim wire of metal2 then we shield like M2 as a
sidewall, top (M+1) and bottom (M-1) metal layers used.
Mostly we connected the shield wire to VSS because it has less resistance path.
According to this formula I=C*dv/dt, less voltage fluctuation means that the aggressor signal
is weaker and has less impact on our main signal.
Example: If we connect to VDD to shielding wire has 1.2v and victim net 0.6v
According to above formula dv/dt = (1.2-0.6)/1= 0.6v.--------------(1)
If we connect VSS to shielding wire, then = (0-0.6)/1=-0.6v --------------(2)
From two equations we conclude that second equation has less voltage that why we prefer to
connect Shielding net to VSS.
If i have four layer like M1, M2, M3, M4, we want to shield it without using other
metal layers, how we approach?
We can arranger in these fashion M2-M4-M1-M3, so we can reduce crosstalk from each other
because we know that C = Eo*A/D, means if D distance increased then C coupling capacitor
effect will get reduce will.
According to question
-------------------- M2
Oxide layer
--------------------M4
Oxide layer
-------------------- M1
Oxide layer
--------------------M3
Oxide layer
Like this way we increase the distance between two parallel plate capacitor.
During fabrication process first metal1 then oxide again metal2 fabricate as so on. Normally
we go we M1 Oxide Layer  M2 Oxide Layer as so on.

If i have n numbers of finger how to find total number of terminals?

Total numbers of terminals = n+1.
Example: 11 fingers
Result: 11+1 = 12 terminals.

How to decide the Vt of transistor device?

Its depends upon the gate oxide thickness, one is thin oxide for low voltage and another
is thick oxide for higher voltage.
What is fingering concept and its benefits?
Long transistors are split into smaller ones for various reasons. One reason could be to fit them
better into the overall layout of a block or simply to have a better aspect ratio. Another reason
is to reduce the gate resistance of the device. The problem is that the gate-channel capacitance
forms a low pass with the gate resistance and switching speed is reduced. In addition, the drain
area is reduced because two fingers share a common drain and therefore parasitic are reduces
as well.
Update: Splitting a transistor with some W/L into a transistor with multiple fingers is done
such, that the width (W) stays the same and the length of finger is L/k, where k is the total
number of fingers. The effective length and width stay the same, but the gates are now in
parallel and therefore the resistance is reduced. In addition, gates are often contacted at both
ends to reduce the effective resistance.
Splitting transistors can either be done by using multiple transistors with a single gate or with
transistors that have multiple gate fingers.
Transistors with multiple fingers have the disadvantage that the current direction is different
for two neighbouring fingers. E.g. if for the first finger the source is to the left then the source
for the next finger will be to the right. The properties of transistor can change depending on the
current direction. Therefore, extra care has to be taken when trying to achieve good matching.
Using multiple fingers to obtained scaled current sources for example in a current mirror is also
considered inferior to having multiple single gate transistors because of slightly different
properties.
Fingering is to optimize the resistance of the gate poly along the width of the transistor. Since
the gate poly is driven from one end and gate poly is resistive, there may be reason to have a
guideline that states the maximum width of a single finger. Fingering is the only way to meet
this guideline for large transistors.
There is an advantage with an even number of fingers: the active capacitance is less, because
the drain region is surrounded with gate poly instead of field.

Why it is beneficial to have the transistors divided into an even number of fingers?
Even numbers of fingers are better because it makes the device layout symmetric. You have
two sources and one shared diffusion. In the case of a source coupled differential pair, since
the sources are common, you can share source diffusions of device A with device B

What is fingers in transistors?

Finger means how many gates a transistor has while multiple is how many times a transistor is
repeated. in the case of 3 fingers and 2 multiples, you may layout a single transistor with 6
fingers; that is acceptable.

What is number of fingers in MOSFET?

When laying out a MOSFET with a particular width and length, in an EDA tool, one has two
options with regards to the shape of the gate: 1) Single stripe.

How to decide the height of STD CELL?

By using numbers of track by considering half part of VDD and VSS or depend upon foundry.
We use metal M2 for drawing tracks in planar devices.
M1 for FINFET devices.

How to calculate the area for PMOS and NMOS of STD CELL?
WE take an example of 45nm technology as follow below:
Step1: First we take metal2 whose width has 0.08um and spacing required 0.07um between
them.
Step2: Suppose we take 10 tracks in which 9 tracks for routing purpose and +1 for power rail
i.e. (half of VDD & VSS).
Step3: Then check DRC after doing above portion.
Step4: VDD VSS have more width like 0.12um because its handle power.
Step5: DRC value 0.15um we take after VDD and VSS between tracks.
Step6: After drawing power rail and tracks, we measure the value in vertical direction top to
bottom it has 1.7um value.
Step7: From schematics of 45nm PMOS has w=390nm and NMOS has w=260.
Step7: calculate space for PMOS (390/650) *100 = 60%. and NMOS 40%.
Step8: For active area.
Step9: Actual space is 1.7um but due to end cap to oxide, NWELL to oxide, implant to oxide
enclosure will cover some area from 1.7um so, we get
effect space = 1.7-0.64 =1.06um
Step10: Now we again calculate space for PMOS from effect space. i.e.
= (1.06*60)/100. = 6.36um
=1.06*40)/100 = 424um
Step11: Due to grid value i.e. 0.005 its multiple of 5, so we change or adjust the value of PMOS
AND NMOS in multiple of 5.
So PMOS =6.35um and NMOS =4.25um. Safe from grid off error come.