Republic of the Philippines

MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY

General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

CHAPTER 4: COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

LESSON 1: INFORMATION PROCESSING

Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

• Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge.

• Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

Introduction

Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how

knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most
significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-
learning process.

Advance Organizer
Information Processing
Theory

Types of Knowledge Stages Executive Control

Processes

General/
Specific Encoding

Declarative Storage

Procedural Retrieval

Episodic

Conditional

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used in
the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and
design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the
human mind. Read on to know more about IPT.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change
(as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve
information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape
what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information processing theory.

IPT-describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through
the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to
pass through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and the long-term memory.
Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or "remembered"
when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

"Types" of Knowledge

• General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks,
or only in one.
• Declarative - This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things
are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address,
a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
• Procedural - This includes knowledge on how to do things.
Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common
denominator.
• Episodic - This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
• Conditional This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term
memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression
of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice
(schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

• Encoding- Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

• Storage- The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
• Retrieval- The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for
use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like
model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory
system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information processing
revolve around the three main stages in the memory process:

SENSORY REGISTER

The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.

• Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what
our minds can hold or perceive.
• Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief period
in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
• There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more
persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention

• To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it.

Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through
our attention "gate".
• Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the
material; when there is conscious control over attention, or when information involves
novelty, surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.
• Before information is perceived, it is known as "precategorical" information. This
means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the
categorical membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in
as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge,
interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by
which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

• Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9. "chunks" of information, sometimes described
as 7+/- 2. It is called working memory because it is where new information is
temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM maintains information for a
limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process the infor mation, or
until the information is forgotten.
• Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
• To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance,
rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information active, in STM, like when you
repeat a phone number just given over and over.

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again.

• Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

• Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite

EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESSES

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to as
metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, help the
learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize or interpret information:
Example of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization.

FORGETTING

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

• Decay - Information is not attended to, and eventually 'fades' away. Very
prevalent in Working Memory.
• Interference - New or old information 'blocks' access to the information in
question.

METHODS FOR INCREASING RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION

• Rehearsal - This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.

• Meaningful Learning - This is making connections between new information and
prior knowledge.
• Organization - It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info
that is organized efficiently should be recalled.
• Elaboration - This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what
one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
• Visual Imagery - This means forming a "picture" of the information
• Generation - Things we 'produce' are easier to remember than things we 'hear'.
• Context - Remembering the situation helps recover information.
• Personalization - It is making the information relevant to the individual.

OTHER MEMORY METHODS

• Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) You will remember the beginning and
end of a 'list' more readily.
• Part Learning Break up the 'list' or "chunk" information to increase memorization.
• Distributed Practice -Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info
in at once (Massed Practice)

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

• Mnemonic Aids - These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help
them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci
technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association
techniques, among others.

The Information Processing Model

Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very
brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if given
attention and is perceived and found to be. relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly encoded,
forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information will then determine if
information can be retrieved when needed later.

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

LESSON 2: GAGNE'S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

• Explain Gagne's conditions of learning.

• Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne's instruction
events.
• Articulate the benefits of using Gagne's principles in teaching.

Introduction

In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He stressed
that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory
is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instruction events that serve as basis for
the sequencing of instruction.

Advance Organizer
Gagne’s Conditions of
Learning

Tolman’s Purposive 9 Events of Instruction

Behaviorism
Event 1: Gaining Attention

Verbal Event 2: Informing the learner of the objectives

Information
Event 3: Stimulating Recall of the Prior Learning

Intellectual Event 4: Presenting the Stimulus

Skills
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Strategies
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

Event 5: Providing Learner Guidance

Event 6: Eliciting Performance

Event 7: Giving Feedback

Attitudes
Event 8: Assessing Performance

Event 9: Enhancing Retention and Transfer

Motor Skills

Gagne's theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory is on
intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all domains. In the earlier
version of the theory, special attention was given to military training settings. Later, Gagne also
looked into. the role of instructional technology in learning.

GAGNE'S PRINCIPLES

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne's theory

asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning. Furthermore, the
theory implies that each different type of learning calls for different types of instruction.
Gagne named five categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions
are required for each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive strategies to be
learned, there must be an opportunity for problem solving; to learn attitudes, the
learner must be exposed to credible role model or arguments that are convincing and
moving. Below are the categories of learning with corresponding learning outcomes
and conditions of learning:

Category of Learning Example of Learning Outcome Conditions of Learning

Verbal Information Stating previously learned materials 1. Draw attention to distinctive features
such as facts, concepts, principles by variations in print or speech.
and procedures, e.g., listing the 14
learner-centered psychological 2. Present information so that it can be
principles made into chunks.

3. Provide a meaningful context for

effective encoding of information.

4. Provide cues for effective recall and

generalization of information.

Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: Distinguishing 1. Call attention to distinctive features.

Discriminations, Concrete objects, features or symbols, e.g.,
Concepts, Defined

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 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

Concepts, Rules, Higher distinguishing an even and an odd 2. Stay within the limits of working
Order Rules number memory.

Concrete Concepts: Identifying 3. Stimulate the recall of previously

classes of concrete objects, learned component skills.
features or events, e.g., picking out
all the red beads from a bowl of 4. Present verbal cues to the ordering or
beads combination of component skills.

Defined Concepts: classifying new 5. Schedule occasions for practice and

examples of events or ideas by their spaced review.
definition, e.g., noting "she sells sea
shells" as alliteration 6. Use a variety of contexts to promote
transfer.
Rules: Applying a single relationship
to solve à class of problems, e.g.,
computing average monthly income
of a company

Order Rules: Applying a new

combination of rules to solve a
complex problem, e.g., generating a
balanced budget for a school
organization

Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways to guide 1. Describe or demonstrate the strategy.
learning, thinking, acting and
feeling, e.g., constructing concept 2: Provide a variety of occasions for
maps of topics being studied practice using the strategy.

3. Provide informative feedback as to the

creativity or originality of the strategy or
outcome.

Attitudes Choosing personal actions based 1. Establish an expectancy of success

on internal states of understanding associated with the desired attitude.
and feeling, e.g.,. deciding to avoid
soft drinks and drinking a least 8 2. Assure student identification with an
glasses of water everyday admired human model.

3. Arrange for communication or

demonstration of choice of personal
action.

4. Give feedback for successful

performance; or allow observation of
feedback in the human model.

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

Motor Skills Executing performances involving 1. Present verbal or other guidance to

the use of muscles, e.g., doing the cue the executive subroutine.
steps of the singkil dance
2. Arrange repeated practice.

3. Furnish immediate feedback as to the

accuracy of performance.

4. Encourage the use of mental practice.

2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a

sequence of instruction. Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can
be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response
generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept
formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the
hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at
each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training
task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions
of learning. These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for
learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate
media. The theory includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive
processes:

(1) gaining attention (reception)

(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)

(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)

(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)

(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

(6) eliciting performance (responding)

(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)

(8) assessing performance (retrieval)

(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of
instruction

Example 1

Lesson: Equilateral Triangles Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles

Target group: Grad 4 pupils

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

1. Gain attention show variety of computer-generated triangles –

2. Identify objective pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?"

3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles

4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle

5. Guide learning - show example of how to create an equilateral triangle

6. Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different examples

7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect

8. Assess performance - provide scores and remediation

9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify

equilaterals

Example 2

Lesson: Powerful Lesson with PowerPoint

Objective: Students to create presentations using Microsoft PowerPoint

Target Group: This lesson is geared for education students with basic computer skills.

Event of Instruction Lesson Example/ Rationale

Conditions of Learning

1. Gaining Attention Teacher tells learners how Giving background

she has used PowerPoint in information creates validity.
the classroom. Shows an
example of a PowerPoint The use of multimedia grabs
Asks learners questions the audience's attention.
about using PowerPoint.
Asking questions in the
beginning creates an
interactive atmosphere.

2. Informing the Teacher says, "Today we Make learners aware of what

Learner of the are going to work on using a to expect so that they are
Objective multimedia presentation aware and prepared to
software, Microsoft receive information.
PowerPoint

3. Stimulating Recall of For this particular group of When learning something

Prior Learning learners, they have learned new. accessing prior
previously about Microsoft knowledge is a major factor
Windows, particularly in the process of acquiring
Microsoft Word. Teacher new information.
associates this knowledge
with lesson at hand.

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

4. Presenting the Teacher gives students The goal is information

Stimulus hands- on, step-by-step acquisition, therefore, the
tutorial on using Microsoft stimulus employed is written
PowerPoint content and the actual
software program.

5. Providing Learner Teacher demonstrates how Teacher uses "discovery

Guidance to create a presentation. learning" because learners
Teacher moves around and are adults and it gives them
shows students how to use the freedom to explore.
the tools to type in text, add Teacher facilitates the
links, add symbols and clip learning process by giving
art, insert videos and hints and cues when
diagrams, use sounds, etc. needed. Since the audience
Learners are allowed to try are pre-service with some
the tools demonstrated in basic level of technology
partners on their computers. skills and the software
program is easy to follow
and understand, guidance is
minimal.

6. Eliciting Teacher asks students to Requiring the learner to

Performance demonstrate PowerPoint produce based on what has
tools. been taught enables the
learner to confirm his/her
learning.

Regular feedback enhances

learning.

7. Giving Feedback Teacher gives immediate

feedback to learners after
eliciting responses.

8. Assessing Assign a practice activity - Independent practice forces

Performance Create an electronic story students to use what they
book using Microsoft learned and apply it.
PowerPoint. checks work. Assessing such gives
instructors, a means of
testing student learning
outcomes
9. Enhancing. Teacher asks learners to Applying learning in real-life
Retention and Transfer create activities using situations is a step towards
PowerPoint presentation for Mastery Learning.
6th grade pupils. Teacher
also assigns learner to teach
another learner how to make
PowerPoint presentations

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

LESSON 3: AUSUBEL'S MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING/

SUBSUMPTION THEORY

Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

• Explain Ausubel's subsumption theory.

• Determine the uses of graphic organizers.
• Use advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation.

Introduction

Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or presentational manner
of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role in learning as providers of
information, while students remain as passive receivers of information. David Ausubel, instead of
criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of
advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning.

David P. Ausubel was born in 1918 and grew up

in Brooklyn, NY. He attended the University of
Pennsylvania, majoring in Psychology for pre-med
and eventually became a psychiatrist

He earned a Ph. D in Developmental Psychology

from Columbia University. A series of psychological
professorships ensued at schools of education: the
University of Illinois, University of Toronto, and in the
European Berne, the Salesian University at Rome,
and the Officer's from Training College at Munich. He
retired from professional life in 1994 to devote himself
full time, at the age of 75, to writing. Four books
resulted.

The main theme of Ausubel's theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new
information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is
already known. It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school. setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as
a tool for learning.

Focus of Ausubel's Theory

1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization
of the learner's present knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts,
propositions, theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to him/her at
any point in time. This comprises his/her cognitive structure.

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible
way to ideas that the learner already possesses. Ausubel believed that before new
material can be presented effectively, the student's cognitive structure should be
strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of new information is facilitated.
The way to strengthen the student's cognitive structure is by using advance
organizers that allow students to already have a bird's eye view or to see the "big
picture" of the topic to be learned even before going to the details.

Ausubel's belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption.
He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by which new material
is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, Ausubel pointed out, that
what is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that one's own prior knowledge
and biases limit and affect what is learned. Also, retention of new knowledge is greater because
it is based on prior concrete concepts.

Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:

Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you learn
is an example of a concept that you have already learned. Let's say you have acquired a basic
concept such as "bird". You know that a bird has feathers, a beak, lays egg. Now you learn
about a kind of bird that you have never seen before, let's say a blue jay, that conforms to
your previous understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of blue jays is attached to your
concept of bird, without substantially altering that concept in any way. So, an in Ausubel's
theory, you had learned about blue jays through the process of derivative subsumption.

Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let's say you see a new kind of bird
that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn't fly but it can run fast. In order to
accommodate this new information, you have to change or expand your concept of bird to
include the possibility of being big and having long legs. You now include your concept of an
ostrich to your previous concept of what a bird is. You have learned about this new kind of
bird through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, you might say that this is
more "valuable" learning than that of subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept.
derivative

Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango,
dalandan, guava etc., but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were all
examples of fruits. In this case, the child already knew a lot of examples of the concept, but
did not know the concept itself until it was taught to her. This is superordinate learning.

Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior
knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The first three learning processes
all included new information that relates to a hierarchy at a level that is either below or above
previously acquired knowledge. Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by
which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the
hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related, "branch"). It is a lot like as learning
by analogy. For example, to teach someone about how plants "breathe" you might relate it to
previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man inhales oxygen and exhales
carbon dioxide.

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CPE 104: FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
 Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The advance
organizer, gives you two benefits: (1) You will find it easier to connect new information with what
you already know about the topic, and (2) you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic
are related to each other. As you go about learning about the topic and go through the four
learning processes, the advance organizer helps you link the new learning to your existing
scheme. As such, advance organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen
your cognitive structure.

Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with overviews and
summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction
and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new
learning material and existing related ideas.

What is an Advance Organizer?

• An instructional unit that is used before direct instruction, or before a new topic; this is
sometimes called a hook, set induction, or anticipatory set
• Popularized by david ausubel, first in 1968 .
• Introduced in advance of direct instruction
• Presented at a higher level of abstraction: than the information presented later
• Designed to bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and what she needs
to know
• Use of advance organizers has shown, through several research studies, to improve.
Levels of understanding and recall

TYPES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZERS

1. Expository- describes the new content.

2. Narrative - presents the new information in the form of a story to students.

3. Skimming - is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview.

4. Graphic organizer - visuals to set up or outline the new information. This may include
pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps.

Application of Principles

1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. He called this progressive differentiation. According
to Ausubel, the purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of
anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that, if you're teaching three related topics A, B and C,
rather than teaching all of topic A, then going on to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach. That
is, your first pass through the material, you would teach the "big" ideas (i.e., those highest in the
hierarchy) in all three topics, then on successive passes you would begin to elaborate the details.
Along the way you would point out principles that the three topics had in common, and things that
differentiated them."

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MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented
information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

LESSON 4: BRUNER'S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

"Learners are encouraged to discover facts and relationships for themselves."

-Jerome Bruner

Take the Challenge!

In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes:

• Describe the development of the child's ability to represent knowledge.

• Explain how the spiral curriculum works.

Introduction

Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in the theory of
Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts
based upon their current/past knowledge.

Jerome Bruner Born New York City, October 1,

1915. He received his A.B. degree from Duke
University in 1937 and his Ph.D in 1947 from Harvard.
He was on the faculty in the Department of
Psychology at Harvard University from 1952 1972.
Next, he was at Oxford from 1972 - 1980. Later he
joined the New York University of Law. In 1960
Bruner published The Process of Education. This was
a landmark book which led to much experimentation
and a broad range of educational programs in the
1960's. Howard Gardner and other young
researchers worked under Bruner and were much-
influenced by his work. In the early 70's Bruner left
Harvard to teach at University of Oxford for several
years. He returned to Harvard in 1979.

BRUNER'S MAIN CONCEPTS

Representation

Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three stages
also become the three ways to represent knowledge.

1. Enactive representation- At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through
actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. Children represent objects in terms
of their immediate sensation of them. They are represented in the muscles and involve motor

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MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
-ooo0ooo-
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding a bicycle and tying a knot, tasting
the apple).

2. Iconic representation - This second stage is when learning can be obtained through using
models and pictures. The learner can now use mental images to stand for certain objects or
events. Iconic representation allows one to recognize objects when they tube are changed in
minor ways (e.g., mountains with and without snow at the top).

3. Symbolic representation - In this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to think in
abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode knowledge. The most common. symbol
systems are language and mathematical notation.

Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial then symbolic
activities to facilitate learning. Before children can comprehend abstract mathematical operations,
teachers can first have the numbers represented enactively (with blocks) and then, iconically (in
pictures). Children can later on handle number concepts without concrete objects and only with
numbers and number signs (symbolic).

Spiral curriculum

Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive development.
Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher's level
of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learners' cognitive capabilities. The
task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the
learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so
that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same
content in different ways' depending on students' developmental levels. This is why certain
topics are initially presented in grade school in a manner appropriate for grade schoolers, and
then the same topic is tackled in high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a topic can
be revisited within the same semester: or school year. For instance, the 14 learner-centered
principles were introduced to you in Module 2, and will again be tackled in Module 26. This time
the 14 principles will be taken up as a means to integrate and summarize all your learning in this
course/ subject. Many concepts and principles discussed in this book are also taken up in your
other subjects like Child and Adolescent Development and Principles of Teaching to name a few.
This is part of spiral learning. It helps you get a clearer understanding, thus more effective
learning.

In the K to 12 curricula, the spiral progression is a mandate. Section 5 (g), Curriculum

Development of RA. 10533, states "The curriculum shall use the spiral progression approach to
ensure mastery of knowledge and skills after each level." As applied in Math, this would mean
that the teachers teach Algebra, Geometry, Statistics and Trigonometry concepts from Kinder to
Grade 10. In the science class, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics concepts are taught from Grade
3 (where Science as a subject starts) to Grade 10 considering the developmental stages of
students. In the spiral progression approach, the teaching of concepts increases in depth and
breadth across the Grade levels. Statistics concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler compared
to the Statistics concepts in Grade 10. Geometry concepts in kindergarten are much simpler than
those taught in Grade 10. This is in contrast to the disciplinal approach of Math and Science
teaching in the 2002 Basic Education Curriculum (BEC). This means that in the 2002 BEC,
Algebra is taught in the First and Second Year; Geometry in the Third Year; Statistics and

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COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

Probability, and Trigonometry in the Fourth Year. In the sciences, Integrated Science is taught in
the First Year; Biology in the Second Year; Chemistry in the Third Year and Physics in the Fourth
Year.

In the spiral progression approach, concepts are revisited again and again as you go up
the Grades. This supports mastery of concepts.

Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student
willing and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond
the information given).

Discovery learning

Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher plans and
arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore and investigate.
Students learn new knowledge relevant to the domain and such general problem-solving skills as
formulating rules, testing and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance.
Students require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge,
careful structuring of material allows them to discover important principles.

Classroom Example:

Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their learning environment rather
than listen passively to teachers.

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MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
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COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

In elementary school - Teachers might use guided discovery to help children learn
animal groups (e.g., mammals, birds, reptiles), Rather than provide students with the basic
animals groups and examples for each, the teacher could ask students to provide the names of
types of animals. Then the students and teacher could classify the animals by examining their
similarities and differences. Category labels can be assigned once classifications are made. This
approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that classifications are proper, but students are active
contributors as they discover the similarities and differences among animals.

In high school - A chemistry teacher might use "mystery" liquids and have students
discover the elements in each. The students could proceed through a series of experiments
designed to determine if certain substances are present in a sample. By using the experimental
process, students learn about the reactions of various substances to certain chemicals and also
how to determine the contents of their mystery substance. (Retrieved from http://www.lifecircles-
inc.com/Bruner.htm)

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:

1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of "readiness for learning". Bruner believed
that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child's cognitive
abilities. This feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of
learning in general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural and personal
factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teacher's and parents'
influence on this. He believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part
of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a child's spontaneous explorations.

2. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. Bruner, emphasized the role of
structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships
among factual elements and techniques. This will depend on different factors, and there will be
many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many preferences among learners. Bruner
offered considerable detail about structuring knowledge.

• Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible.

Bruner viewed categorization as a fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge.
Details are better retained when placed within the context of an ordered and structured
pattern.

• To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental principles

or patterns are best suited.

• The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject area is

diminished when instruction centers on a structure and principles of orientation. This
means that a body of knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the learner to
understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the student's experience.

3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can
be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or more

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COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education Department

difficult. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon
them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.

4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately. He

investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best
stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class
ranking.

Categorization

Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of internal

cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making and
making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are "rules" that specify four thing about
objects. The four things are given below:

1. Criterial attributes required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.

(Example, for an object to be included in the category" "car" it must have an engine, 4 wheels,
and be a possible means of transportation,

2. The second rule prescribes how the criterial attributes are combined.

3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car even if a
tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would be shifted to a different category
of "truck" or perhaps "van".)

4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can vary widely, such
as color. Others are fixed. For example, a vehicle without an engine is not a car. Likewise, a
vehicle with only two wheels would not be included in "car".

There are several kinds of categories:

1. Identity categories - categories include objects based on their attributes or features.

2. Equivalent categories - (provide rules for combining categories). Equivalence can be
determined by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions,
functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, "car", "truck", "van" could all be
combined in an inclusive category called "motor vehicle"), or by formal criteria, for example
by science, law or cultural agreement. For example, an apple is still an apple whether it is
green, ripe, dried, etc. (identity). It is food (functional), and it is a member of a botanical
classification group (formal).
3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They are major
organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory
data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related categories form
a "coding system." These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories.

The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly in terms of
similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to how individuals construct their own
models or view of the world.

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