PHYS G111: Lab Report Format

General Requirements
The following are general requirements for submitted lab reports:

• Lab reports should use a plain font with a 12-pt. font size.
• Every lab handout in this course contains multiple sections. In the Procedure and the
Discussion section of your lab report, the transition from one section of the lab to the
next must be indicated by a new paragraph. Optionally, one can also include an
italicized label between sections to indicate the transition, such as Section 2.
• All tables and graphs that appear in a lab report must be referenced in the text. The
purpose of these items is to support the text.
• Lab reports represent a completed work and for this reason are mostly written in past
tense. For example, in the procedure section one may write:
o Correct: The initial height ℎ0 of the skateboarder on the ramp was varied and her speed
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the bottom of the ramp was then recorded as shown in Table 1.
o Incorrect: Set the initial height ℎ0 of the skateboarder and then you will measure her
speed 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the bottom of the ramp and record these values in Table 1.
Present tense is usually only used in a lab report when quoting scientific laws, or
describing aspects of the simulation software, that are still valid at the time someone is
reading your lab report. For example:
o Correct: Conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
o Incorrect: Conservation of energy stated that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Future tense is almost never used in a lab report, the one exception would be if
discussing in the Conclusion future work that may or should be done.
• Assume the audience of your lab report is another physics instructor who has never
done this particular lab. Write clearly and always avoid slang and personal pronouns
such as “I” and “you.” The personal pronoun “we” is acceptable, however your writing
will sound better if it is avoided. For example:
o OK: We then set the height of the skateboarder to 2.0 m.
o Better: The height of the skateboarder was then set to 2.0 m.
• Technical writing is brief but comprehensive, say what needs to be said while avoiding
flowery and overly detailed language. The most important aspect of your writing is that
it is clearly understood. When describing his own writing style Albert Einstein once
wrote, “I adhered scrupulously to the precept of that brilliant theoretical physicist L.
Boltzmann, according to whom matters of elegance ought to be left to the tailor and to
the cobbler.”
Tips for Writing Lab Reports
The following are general tips to be kept under consideration when writing the lab report.

• The Introduction of your lab report is usually easier to write, and ends up better, if you
write it last. The difficulty that often arises when one writes the introduction first is the
result of trying to introduce a lab report that does not yet exist.
• Never simultaneously look at the lab handout’s introduction while writing your lab
report’s Introduction, it becomes too easy to inadvertently copy its form or its content.
Read through the lab handout’s introduction, close it, and then write your own.
• Make sure your writing reflects that we are interpreting data obtained from simulation.
With simulations we never verify any laws of physics. With this in mind, what should be
stated is if the simulations were consistent, or agree with, the laws being studied.
• Every lab handout indicates specific tables that are to be made, and specifies what
variables are to be included in each table. These variables are placed on the first row of
the table, with their correct units, and the data is then entered beneath each variable.
Examples of this are shown in both the Results and Discussion sections that follow.

Lab Report Format

All lab reports submitted must follow the format described below:

1) Title Experiment Title. For example, “Experiment #1: Tables and Graphs.”
2) Author Put your name here.
3) Introduction
The Introduction introduces the lab report to the reader. It states the purpose of the lab
and provides the necessary theoretical background information to understand the lab
report. Historical background information may optionally be added, but it should not
overwhelm the introduction.

For simulation-based labs, the purpose will always be to analyze a specific physical
phenomenon through simulation. The stated purpose will describe the physical
phenomenon being studied, as well as provide a description of how the simulation software
goes about analyzing this physical phenomenon. This is a high-level description, and should
not be so detailed as to explain the differences in how the software was used for each
section of the lab (this is done in the Procedure section). If a lab utilizes more than one
piece of software, then a high-level description should be provided for each one. The
connection between the physical laws being studied and what the simulation software does
should be made obvious to the reader.
 The necessary theoretical background information will give a summary of the theory
used in the Discussion section of the lab report. If an equation is used, then its variables
must be defined before or after in the text. The equation must also be explained, including
what it was used for in the experiment. Avoid doing algebra, if an equation needs to be
shown in two different forms simply indicate each form. An example is shown below:

The equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 of a series circuit is simply the sum of the individual resistors.
For three resistors in series 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is then determined using 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 , where 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , and
𝑅3 represent the resistance of each of the three resistors. This equation was used to determine the
equivalent resistance of all the series connected circuits in the lab.

Overall, after reading the introduction the reader should understand why this simulation
software was appropriate for analyzing this specific physical phenomenon. Sufficient details
about the simulation software should be provided so that the Procedure section that
follows is readily understood. Additionally, sufficient theoretical background should be
provided so that the Discussion section of the lab report is readily understood.

4) Procedure
The purpose of this section is to inform the reader of how the simulations were used to
acquire the data presented next in the Results section, and is always written in past tense.
Writing the procedure is an active process of determining what information must be
communicated so that the experiment could be replicated, and what information is
considered trivial. For example, it is not necessary to communicate to a reader that you
“select the values checkbox” to make the data visible. This is information that a reader
could figure out on their own. Do not interpret any results in this section, the procedure is
only about what was done to acquire the results.

The Procedure section will always begin with an indication of the simulation software
that was used in each section of the lab. If the simulation software contains many tabs, then
the one that was used should also be indicated. For example:

The simulations from PhET used in this lab were as follows:

Section 1: Vector Addition lab using Explore 1D.
Sections 2-4: The Moving Man lab using the Introduction tab.

After this list, a description for each section of the lab is provided explaining what was
done to obtain the corresponding table or observation in the Results section. The table or
observation must be directly referred to in the text. In the example shown below, there
would be a Table 2 in the Results section of the lab report that includes both 𝑚 and 𝑇.
 Section 2
In this section the length of the string was kept at 0.75 m and the angle of the pendulum was
set to 5°. Using a stopwatch, the period of the pendulum 𝑇 was measured for different values of
the pendulum bob’s mass 𝑚. The results of this experiment are shown in Table 2.

A different paragraph should be allocated for each section of the lab. For observations, it
should be indicted what you are trying to observe. For tables, the variables of the table
must be defined, and an indication given of which variables are being measured and which
variables are being swept (modified). Any variable whose value does not change in the lab is
also specified here in the Procedure section. A few labs do require some setup, for example
building a circuit, for these labs a written description of the setup must also be provided
(never insert a screenshot into the lab report). After having read the procedure, the tables
and observations in the Results section should be immediately understood.

5) Results
This section contains the results of the procedure that was just outlined. The results will
either be in the form of a table (which will display the values obtained from the simulation),
or they will be in the form of a sentence or paragraph (which will relate observations made
during the simulation). It is indicated in the lab handout’s procedure if a Table or an
Observation is to be provided for each section. Tables are by far more common, and many
of the labs only require tables. The tables and observations can be listed one after another
in the Results section, in the appropriate order, without any comments in between. There
should be a brief introductory sentence at the beginning of this section.

The lab handout will also indicate what variables are to be included in each table. These
variables are placed on the first row of the table, and the data is then entered beneath each
variable. The variables in the table must appear in the same order as requested by the lab
handout. The units for the variables in each table must be the same as the simulation
software. For example, if a virtual ruler is used with markings in centimeters, then the data
must be recorded in the table in centimeters and not converted to meters.

Table Format: The table must be created in Word or Google Docs. Each table must be
completely contained within the page, the header of a column should contain the correct
units, and all tables must include a caption labeling the table and providing a brief
description. This caption is placed immediately above the table and on the same page.
Further, the maximum number of significant digits displayed should be consistent with what
is used in the simulation. An example of a properly formatted table is shown below:
 Table 1 Angle and distance measurements of the projectile.
Trial Angle [degrees] Distance [cm]
i. 30.0 230
ii. 35.0 233
iii. 40.0 231
iv. 45.0 225

Tables called for in the Procedure section of the lab handout are placed in the Results
section of the lab report.

6) Discussion
The Discussion section is the core of the lab report and requires the most attention on
the part of the student. In this section the results obtained are then analyzed and discussed.
Each lab handout will have a Data Analysis section to help guide the students through the
discussion of each lab section. It will specify tables that are to be made, graphs that are to
be provided, and will also indicate discussion questions that should be answered within the
text of the discussion. These are to be provided in the same order as requested. Further,
some of the student’s own observations regarding the lab results should also be made in
this section. In contrast with the Results section, the tables and graphs in this section
should be placed where appropriate in the text and not just one after another. Each of
these items will now be discussed in turn:

a. Tables: A table in the Discussion section of the lab report is the result of a calculation
from data located in the Results section. The variables in the table must appear in
the same order as requested by the lab handout. Any equation used to create the
table must be described in the lab report’s Introduction. The one exception to this
rule is when one is only converting units, which is considered common knowledge.
The formatting of these tables is identical to those found in the Results section. An
example of a table that belongs in the Discussion section is shown below.

Table 2 Volume calculations from the radius measurements of

different spherical objects.
Object 𝑟 [cm] 𝑉 [cm3 ] 𝑉𝑑 [cm3 ] 𝑃𝐷 [%]
i. 2.1 38.8 40.0 3.0
ii. 2.3 51.0 50.0 2.0
iii. 2.5 65.4 65.0 0.6
iv. 2.7 82.4 82.0 0.5
 Tables in the Discussion section must be referenced and commented on within
the text. Discuss what the variables in the table are, how they were obtained, and if
the values are expected or consistent with theory. An indication of how definitive
the results were, and any sources of error, should also be included. A sample
discussion for the table above is provided below:

Section 2
Table 2 shows the volume 𝑉 of each sphere determined from the measured radius 𝑟 and
using the equation for the volume of a sphere. Also shown is the volume 𝑉𝑑 for each object
quoted on the manufacturer’s data sheet. The highest percent difference 𝑃𝐷 obtained was
3.0%. The most likely cause of this difference is the result of the objects not being perfectly
smooth, and slight variations of the measured diameter could be obtained by measuring
each sphere at different locations. Overall, the calculated values for the volume of each
object are quite similar with what is quoted by the manufacturer.

Notice in this example that it was not necessary to write or explain the equation for
4
the volume of a sphere (𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 ), as this would have already been done in the
introduction. Nor is it ever necessary to comment on any unit conversion.

Tables called for in the Data Analysis section of the lab handout are placed in the
Discussion section of the lab report.

b. Graphs: Graphs are created from data that is contained within a table in the lab
report. If the data is from a table located in the Discussion section, then the two may
come right after each other and be commented on in the same paragraph. Similar to
the table, the graph must be directly referenced at some point in the text (e.g.,
“Graph 1 shows…”). Discuss where the data used to create the graph came from.
Was any information extracted from the graph’s trendline? Does the shape of the
graph agree with theory? If there are outliers or deviations from theory, what is the
likely source of this error?

Graph Format: All graphs should be done in Excel or an equivalent software

program. Graphs should include x- and y-labels that contain the correct units for the
variable being plotted. Each graph should also be briefly described and labeled in a
caption located below it. The caption for the graph should be typed in Word, not
using Excel, and must be on the same page as the graph. If multiple data sets are
shown on the same plot, then a legend with appropriate names must be provided.
The scale of the graph should be appropriate for the data being plotted. An example
is shown below, with more details being provided in the Creating Graphs Tutorial.
 12
y = 2.29x
8

Force [N]
4

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
Acceleration [m/s ]

Graph 1 Determination of the mass of an object from the force and acceleration data.

c. Questions: Most sections of a lab handout contain discussion questions that are to
be addressed in the discussion. The answers to these questions should be given
smoothly within the context of the discussion and it should not appear as if one is
just “answering a question”. If trying to avoid writing an equation makes the answer
to a question awkward or unclear, then it may be included.

Within the discussion, the transition from one section of the lab to the next should be
indicated by a new paragraph. Optionally, one can also include an italicized label to indicate
the transition, such as Section 2, as was shown in the above example.

7) Conclusion
The conclusion is a brief summary of the results of the lab and an indication of the lab’s
overall success. Was the purpose of the lab accomplished? Were the results obtained the
same as the results expected? How definitive were the results? The conclusion should also
indicate if there is anything that would have helped improve the lab or the accuracy of the
results obtained. If there are additional simulations that would help convey the concepts of
the lab, they can also be recommended here. Keep the comments focused on the
experiment, and avoid expressing personal feelings.

8) Technical Reading Questions

Accompanying each lab is a short excerpt from a piece of technical writing by one of
history’s most accomplished physicists. There will be a few questions at the end regarding
this writing that are to be answered here at the end of the lab report. These are not
intended as essay questions; students only need to answer the question sufficiently.