JIGAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC,

DUTSE.
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING 1

(SUG 101/TSL 101)

Prepared By:
ZAID HABIBU
1ST SEMESTER, 2018/2019.

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 WEEK 1:

INTRODUCTION
Surveying is defined as “taking a general view of, by observation and
measurement determining the boundaries, size, position, quantity, condition,
value etc. of land, estates, building, farms mines etc. and finally presenting the
survey data in a suitable form”. This covers the work of the valuation surveyor,
the quantity surveyor, the building surveyor, the mining surveyor and so forth, as
well as the land surveyor.

Another school of thought define surveying “as the act of making

measurement of the relative position of natural and man-made features on
earth’s surface and the presentation of this information either graphically or
numerically.

The process of surveying is therefore in three stages namely:

(i) Taking a general view

This part of the definition is important as it indicates the need to obtain an

overall picture of what is required before any type of survey work is undertaken.
In land surveying, this is achieved during the reconnaissance study.

(ii) Observation and Measurement

This part of the definition denotes the next stage of any survey, which in
land surveying constitutes the measurement to determine the relative position
and sizes of natural and artificial features on the land.

(iii) Presentation of Data:

The data collected in any survey must be presented in a form which allows
the information to be clearly interpreted and understood by others. This
presentation may take the form of written report, bills of quantities, datasheets,
and drawings and in land surveying maps and plan showing the features on the
land.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYORS
Surveying is made up of various specializations known as sectors or classes
as shown below:
1. General Practice Surveyors:
Surveyors under this class are mostly concerned with valuation and
investment. Valuation surveyors deal with property markets, land and property
values, valuation procedures and property law. Investment surveyors help
investors to get the best possible return from property.
They handle a selection of properties for purchase or sale by pension funds,
insurance companies, charities and other major investors. They also specialize in
housing policy advice, housing development and management.
2. Planning and Development Surveyors
They are concerned with preparing planning applications and negotiating
with local authorities’ planners to obtain planning permission.
3. Building Surveyors
Their work involves advising on the construction, maintenance, repair and
refurbishment of all types of residential and commercial property.
The analysis of building defects is an important part of a building surveyor’s
discipline.
4. The Quantity Surveyors

They evaluate project cost and advice on alternative proposals. They also
ensure that each element of a project agrees with the cost plan allowance and
that the overall project remains within budget.

5. Rural Practice Surveyors:

Surveyors in rural practice advice land owners, farmers and others with
interests in the country side.

They are responsible for the management of country estates and farms, the
planning and execution of development schemes for agriculture, forestation,
recreation, sales of properties and livestock.

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6. Mineral Surveyors

They plan the development and future of mineral workings. They work with
local authorities and the land owners on planning applications and appeals,
mining laws and working rights, mining subsidence and damage, the
environmental effects of land and deep underground mines.

7. Land surveyors:

They measure land and its physical features accurately and record them in
the form of a map or plan for the purpose of planning new building and by local
authorities in managing roads, housing estates, and other facilities.

They also undertake the positioning and monitoring for construction works.

Fig 1.1: Branches of Surveying

Reconnaissance:

This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be surveyed. It may

be either ground reconnaissance or aerial reconnaissance survey.

Reconnaissance is made on arrival to site during which an overall picture or

view of the area is obtained. The most suitable position of stations is selected, the

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purpose of the survey and the accuracy required will be drawn, and finally the
method of observation will be established.

Objectives of Reconnaissance

1. To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing route or track through

the area.

2. To choose the best one or more routes and record on a map

3. To estimate probable cost and draft a report.

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 WEEK 2:

BASICS PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING FROM WHOLE TO PART

It is a fundamental rule to always work from the whole to the part. This
implies a precise control surveying as the first consideration followed by
subsidiary detail surveying.

This surveying principle involves laying down an overall system of stations

whose positions are fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then
the survey of details between the control points may be added on the frame by
less elaborate methods.

Once the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be
surveyed in the knowledge that they must (and will if care is taken) put into the
confines of the main overall frame.

Errors which may inevitably arise are then contained within the framework
of the control points and can be adjusted to it. Thus they have no chance of
building up on accumulating throughout the whole survey.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC HONESTY

Honesty is essential in booking notes in the field and when plotting and
computations in the office. There is nothing to be gained from cooking the survey
or altering dimensions so that points will tie-in on the drawing. It is utterly
unprofessional to betray such trust at each stage of the survey.

This applies to the assistants equally as it does to the surveyor in charge.

Assistants must also listen carefully to all instructions and carry them out to the
later without questions.

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CHECK ON MEASUREMENTS

• The second principle is that; all survey work must be checked in such a way that
an error will be apparent before the survey is completed.

• Concentration and care are necessary in order to ensure that all necessary
measures are taken to the required standard of accuracy and that nothing is
omitted. Hence they must be maintained in the field at all times.

• Surveyor on site should be checking the correctness of his own work and that of
others which is based on his information.

• Check should be constantly arranged on all measurements wherever possible.

Check measurements should be conducted to supplement errors on field. Pegs
can be moved, sight rails altered etc.

• Survey records and computations such as field notes, level books, field books,
setting out record books etc must be kept clean and complete with clear notes
and diagrams so that the survey data can be clearly understood by others. Untidy
and anonymous figures in the field books should be avoided.

• Like field work, computations should be carefully planned and carried out in a
systemic manner and all field data should be properly prepared before
calculations start. Where possible, standardized tables and forms should be used
to simplify calculations. If the result of a computation has not been checked, it is
considered unreliable and for this reason, frequent checks should be applied to
every calculation procedure.

• As a check, the distances between stations are measured as they are plotted, to
see that there is correspondence with the measured horizontal distance. Failure
to match indicates an error in plotting or during the survey.

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• If checks are not done on observations, expensive mistake may occur. It is
always preferable to take a few more dimensions on site to ensure that the
survey will resolve itself at the plotting stage, rather than to retire to site for
taking more measurements when things do not be in on the drawing board which
can often be expensive besides the frustration and time loss.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both by

manufacturers when quoting specifications for their equipment and on site by
surveyors to describe results obtained from field work.

 Accuracy allows a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or minus) in a

measurement, while;
 Precision demands exact measurement. It is the degree of perfection used
in instruments and the method of observation and calculation.

The difference between accuracy and precision is illustrated in the example

below: A line of a survey is measured six times and all the six measurements lie
within and error band of ±2 millimeters. However, the tape, when checked, is
found to have stretched by 10 millimeters through continuous use.

The results of the six measurements are precise in that they have little
scatter, but they are not accurate because each is in error by 10 mm.

Precision is therefore relative in that each measurement is close to any

other, whereas accuracy is closeness to the truth.

ERRORS IN SURVEYING

• Surveying is a process that involves observations and measurements with a wide

range of electronic, optical and mechanical equipment some of which are very
sophisticated.
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• Despite the best equipment and methods used, it is still impossible to take
observations that are completely free of small variations caused by errors which
must be guided against or their effects corrected.

TYPES OF ERRORS

1. Gross Errors

• These are referred to mistakes or blunders by either the surveyor or his

assistants due to carelessness or incompetence.

• On construction sites, mistakes are frequently made by in – experienced

Engineers or surveyors who are unfamiliar with the equipment and method they
are using.

• These types of errors include miscounting the number of tapes length, sighting
wrong target, measuring anticlockwise reading, turning instruments incorrectly,
displacement of arrows or station marks etc.

• Gross errors can be eliminated only by careful methods of observing booking

and constantly checking both operations.

2. Systematic or Cumulative Errors

• These errors are cumulative in effect and are caused by badly adjusted
instrument and the physical condition at the time of measurement must be
considered in this respect. Expansion of steel, frequently changes in
electromagnetic distance (EDM) measuring instrument, etc are just some of these
errors.

• Systematic errors have the same magnitude and sign in a series of

measurements that are repeated under the same condition, thus contributing
negatively or positively to the reading hence, makes the readings shorter or
longer.

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• This type of error can be eliminated from a measurement using corrections (e.g.
effect of tension and temperature on steel tape).

• Observational procedures by re-measuring the quantity with an entirely

different method using different instrument can also be used to eliminate the
effect of systematic errors.

3. Random or Accidental Errors

These are the small errors which inevitably remain after the others have
been eliminated. There are three main causes, (i) imperfections of human sight
and touch, (ii) imperfections of the instrument being used at the time and (iii)
changing atmospheric conditions.

A good example arises in the measurement of an angle using an instrument

called theodolite. Such an instrument can measure angles to one second. If ten
measurements are made of an angle, the results will differ slightly, due to (i) the
inability of the surveyor to sight a point exactly in the same way each time, (ii) the
instrument not been in perfect adjustment and (iii) the change in temperature
and wind pressure throughout the measurement procedure, which will affect the
stability of the instrument.

These are random errors and are reduced, though never quite eliminated,
by repeating the measurement of whatever quantity is being measured.

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 WEEK 3:

EFFECTS OF ERRORS IN LINEAR MEASUREMENT

AND THEIR CORRECTIONS.
1. STANDARDIZATION

Under a given condition, a tape has a certain nominal length which may
however tend to stretch with a lot of use under field conditions. The actual length
can be determined by comparing it with a known standard base or against a
reference tape.

A base line for standardizing tapes should consist of two fixed points
located on site such that they are likely to be disturbed. These points could be nail
in pegs, but marks set into concrete blocks or pillars are preferable. The length of
the field tape is computed to the length of the baseline and the standardization
correction obtained as follows:.

Standardization = L (LB - LT) --------- (1)

LB

Where:

L = Measured length, LB = Length of baseline and LT = Length of field tape along

base line.

If a reference tape is to be used, it should not be used for any field work
and should be checked by the manufacturer as often as possible.

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 To avoid error, standardization should be done on smooth, flat surface such
as surfaced road or foot path.

From standardization measurements a connection is computed as follows:

True distance = Actual length of the tape

Measured length Nominal length of the tape

Worked Examples

Example (1)

A chain of nominal length 20.00m when compared with a standard

measures 20.05m. If this chain is used to measure a line AB and the recorded
measurement is 131.35m, what is the true length of AB.

Solution A:

Nominal length of chain = 20.00m

Actual length of chain = 20.05m

Measured length = 131.35m

δL = L1 – L = 20.05 – 20.00 = 0.05m

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Error per chain δL = 0.05 = 0.0025m

L 20.00

Solution B

True distance = Actual length of chain

Measured distance Nominal length of chain

EFFECT OF STANDARDIZATION ON AREA

Example (2):

A metric chain of nominal length 20.00 is found to be 16cm too long and on
using it an area of 100 hectares is computed. Find the true area. (1 ha = 10000m2)
NOTE: (16.6cm = 0.16m).

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EX AMPLE (3)

(a) A base line known to be precisely 100m long was measured with a
nominal 20m tape. The observed length of the base was found to be 99.925m.
What is the actual length of the tape?

(b) The tape above was used in the measurements to provide calculated
area of 3.162ha. What is the true area?

Solution

True distance = 100.00m

Measured length = 99.925m

Nominal length of tape (N.L.T) = 20.00m

2. SLOPE CORRECTION

Lengths measured on sloping land must be longer than those measured on

flat land. Measurements along a slope must be therefore reduced to horizontal
plane before being used for computations or plotting.

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 Slope correction = [L ( 1 - Cos θ)]………………………..1

Where:-

L = measured length (slope distance)

θ = slope angle.

The horizontal distance can be determined shown below:

D = LCOS Ө…………………………………………….2

SAG CORRECTION

When the ground between two points is very irregular, surface taping can
prove to be a difficult process and it may be necessary to suspend the tape above
the ground between the points in order to measure the distance between them.
A tape suspended in this way will sag under its own weight in the shape of a
Catenary curve as shown below:

Sag correction = nw2L3

24T2

Where n = number of unsupported length

w = weight per metre of tape = (mg)
L = unsupported length in metres
T= Tension applied to the tape in Newton
TEMPERATURE VARIATION

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 Steel tapes expand or contact with temperature variation. If the
temperature during measurement is different from that at which the tape was
standardized the resulting error will be accumulated in direct proportion to the
number of tape length measured.
In order to improve precision, the temperature of the tape has to be
recorded by using special surveying if already calibrated at a standard
temperature. It is necessary to have the tape in position for some time before
readings are taken to allow it to reach the ambient temperature.
It is bad practice to measure a distance in the field in winter with a tape
that has just been removed from a heated office. The temperature correction is
given by:

Temperature correction = αL (tf – ts)

Where: α = Co-efficient of thermal expansion

L = Length of the tape used

tF= Temperature during measurement
ts = Tape standard temperature
NOTE: - Unless the field temperature differs considerably from that at which the
tape was standardized, this correction is usually negligible.
Example 4
The following data were obtained from a survey along a slope, calculate the
horizontal distance.
Measured length = 126.300m
Slope angle = 2O34I
Different in height between the two points = 5.650m
Solution
L = 126.300m, θ = 2O 34I
θ = 2.567O

(i). Slope correction = L (1 – Cos θ)

= 126.300 (1 – Cos 2.567o)
= 126.300 (1-0.9990)
= 26.300 x 0.001
= 0.126m

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Horizontal distance = L - correction
= 126.300 – 0.126
= 126.174m
(ii) Horizontal distance (D) = L Cos θ
= 126.300 x Cos 2.567o
= 126.300 x 0.990
∴D = 126.174m

WEEK 4:

CHAIN SURVEYING

In chain surveying only linear measurements are made, i.e no angular

measurements are made. Triangle is the only figure that can be plotted with only
measurements of sides to enclose an area. Hence, in chain survey area to be
plotted should be covered with a network of triangles and other details are to be
filled with respect to the sides of the triangle. Therefore, chain survey is also
known as triangulation. If any angle in the triangle is less than 300, it is known as
ill conditioned triangle. Hence, the triangles in chain surveying should not have
any angle less than 300. As far as possible they should have angles close to 600.
Chain survey is suitable for the following cases:
 Area to be surveyed is comparatively small
 Ground is fairly level
 Area is open
 Details to be filled up are simple and less

EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

These equipments can be divided into three, namely
(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)

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(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg.
Abney level, clinomater, cross staff, optical squares)
(iii) Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).
1. Chain
The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by
shorter links. It is designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for
measuring the chain lines and offsets of small surveys.

Fig 4.1: A Chain

2. Steel Bands:
This may be 30m, 50m or 100m long and 13mm wide. It has handles similar
to those on the chain and is wound on a steel cross. It is more accurate and but
less robust than the chain. The operating tension and temperature for which it
was graduated should be indicated on the band.

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 Fig 4.2: Steel Band
3. Tapes:
Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements are required,
such as the setting out of buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long marked
in metres, centimeter and millimeters. Tapes are classified into three types; Linen
with steel wire woven into the fabric, Fibre Glass Tapes and Steel tapes.

Fig 4.3: A Tape

4. Arrows:
Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and is used for
marking temporary stations. A piece of coloured cloth, white or red ribbon is
usually attached or tied to the end of the arrow to be clearly seen on the field.

Fig 4.4: An Arrow

5. Pegs:
Pegs are made of wood 50m x 50mm and some convenient length. They are
used for points which are required to be permanently marked, such as

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intersection points of survey lines. Pegs are driven with a mallet and nails are set
in the tops.

Fig 4.5: A Peg

6. Optical Square:

This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line.
It is used where greater accuracy is required.

Fig 4.6: An Optical Square

7. Cross Staff:

This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a
wide and narrow slit in each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so
that when it is set up it is at normal eye level. It is also used for setting out lines at
right angle to the main chain line.

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 Fig 4.7: A Cross Staff
8. Clinometer:
This instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle).

They are of several form, the common form is the WATKING’S

CLINOMETER, which consist of a small disc of about 60mm diameter. A weighted
ring inside the disc can be made to hang free and by sighting across this
graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off. It is less accurate than abney level.

Fig 4.8: A Clinometer

9. Abney Level

This instrument is generally used to obtaine roughly the slope angle of the
ground. It consists of a rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about
125mm long with a graduated arc attached. A small bubble is fixed to the vernier

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arm, once the image of the bubble is seen reflected in the eyepiece the angel of
the line of sight can be read off with the aid of the reading glass.

Fig 4.9: An Abney Level

NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHAIN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be
dried and wiped with an oily rag.

2. A piece of colored cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon – attached) to

enable them to be seen clearly on the field.

3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station

point.

4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are
graduated should be indicated.

5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always
after repairs.

6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.

GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MAKING A CHAIN SURVEY (FIELD WORK)

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1. Reconnaissance Survey: Walk over the area to be surveyed and note the
general layout, the position of features and the shape of the area.

2. Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the
station pegs to mark the stations selected.

3. Station Marking: Station marks should where possible be tied - in to a

permanent objects so that they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found
during the survey. In soft ground wooden pegs may be used while rails may be
used on roads or hard surfaces.

4. Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the
station showing existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its
description. Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding
features such as corners of buildings, posts of gates, post of fences and trees to
the station point and recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate
a station again at much later date even by others after a long interval.

5. Offsetting: Offsets are lateral measurements to chain line for locating ground
features. There are two types of offsets commonly used in chain surveying viz.
perpendicular offset and oblique offset.

Fig 4.10: Types of Offset

6. Sketching the layout on the last page of the chain book, together with the date
and the name of the surveyor, the longest line of the survey is usually taken as
the base line and is measured first.

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CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A SURVEY LINES/OFFSETS

During reconnaissance, the following points must be borne in mind as the

criteria to provide the best arrangement of survey lines:

a. Few survey lines: the number of survey lines should be kept to a minimum but
must be sufficient for the survey to be plotted and checked.

b. Long base line: A long line should be positioned right across the site to form a
base on which to build the triangles.

c. Well-conditioned triangle with angles greater than 30o and not exceeding
150o: It is preferable that the arcs used for plotting should intersect as close as
90o in order to provide sharp definition of the stations point.

d. Check lines: Every part of the survey should be provided with check lines that
are positioned in such a way that they can be used for off- setting too, in order to
save any unnecessary duplication of lines.

e. Obstacles such as steep slopes and rough ground should be avoided as far as
possible.

f. Short offsets to survey lines (close feature preferably 2m) should be selected:
So that measuring operated by one person can be used instead of tape which
needs two people.

g. Stations should be positioned on the extension of a check line or triangle. Such

points can be plotted without the need for intersecting arcs.

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 WEEK 5:

METHOD OF MAKING LINEAR

MEASUREMENTS

Where comparatively small areas have to be surveyed a linear survey might be

used. As already mentioned, the principle linear surveying is to divide the area in
to a number of triangles, all the sides of which are measured. The errors that can
arise when measuring have already been discussed.

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 Fig 5.1: Survey Site Plan

a) Reconnaissance Survey

On arrival at the site (fig. 5.1), the survey team’s first task is to walk over
the area with a view to establishing the best sites for survey stations. The sites
must be chosen with care and are in fact governed by a considerable number of
factors:

 Working from whole to part

 Formation of well-conditioned triangles
 Good measuring conditions
 Permanency of stations
 Referencing the stations
 Obstruction to measurements
 Invisibility of stations
 Check measurements or tie lines
b) Conducting a Survey
 Surveying the framework

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 Consider fig 5.1 where a plot of land is to be developed as a small private
housing estate. Fig 5.2 shows the survey layout, consisting of a trilateration
framework and a series of offsets.

Fig 5.1: Survey Trilateration Framework

The three sides and check lines of each triangle should be measured before
another triangle is attempted. The survey may begin on any station. In fig 5.2 (a),
the order of measuring the sides is AB, BD, DA and check line AG. In measuring
line BD, a ranging pole should be left at G. it will serve as check point for triangle
BCD, producing check line CG. Only the lines BC and CD remain to be measured to
complete the second triangle.

 Offsetting

Offsets are short lengths measured to all points of detail from points along
the main frame-work lines. These latter points are called chainages. Thus, any

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point of detail must have at least two measurements to fix its position, namely a
chainage and an offset. Fig 5.3 shows surveyors measuring an offset to a tree
which lies close to a main framework line.

Fig 5.3: Surveyors measuring offset to a tree

Wherever possible, the offsets are measured at right angles to the survey lines,
the right angle being judged by eye.

c) Recording the Survey Notes

 Referencing the survey

The first task in booking is to make a reference sketch of the survey as a

whole. The sketch is drawn to show the main survey stations in their correct
relationship. Fig 5.4 is the reference sketch of the survey of the building site
shown in fig 5.1.

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 Fig 5.4: Reference sketch of the site

 Booking the details

In fig 5.2, the details to be surveyed from the main survey lines include the road,
hedges, fences, building and stream. These are surveyed by taking offsets, at
selected chainages, along the main survey lines. Fig 5.5 shows line BC being
measured in the direction of B towards C. B is positioned on the survey line at the
bottom of the page and the booking proceeds up the page.

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 Fig 5.5: Booking of line BC

METHOD OF PLOTTING THE SURVEY

The chains survey network of lines is first plotted in pencil As follows:

(a) Base Line

The base line is positioned on the drawing sheet in such a way that the
whole area will be contained within the limits of the paper. Its full length is then
scaled off, including the position of any line stations along it.

(b) Triangles

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 The length of one of the lines to the first point to be plotted is extracted
from the field book and set to scale on a compass to draw an arc.

The second arc length is similarly drawn at intersection to give the plot of
the first point; the position of the check line is drawn. This is scaled and confirmed
to agree with the field measurement.

Each triangle is plotted and checked in the same way until the whole
framework has been plotted making sure that no check measurements have been
omitted and that no plotting errors exist.

(c) Offsets

The running chainage along the lines can be scaled off along the main lines
on the plot and light pencil lines drawn perpendicular to them along which the
offset distances are scaled.

(d) Detail Drawing

As the offsets are plotted they are joined up in pencil to correspond the
features noted in the field book. Tie lines must be scaled to check the plotted
positions of points as they arise.

(e) Fair Drawing

Once the pencil plot has been completed and checked the chain survey
network of lines (not the offsets or tie lines) is inked in red and the fair drawing
completed.

WEEK 6:

FIELD PROBLEMS IN CHAIN SURVEYING

(OBSTACLES) AND WAYS OF OVERCOMING THEM

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 It occasionally happens that a survey has to be made on a field where
obstacles are encountered like a pond, sanding crops or a small wood in the
middle, river etc. In such cases, it is not possible to employ direct chaining; other
methods are used for solving the problems.

1. OBSTACLES OBSTRUCTING CHAINING BUT NOT RANGING

 Suppose a line across a lake is needed AB. Perpendicular lines /AC/ and
/BD/ are set out at A and B such that /AC/ = /BD/. Then the line /CD/ can be
chained which is parallel and equal to /AB/.

Fig 6.1: Case 1

 Where setting right angles are not possible, a point C is set out clear of the
obstruction. D and E are placed midway along the lines /AC/ and /CB/
respectively. /ED/ is measured and twice this distance gives the length of
/AB/. Other ratios for similar triangles such as 1:3 instead of 1:2 may be
used depending on the surrounding obstructions.

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 Fig 6.2: Case 2

 Alternatively, a point is chosen clear of the obstruction denoted as Measure

/AE/ and /BE/, then extend them respectively to C and D such that /AE/ =
/EC/ and /BE/ = /ED/. /DC/ is then equal and parallel to AB.

Fig 6.3: Case 3

2. OBSTACLES OBSTRUCTING RANGING BUT NOT CHAINING (NON

INTERVISIBILITY)

There are two types of such obstacles:

1) Both ends of the line may be visible from intermediate points. Example of
such obstacles are intervening hills and valleys. These obstacles to ranging
can be overcome by resorting to reciprocal ranging.

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 2) Both ends of the line may not be visible from intermediate points on the
line. Examples of such obstacles are intervening jungles or bushes. This
obstacle to ranging can be overcome by measuring along a random line as
shown in fig 6.4. In this case, obstructed length EB = √EC2+CB2.

Fig 6.4: Obstacle to Ranging

3) OBSTACLES OBSTRUCTING BOTH RANGING AND CHANGING

Building is a typical example of this type. Any one of the four methods
shown in fig 6.5 can be employed.

i. Select two convenient points A and B on the line. Erect perpendiculars AC

and BD to line AB such that make AB = BC. Continue CD and select points E
and F beyond obstacle. Drop perpendiculars to CF at E and F and make EG =
FH = AC. Then GH is the orientation of the line beyond obstacle and
obstructed length BG = DE [Ref fig 6.5 (i)].
ii. Select two convenient points A and B on the line. Erect perpendicular BC to
line AB and make AC = BD. Continue AC to D and set DH perpendicular to
AD. Make DH = AD. Select E making DE = DC. With F as center and radius =
BC draw an arc which intersect the arc drawn from H with radius = BC. Let
the point of intersection be G. then GH is the continuation of line AB and
obstructed length BC = CE [Ref fig 6.5 (ii)].

~ 34 ~
Fig 6.4: Obstacles to both Chaining and Ranging

~ 35 ~
 WEEK 7:

LEVELLING

PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS

Levelling is defined as the process of measuring the difference in height

between points on the surface of the earth.

 Level surface or Level Line

This is a surface or line in which all points are at the same height and
normal or at right angle to the full of gravity.

 A Horizontal surface or Horizontal line

This is a plane flat surface or straight line which passes through a point at
right angle to the pull of gravity at that point. It is therefore a tangent to the curve
of a level surface.

 A Datum Surface

Datum surface is any level surface to which the elevations of all points may
be referred. The mean sea level is usually adopted as datum.

~ 36 ~
  A Reduced Level

The reduced level of a point is its height or elevation above the surface
adopted as a datum

 Bench marks

Bench marks are stable reference points the reduced levels of which are
accurately determined by levelling.

 Back sight

This is the first reading taken with a leveling instrument in a leveling

operation.

 Foresight

This is the last reading taken in a leveling operation.

 Intermediate Sight

This is the reading taken between the back sight and foresight in a leveling
operation.

 Turning Point or Change Point

A change point or turning point is a staff station on which two staff readings
are taken without changing the position of the instrument.

Fig 7.1: Some levelling terms

~ 37 ~
SURVEYOR’S LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS

There are three basic types of level in common use, namely:

(a) Dumpy level

(b) Tilting level
(c) Automatic Level
Other types of level include:

Hand levels, bricklayer’s level, Cowley level, spirit level, digital level etc.

 Brick layers level:

This is the simplest form of level. It consists of glass tube filled with liquid
which contains an air bubble. This tube is set in a wooden block in such a way that
when the instrument is placed upon a horizontal surface, the bubbles float
centrally in the tube.

Fig 7.2: Bricklayers level

 Cowley level

This is a modern builder’s instrument. It has no telescope nor leveling

bubble but by mean of reflecting mirrors one attached to a pendulum contained
in a metal case about 130mm square by 50mm thick. The instrument shows a
horizontal line of sight claimed to be accurate within 6mm per 30m.

~ 38 ~
 Fig 7.3: Cowley level
 Spirit Level

This consists of a glass tube in shape and filled with spirit. A small air bubble
is enclosed in it. This tube is inserted in a wooden container and a metal strip is
fixed at the top to protect the glass cylinder.

Fig 7.4: Spirit level

 Leveling staff

The vertical distance above or below the horizontal surface is read off a
leveling staff. It may be either telescope or folding extending to a length of 4m or
5m and graduated to be easily read in the field.

~ 39 ~
 The staff must be held vertically as any leaning of the staff will result in a
level reading which is too great. Reading can be taken by holding the staff lightly
between the palms of both hands on either side of the staff.

Fig 7.5: Levelling staff

LINE OF COLLIMATION

The line of collimation of a telescope is the line of sight defined by the

optical centre of the object glass and the centre of the cross bars.

As long as the distance between the two points and the level are equal then
the error taken in the reading will be equal. Therefore the difference between the
two points can be worked out even if the level is faulty.

Fig 7.6: Line of Collimation

~ 40 ~
 WEEK 8:

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING LEVELLING

DATUM

For all surveys a level line is chosen to which the elevation of all point is
related to as datum or datum surface.

 This can be any surface but the most commonly used datum is mean sea
level measured as ordinance datum. All points referred to ordinance datum
are said to have their height above ordinance datum (AOD).
 On many construction and Civil Engineering sites, mean sea level is not
often used as a datum for leveling. Instead, a permanent feature of some
sort is chosen on which to base all works and this is given an arbitrary
height (referred to as datum) to suite the site conditions.

CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF BENCH MARKS

Bench marks are permanent reference marks or points whose reduced

levels are accurately determined by leveling. They are classified into two namely:

1. Permanent or ordinance bench marks (OBM), and

2. Temporary or transferred bench marks (TBM)

1. Permanent or ordinance bench marks (OBM)

Ordinance bench marks are those which have been established by the
ordinance survey and are based on the ordinance datum.

The most common types are permanently marked on buildings and walls by
a cut in vertical brickwork or masonry or indicated by an arrow or crows foot
mark.

~ 41 ~
 On horizontal surface, OBM consist of a rivet or bolt with the position of
the reduced level shown for both types.

All ordinance survey bench marks (OBM) have been in place for some time
and may be affected by physical disturbance or local subsidence. To safeguard
against this, it is always advisable to include at least two OBM in leveling schemes
where ordinance datum is being used.

Fig 8.1: OBM

2. Temporary or transferred bench marks (TBM)

These are marks set up on stable points near construction sites to which all
leveling operations on that particular site will be referred.

 These are often used when there is no ordinance bench mark (OBM) close
to the site.
 The height of TBM may be assumed at some convenient value (usually
100.00m) or may be accurately established by leveling from the nearest
OBM.
 The position of TBM should be fixed during the initial site reconnaissance.
Permanent existing features should be used where possible. In practice,
20mm diameter steel bolts 100mm long are driven into existing door steps,
foot path, low wall etc.

Any TBM set up on site must be leveled with reference to main bench mark
(OBM) or some other agreed datum.

~ 42 ~
 Fig 8.2: TBM

PROCEDURE IN LEVELING

Fig 8.3: Procedure in Levelling

~ 43 ~
 The level of set up at some convenient position P1 and a back sight was
taken to the first TBM. The foot of the staff being held on TBM and the staff
held vertically.
 The staff is moved to points A and B in turn and readings taken. These are
the intermediate sights respectively.
 In order to read D, a change point is chosen at C and the staff is moved to C.
This is the foresight for the first point (P1).
 While the staff remains at C the instrument is moved to another position
(P2). A reading is taken from the new position of the staff at C. This is the
back sight for P2.
 The staff is moved to D and E in turn and the intermediate sight readings
taken respectively.
 Finally, the level is moved to P3 and a back sight is taken to E, while the
foresight is also taken to the final TBM.
 The final staff position is at a point of known reduced level as leveling field
work must start and finish at points of known reduced level; otherwise it is
not possible to detect misclosure in the leveling.

Fig 8.4: A surveyor performing leveling work

~ 44 ~
 BOOKING AND REDUCTION OF LEVEL
There are two method of booking and reduction of level namely;

 Rise and fall method

 Height of instrument method (Height of collimation method)
1. HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD

The following formula will serve as a guide to the reduction of level by this
method;

(i) B. S + R. L = H. I

(ii) H. I – I .S = R. L (new)

(iii) H. I. (old) – F. S = R. L (new) at change point

(iv) R. L. (new) + B.S = H. I. (new)

Check: The difference between the sum of B. S and the F. S should equal the
known difference in height (R.L) between starting and finishing points.

Example

The following staff readings were taken along a straight length of a road.
Reduce the level and check the accuracy of the readings using Height of
instrument method.

~ 45 ~
Solution

2. RISE AND FALL METHOD

Example

The following staffs reading were taken along a straight length of a railway
track. Reduce the level and check the accuracy of the readings using Rise and fall
method.

~ 46 ~
Checking:

(ΣBS -ΣFS) = (ΣRise - ΣFall) = (R.L Last - R.L first)

(5.798-2.460) = (4.146 – 0.808) = (34.855 – 31.517)

3.338 = 3.338 = 3.338

Exercise:

(a). The table below shows the result of a leveling operation to determine the
reduced level of a roof. Re-book the figures by using rise and fall method and
apply the necessary checks.

~ 47 ~
(b) The following readings were taken with a level and a 4m staff; 0.683, 1.109,
1.838, 3.399, (3.877 and 0.1451) change point, 1.405, 1.896, 2.676, 3.478, (3.999
and 1.834) change point, 0.649, 0.706.

(i) Draw up a level book page and reduce the level by rise and fall method.

(ii) Check the accuracy of the work.

(c) The figures tabulated below is all that remain visible on a much battered page
from a leveling book owing to exposure to rain. By inspection of the remaining
figures, fill in the queried entries by inserting the missing figures and apply the
necessary checks.

~ 48 ~
(d) The table below shows the result of a leveling operation to determine the
reduced level of a roof. Re-book the figures by using rise and fall method and
apply the necessary checks.

~ 49 ~
~ 50 ~
 WEEK 9:

USES OF LEVELLING

Apart from the determination of difference in level between points on

earth’s surface, other uses of leveling include.

(1) Taking of longitudinal section

(2) Cross- sections
(3) Contouring
(4) Setting out levels
(1) Longitudinal Section

In Engineering Surveying, a longitudinal section (or profile) is taken along

the complete length of the existing ground level. Levelling can be used to
measure heights at points on the centre line so that the profile can be plotted.

(2) Cross - sections

In the construction of other projects such as roads and railways, existing

ground level information at right angle to the centre line is required. This is
provided by taking cross sections at right angles to the centre line such that
information is obtained over the full width of the proposed construction.

For the best possible accuracy in sectioning, a cross–section should be

taken at every point leveled on the longitudinal section. In order to reduce the
amount of field work involved, cross-section are taken at regular intervals along
the centre- line usually where pegs have been established.

A right angle is set out at each cross-section either by eye for short lengths
or by theodolite for long distance or where greater accuracy is needed.

~ 51 ~
 A ranging rod is placed on either side of the centre line to mark each cross –
section.

(3) Contouring

A coutour is defined as an imaginary line joining points of the same height

or elevation above or below a datum. These are shown so that the relief or
topography of an area can be interpreted (a factor greatly used in civil
engineering).

Fig 9.1: Contour

The difference in height between successive contours is known as the

vertical interval (VI) and this interval dictates the accuracy to which the ground is
represented. The value of (VI) chosen for any application depends on;

(a) Scale of the plan

(b) Intended use of the plan

(c) The costs involved

(d) The nature of the terrain

Generally, a small vertical interval of up to 1m is required for engineering

projects, large scale survey plans and surveys on fairly even sites. A wider vertical
interval is used in hilly or broken terrain.

~ 52 ~
 Electronic instruments such as total stations are normally used to collect
data for contouring and contours are plotted by using computer software and
hardware.

Fig 9.2: A map showing contours

METHODS OF CONTOURING
 Grid leveling

The area to be contoured is divided into a series of lines forming squares

and ground levels are taken at the intersection of the grid lines. The sides of the
squares can be 5 to 30m depending on the accuracy required and the nature of
the ground surface. The more irregular the ground surface the greater the
concentration of grid points.

This method of contouring is ideally suited to gently sloping areas but the
setting out of the grid on a large area can take a considerable time. Furthermore,
if visibility is restricted across the site, difficulties can occur when locating grid
points.

~ 53 ~
 Following the field work, the levels are reduced, the grid is plotted and the
contours interpolated either graphically or mathematically, taking into account
the general shape of the land as observed during the fieldwork.

 Contours from Selected Points

For large areas or areas containing a lot of detail, contours can be drawn
from level taken at points of detail or at prominent points on open ground such as
obvious changes of slope. These points will have been plotted on the plan by one
of the methods of plotting with the position of each level or spot height forming a
random pattern. The contours are drawn by interpolation as in grid levelling.

Other methods of contouring are;

 Contouring by section.
 Contouring by radiating lines contouring by tacheometry.
 Interpolating contours.
 Direct and Indirect contouring

CONTOUR CHARACTERISTICS

Fig 9.3: Contour characteristics (i)

(i) Contour lines close upon themselves some where each to its own elevation. If
not within the limit of the map.
~ 54 ~
(ii) Contour lines cannot intersect one another whether they are of the same
elevation or not.

(iii) Coutour lines on the tops of ridges and in the bottom of valleys either close or
run in pairs within the limits of the map, no single line can ever run between two
of higher or lower elevation.

Fig 9.3: Contour characteristics (ii)

(iv) Contour lines indicate uniform slopes when they are equally spaced, convex
slopes when they are farther apart with increasing elevations and concave slopes
when becoming closer together with increasing elevations.

USES OF CONTOUR MAPS

1. Location of possible routes for roads, dams etc.

2. Laying out building sites: The position of hill tops, basins, steep slopes, etc can
be seen from contour plans to avoid siting buildings on exposed hill top and
risking possible soil creep, or in basins which may form natural drainage area.

3. Calculation of volumes.

4. Determination of intervisibility between stations.

~ 55 ~
 SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELLING

There are five source of errors in leveling and their importance must be
appreciated and precaution taken to reduce their effects. These sources includes,

1. Instrumental error in equipment

2. Error in handling the equipment

3. Error due to displacement of equipment

4. Error in reading and booking

5. Error due to natural causes.

 ERRORS IN EQUIPMENT

(a) Collimation Errors

This can be a serious source of error in leveling if sight length from one
instrument position is not equal since the collimation error is proportional to the
difference in sight length. Hence in all types of leveling, sights should be kept
equal particularly by back sight and the foresights.

(b) Parallax:

This effect must be eliminated before any readings are taken.

(c) Defect of the Staff

 This is possible that staff graduations may be incorrect and new repaired
staff should be checked against the steel tape. Particular attention should
be paid to the base of the staff to see if it has become badly worn.
 This does not affect height difference if the same staff is used for all the
leveling, but introduces some errors if two staffs are being used for the
same sources of levels.
 When using a three section staff it is important to ensure that the staff is
properly extended by examining the graduations on either staff of each
joint. If the joints became loose, the staff should be returned for repair.

~ 56 ~
(d) The Pod Defect:

The stability of tripods should be checked before any field work commence
by testing to see the tripod head is screwed and the shoes at the base of each are
not loose.

 ERRORS IN HANDING EQUIPMENT

(a) Staff Not vertical

Since the staff is used to measure a vertical difference between ground and
line of collimation, failure to hold the staff vertical will result in incorrect readings.

(b) Instrument not Level

 For automatic level this source of error is unusual, but for a tilting level in
which the tilting screws has to be adjusted for each reading.
 This is a common mistake, the best procedure here to ensure that the main
bubble is centralized before and after a reading is taken.
 ERRORS IN READING AND BOOKING

(a) Extra care must be taken when reading the staff since an inverted images
result in faulty reading being recorded by inexperienced observer, although the
image usually diminishes with practice

(b) Another source of reading error is sighting the staff over too long distance
when it becomes impossible to take accurate reading. It is therefore
recommended that sighting distance should be limited to 60m, but where
absolutely unavoidable this may be increased to a maximum of 100m.

(c) Many mistakes are made during the booking of the readings and the general
rule is that staff sightings must be carefully entered into the leveling table
immediately after reading.

 Errors Due to Displacement of Equipment

(a) If the instrument is setup on soft or marshy ground, it may settle and alter the
height of collimation.

~ 57 ~
(b) Change points must be chosen so that when turning the staff round or when
replacing it after removal no alteration of height takes place. Always choose
stable change points on hand ground and mark the staff position with chalk.

 Errors due to Natural Causes

(a) The wind causes vibration of the level, tripod and the staff particularly when it
is fully extended thereby making accurate sighting impossible. Always shelter the
staff and keep short sights on windy weather. The staff should also be kept short.

(b) The sun can cause an apparent vibration of the staff owing to irregular
refraction. It also affects the bubble by causing unequal expansion of the level
and tripod. In hot weather length of sight are reduced to at least 0.5m above the
ground through- out the length. The ray-shade in front of the instrument should
be extended or shade the instrument with umbrella.

(c) Rain makes accurate work difficult and unpleasant; rain dropping on the
objective glass and condensation on the eye piece make sighting impossible. For
precise work it is advisable to wait for better weather condition or ray shade can
be used or protecting the instrument with umbrella.

~ 58 ~
 WEEK 10:

THEODOLITES

Theodolites are telescopic instruments used basically for measuring both

vertical and horizontal angles. They are also useful in determining horizontal and
vertical distances by stadia prolonging straight lines and low order differential
levelling. Theodolites are precision instruments used extensively in construction
work for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes.

Many different theodolites are available for measuring angles and they are
often classified according to the smallest reading that can be taken with the
instrument known as the Theodolite Resolution.

Theodolite Resolution.

This can vary from 1’ to 0.1’’ and for example, a 1’’ theodolite is one which
can be used read to 1’’ directly without any estimation. At this point, it is worth
noting that a full circle is 3600 and a reading system capable of resolving to
1’’directly shows the degree of precision in the manufacture of theodolites. In
order to measure horizontal and vertical angles, the theodolite must be centred
over a point using a plumbing device and must be levelled to bring the angle
reading systems of the instrument into appropriate planes. All types of optical
theodolites are similar in construction and the general features of the SOKKIA
TM20H are shown in figures below.

UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

The units of the angular measurements may be in the form of degrees

(sexa-gestimal in the form of degrees, minutes and seconds) in sixty equal
divisions, in radians or in grads.

~ 59 ~
Sexa-gestimal system

Angular measurement have been referred to circles with secondary

graduations which sub-divided each degree into 10 minutes or 20 minutes
interval. A venire or micrometer sub-divisions then gives the reading down to
seconds. The system is referred to as sexagestimal (Latin Sexa genta, sixty) since
there are 60 seconds in each one minutes.

A radian

A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of the

circle equal in length to its radius. That subtended by a circumference of a circle is
one complete turn (2π = 360o]

2π radian = 360o

∴ 1 radian = 360 = 180

2π π

= 27o 17’ 45”

= 206265 seconds

This constant factor is of vital importance in small angles calculations and

for conversion of degrees to radians. To convert angles in a radian back to
degrees, it is multiplied by (π/180)

Examples

1. Convert 64o 11’ 33’’ to radians

Solution

640 11’ 33’’ = 231093 seconds

But, 1 radian = 206265 seconds

~ 60 ~
 Number of radian = 231093 = 1.12037 rad.

206265

∴ 64o 11’ 33’’ = 1.12037 radians

BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN OPTICAL THEODOLITE

The various parts of a theodolite and their functions are given as follows;

Fig 10.1: Parts of Theodolites

~ 61 ~
Alidade level

Transparent tube that contains liquid and an air bubble; it serves as a guide for
positioning the alidade on the vertical axis.

Illumination mirror

Adjustable polished glass surface that reflects light onto the circles so that the
angles can be read.

Leveling head

Platform serving as a support for the theolodite.

Horizontal clamp

Knob that locks the alidade to prevent it from rotating.

Leveling head locking knob

Knob that locks the alidade to the leveling head.

Leveling head level

Transparent tube that contains liquid and an air bubble; it serves as a guide for
positioning the leveling head on the horizontal axis.

Base plate

Plate to which the leveling head is attached by means of three leveling screws.

Leveling screw

Screw that adjusts the theodolite’s leveling head level on the horizontal plane.

Telescope

Optical instrument composed of several lenses; it can be adjusted in the

horizontal and vertical planes and is used to observe distant objects.

~ 62 ~
Optical sight

Device with an eyepiece that precisely aims the telescope at the target whose
angles are to be measured.

Adjustment for horizontal-circle image

Knob that adjusts the sharpness of the image of the horizontal circle (graduated
from 0° to 360°) in order to read the angles on the horizontal axis.

Micrometer screw

Knob that adjusts the micrometer to give a very precise reading of the circles’

measurements.

Adjustment for vertical-circle image

Knob that adjusts the sharpness of the image of the vertical circle (graduated
from 0° to 360°) in order to read the angles on the vertical axis.

Alidade

Part of the theodolite that rotates on a vertical axle to measure angles by means
of the telescope.

The trivets stage

This forms the base of the instrument and in order to be able to attach the
theodolite to the tripod, most tripods have a clamping screw which locates into a
5/8 inch threaded centre on the trivet. This enables the instrument to move on
the tripod head and allows the theodolite to be centred. The trivet also carries
the feet of three threaded levelling foot screws.

The tripod

This is used to provide support for the theodolite, the tripod may be telescopic
i.e. it has sliding legs or may have legs of fixed lengths.

~ 63 ~
The Tribrach

This is the body of the instrument carrying all other parts. It has a hollow slightly
conical shape socket into which fits the reminder of the instrument. The tribrach
can be levelled independently of the trivet stage.

The lower plate

This carries the horizontal circle. The term glass arc has been used to describe
optical theodolites because the horizontal and vertical circles on which the angle
graduations are photographically etched are made of glass. Many types of optical
theodolite are available, varying in reading precision from 1’ to 0.1’’ although 20’’
and 6’’ reading theodolites are most commonly used in engineering surveying.

The focusing screw

This is fitted concentrically with the barel of the telescope and diaphram can be
illuminated for night or tunnel wok. When the main telescope is rotated in
altitude about the trunnion axis from one direction to face in the opposite
direction, it has been transmitted. The side of the main telescope, viewed from
the eyepiece, containing the vertical circle is called the face.

Standards

This is the frame mounted directly on the cover plate carrying the telescope.

Transit axis or trunnion axis

This axis rests on the limbs of the standard and is securely held in position by a
lock nut. Attached to the transit are the telescope and the vertical circle. When
this is levelled, that is at the centre of its run, the line of sight is horizontal.

Optical plummet

This assists the centering of the instrument particularly in windy weather.

~ 64 ~
 WEEK 11:

COMPASS SURVEYING

Compass surveys are mainly used for the rapid filling of the detail in larger
surveys and for explanatory works. It does not provide a very accurate
determination of the bearing of a line as the compass needle aligns itself to the
earth’s magnetic field which does not provide a constant reference point.

THE PRISMATIC COMPASS

Fig 11.1: Compass

~ 65 ~
 This is an instrument used for the measurement of magnetic bearings. It is
small and portable usually carried on the hand. This Prismatic Compass is one of
the two main kinds of magnetic compasses included in the collection for the
purpose of measuring magnetic bearings, with the other being the Surveyor's
Compass. The main difference between the two instruments is that the surveyor's
compass is usually the larger and more accurate instrument, and is generally used
on a stand or tripod.

 The prismatic compass on the other hand is often a small instrument which
is held in the hand for observing, and is therefore employed on the rougher
classes of work. The graduations on this prismatic compass are situated on
a light aluminium ring fastened to the needle, and the zero of the
graduations coincides with the south point of the needle. The graduations
therefore remain stationary with the needle, and the index turns with the
sighting vanes. Since the circle is read at the observer's (rather than the
target's) end, the graduations run clockwise from the south end of the
needle (0º to 360º), whereas in the surveyor's compass, the graduations
run anticlockwise from north.
 The prismatic attachment consists of a 45º reflecting prism with the eye
and reading faces made slightly convex so as to magnify the image of the
graduations. The prism is carried on a mounting which can be moved up
and down between slides fixed on the outside of the case.
 The purpose of this up-and-down movement is to provide an adjustment
for focusing. The image of the graduations is seen through a small circular
aperture in the prism mounting, and immediately above this aperture is a
small V cut on top of the mounting, over which the vertical wire in the front
vane may be viewed. When the V cut, the vertical wire and the station
whose bearing is required are viewed in one line, the bearing is directly
read off the graduated arc at the point immediately underneath the vertical
wire.
 The oblong mirror located in front of the forward vane slides up and down
the vane, and is hinged to fold flat over it or to rest inclined at any angle
with it. This mirror is used for solar observations, or for viewing any very

~ 66 ~
 high object, and is not a normal fitting to a compass. The two circular discs
in front of the back vane are dark glasses which can be swung in front of
the vane when solar observations are being taken.

COMPONENTS OF A PRISMATIC COMPASS

Prismatic compass consists of a non-magnetic metal case with a glass top

and contain the following:

a. The Pivot: This is made of hardened steel ground to a fine tip.

b. The jewel: It is usually supported by a pivot.

c. The needles: Made of magnetized steel which is attached to the jewel.

d. The compass ring or card: graduated like a protractor from 0o to 360o in a

clockwise direction which is attached to the needle.

e. A spring brake: It is operated by the brake pin for damping the oscillations of
the needle and card.

f. A lifting level: For raising the card and needle off the pivot when not in use.

OPERATION PROCEDURE

 Remove the corner and open out the prism and window, holding the
compass as level as possible.
 Then focus the prism by raising or lowering its case until the divisions
appear sharp and clear. If necessary with the needle on to its pivot.
 Holding the compass box with the thumb under the prism (T) and the
forefinger near the stud (c), sight through the objector station lowering the
eye to read the required bearing as soon as the needle comes to rest
naturally (or by simultaneously damping its swings by pressing the stud (c)].
 The bearing read will be a forward bearing and normally a “whole circle”
bearing clockwise angle between 0o to 360o.

~ 67 ~
VARIATION IN DECLINATION

The position of the magnetic poles is not fixed and the North magnetic pole
tends to wander more than the south causing alterations in the positions of the
isogonic lines from time to time. The angle of declination at any point is therefore
not constant subject to the following variations;

1. Secular Variation:

This causes the largest variation in magnetic declination. It is a slow

continuous swing with a cycle of about 400 to 500 years. Because of this large
movement, the date, the declination and the approximate rate of annual change
should be given for any magnetic orientation of survey.

2. Diurnal Variation:

This is a swing of the compass needle about its mean daily position.

3. Periodic Variation:

This is a minor variation of the magnetic meridian during the week, a

lunar month, year, eleven years, etc.

4. Irregular Variation: These are caused by magnetic storms

which can produce sudden variations of the magnetic meridian.

Magnetic Bearing

The magnetic bearing of a survey line is the angle between the direction of the

line and the direction of the magnetic meridian at the beginning of the line.

Magnetic Meridian

The magnetic meridian at any place is the direction obtained by observing

the position of a freely supported magnetized needle when it comes to rest
uninfluenced by local attracting forces.

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 Magnetic meridians run roughly north –south and follow the varying trend
of the earth’s magnetic field. The direction of a magnetic meridian does not
coincide with the true or geographical meridian which gives the direction of the
true North pole except in certain places.

Angle of Declination:

It is defined as the angle between the direction of the magnetic meridian

and the true meridian at any point.

Isogonals:

Are lineSon a map joining places of equal declination. The isogonic line of
zero declination along which the direction of a compass indicates True North is
known as an agonic line.

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 WEEK 12:

INTERPRETATION OF MAPS, LAYOUT AND

ENGINEERING SURVEY PLAN

Maps and Plans

The presentation of the measurements made in land surveying is in the

form of maps, plans or diagram with the information recorded in a suitable
manner on the drawing by the scale representation, use of conversional signs,
tabulation of notes, etc. The most suitable method of representing the
information depends on the nature of the survey work.

 On maps, the scale is too small to allow every feature to be properly

presented to scale. Thus conversional symbols are used to represent
feature which would otherwise be too small to be recognized.
 Plans on the other hand show all features on the ground correctly to scale.
Symbols or methods are used to represent ground features on a plan.
Different organizations have slightly different conversions for representing
detail on plans, but the best are those forms which are simple, clear, and
cannot be misinterpreted.

TYPES OF MAPS

There are different types of maps namely:

1. Geographical maps

2. Atlas

3. Topographical maps

4. Engineering maps

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 Fig 12.1: A Map with conventional symbols

GENERAL REQUIREMENT OF A MAP OR PLAN

Fig 12.2: Map requirements

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(a) The title

(b) The scale

(c) The North Point (north direction)

(d) Border lines

(e) An explanation or legend, as to the symbols employed.

(f) A terrier, showing the acreages held by various owners

(g) The surveyor’s sign.

Special requirements include:

(h) Contours, bachures or spot levels.

(i) Constructional lines and symbols for building and civil engineering works.

(j) Location of the survey

(k) Details of the control grid used

MAP SCALES

The scale of a map or plan is the ratio of ground length (distance) to the
map or plan length on paper. Thus a scale of 1:000 indicates that one metre on
the paper represents 1000metres on the ground.

Scales of this category are drawn on the map to facilitate measurement

with a paper strip or a pair of dividers and to provide against the shrinkage of the
paper over the lapse of years.

Types of scales include:

 Comparative scales

Comparative scales show two different systems such as feet and metres on
the same representative fraction or statement. This can be in the form of Imperial

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scales (under the imperial old system scale) represented by a length in inches on
paper being equivalent to a distance in some other unit on the ground.

Example;

• I inch = 66ft. or 6in = 1 mile etc.

Metric scale are usually preferred with a

• Basic scale of 1:1250, 1:2500 and 1:10,000 for a large scale maps.

• Small scale maps; scales of 1:50,000, 1:2500, 1:50,000, 1:100,000 are used.

• For site plans, a scale of 1:500, 1:200, 1:100 or 1:50 are used.

• Detail plans scales of up to 1:20, 1:10, 1:5 or 1:1 (full size) may be used.

Time scale

Time scale show time interest instead of yards, feets or metres for a given
statement or representative fraction. It is used in military surveying or exploratory
mapping.

Diagonal Scale

This is a form of scale which allows measurement to a higher degree of

accuracy than on a normal scale. Instead of estimating the distance between
small graduations a diagonal is extended upwards to provide an enlargement of
the space.

PRINCIPLES OF PLAN PRODUCTION

When producing a hand drawn plan, the procedures involved include;

(1) The accuracy of the survey is specified

(2) Suitable drawing paper or film is chosen.

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 (3) An accurate co-ordinate grid is established on the drawing paper or film
at the required scale and the control network is plotted.

(4) The positions of the features in the are located on site are plotted on
the drawing

(5) Once the detail has been plotted, the plan is completed by adding a title
block containing the location of the survey, a north sign, the scale, the date,
the key or legend and other relevant information.

 In practice, if a hand drawing is being produced, the original survey plan is

usually prepared in pencil by surveyor who undertake the field work known
as the master survey drawing, when it has been completed, the master
drawing is then traced in ink onto plastic film by a trained draught man,
 During the tracing stage, other relevant information is added to that shown
on the master drawing to produce the completed survey plan.

Computer aided drawing are being produced with a computer software on

special multi-pen plotters. A wide range of such software and plotters is now
available which enables survey plans to be produced very quickly to a high degree
of accuracy.

 For example, field survey information is stored in a data base to prepare a

three –dimensional representation of the ground surface known as a digital
terrain model (DTM).
 Using the data base and the DTM, plans, contour overlays, sections and
perspective views can be obtained at virtually any scale.
 If a computer aided drawing is being produced then any additional relevant
information can be programmed into the finished drawing and viewed on
the computer screen before the final plan is plotted.

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 WEEK 13:

MEASURING DISTANCE FROM MAP OR

PLAN

In order to obtain the distance between two points represented on a map

or plan, the procedure is simply to mark off the distance between the two points
with a pair of dividers or with the straight edge of a piece of paper and transfer it
to the scale bar or diagonal scale and read off the distance. If a scale graduated to
the scale of the map is available the distance on map is read off directly.

ORIENTATION

In order to establish direction of a given print on a map or plan, a line is

drawn between the two points and the angle which the line makes with some
fixed reference direction is measured. Every map or plan therefore indicates the
direction of this reference point usually towards the top of the drawing sheet
which may be one of the following.

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 Fig 13.1: World Map showing direction

(a) The direction of True north

(b) The direction of magnetic North

(c) The direction of any arbitrary line between two feature on the drawing

Measuring areas from the survey plot (Map or Plan)

Area can be calculated from a survey plot (map or plan) in one of the
following ways;

(a) By dividing the plot into geometrical features (triangles, squares or parallel
strips) and calculating the area of each from scaled dimensions.

(b) By scaling ordinates across the figure and calculating the area by Simpson’s
rule or the trapezoidal rule.

(c) By using a planimeter, which allows the area to be obtained mechanically from
reading off a graduated measuring unit.

PLAN DISTORTION

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 If measurements are made on plans with a scale and the plans are known
to have shrunk or stretch, allowance will have to be made for the alteration in
scale, if the amount of distortion is known.

Example:

A plan plotted to a scale of 1:2500 was found to have shrunk causing a line
plotted 300mm long to now measure 296mm. A distance was measured on the
plan and found to be 198mm long. What is the true distance on the ground?

Example

A plan, plotted to a scale of 1:500 was found to have stretched by 1%. A

line scaled on the plan produced a distance of 227.5m. What is the true distance?

Solution: -

Let the true distance be x

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EXERCISE:

(a) A field plan of an area of 17.436hectares covers 27900mm2 on paper. What is

the scale?

(b) A plan plotted to a scale of 1:250 was found to have stretched by 2%. A line
scaled on the plan produced a distance of 227.5m. What is the true distance?

WEEK 14:

THE NATIONAL GRID

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 The National grid is an imaginary network of lines parallel to and at right
angle to the central meridian of the projection so forming a series of square on
the maps. They are in a form of rectangular co-ordinates system device for the
following purpose.

 Plotting
 References
 Classification

Plotting:

It forms the basis for plotting the complex corves and the position of
coordinated survey stations.

Reference:

It provides a unique reference for any figure shown on the maps whereby
such features can be located with accuracy. The grid is therefore sufficient for
most people to device a simple reference system for their own purpose.

Four-figure grid references

When giving a four-figure grid reference, always give the eastings number
first and the northings number second. An easy way to remember this is to keep
in mind the letters HV (High Voltage), that is horizontal reading first followed the
vertical reading.

In the diagram below, the number 4 is in square 28 across (on the

horizontal) and square 54 up (on the vertical) and therefore, the four-figure grid
reference is ‘2854’.

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 Fig 14.1: Four figure Grid Referencing

The other numbers in the squares above would get the following grid reference.

1. 2755

2. 2855

3. 2754

4. 2854

In order to be a little more precise with your grid references, you can give a
6 figure grid reference as shown below.

Pink
Red

Fig 14.2: Six figure Grid Referencing

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 In the above diagram, we have taken the lower right square from the
previous diagram and divided it by 10 in each direction. The pink circle is in the
four-figure grid reference square ‘2552, but more accurately it is 2 tenths across
and 7 tenths up within that enlarged grid square, therefore the six-figure map
reference is ‘252527’. The red circle has a 6 figure grid reference of 257522.

Ireland is covered by the National Grid that is the country is divided into 25
squares from A to Z (the letter I is not used). When you quote the six-figure grid
reference you should put the letter of the area you are in before the numbers.

Classification: All the maps of the ordinance survey can be fitted into the grid
system in a precise manner and the grid reference of a point shown on any one
map is the same of all other maps of different scales.

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 WEEK 15:

SUBMISSION OF SURVEY RECORDS

SUBMISSION OF SURVEY RECORDS

The following survey information must be submitted by the surveyor to the

survey department or local authority in respect of each survey carried out,

(a) Plan on mounted paper (and a tracing on transparency).

(b) A work diagram showing how the survey was run.

(c) Field book which should contain realty drawn simple diagrams showing the
course and relevant turning points.

 If a wrong figure is written or if it is found necessary to alter any

measurements, the erroneous figures should be neatly crossed out (not
deleted) and the correct ones written above.
 To guide against fraud, such alterations should be signed by the surveyor or
booker.
 All bookings must be done in ink or bell point not be torn out of field books.
A signed honour certificate at the end of each book is necessary as follows:

“I certify that the figures in the foregoing field notes are the actual figures
recorded by me as a result of my measurements and observation in the field and
that the survey was made in accordance with regulations.

(d) Computations.

A survey report giving a brief, description of the method of survey carried

out, total length in metres and boundary lines, the types of country, any cause of
delay incurred and any contacts with chief or land owners during the survey.

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PRESERVATION OF SURVEY RECORDS

Survey records are preserved by the local authorities as follows:

1. Maps/Plans

 The survey regulation require that a copy of all plans, maps or diagrams
which are prepared by any surveyor (public or private) must be lodged with
the surveyor General of the State or his representative where the land is
situated.
 Private surveyors will be issued with a certificate of deposit on payment of
certain charge.
 All the maps/plans/drawing are expected to be kept good and safe within
the survey department ensuring that they are made available for public
inspection on request.

2. Public inspection on request (Co-ordinates)

Each state survey department maintains a co-ordinate register where the

coordinates of all cadastral control points and those of properties within the state
are recorded. These are expected to be made available to the public on request.
National frame work control co-ordinates are usually available at the Federal
Survey Department.

3. Priority Sheet (intelligence Chart)

This show application and grants of certificates of occupancy. It serves as a

guide for prospective land seekers in finding at a glance spot of unoccupied sites
in any locality of choice.

4. Beacons Description

Beacons description could be of extreme value if good advantages of their

existence could be taken by the owners or occupies of lands boundaries where
they are placed and those charged with the responsibility of providing the public
with utilities (water, electricity, telephone etc).

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 The law imposes a penalty on land owner or occupier who fails to report
any case of willful obliteration, removal or injury to any such beacons.

5. Township Map Index

Each town or city should be covered by a number of large scale map sheets
identified by numbers for easy reference. Township map indices are done at
compilation state, fair drawing stage and those at reproduction stage usually
distinguished by different colours.

6. Base lines information

These include the standard length of bases, the temperature at which they
have been determined, and the materials used for the erection of such bases.
Licensed surveyors are expected by the survey regulations to obtain a certificate
of standardization for their tapes at least once every year on payment of
stipulated fee.

7. Field Books Computation Sheets and Survey Records

These are usually kept together in a folder for each survey and keep in a
record room in the survey department along with such other related information.

GOOD LUCK
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