EDUC.

5
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
 What’s Inside?

Metacognition John Flavell

Novice vs. Expert Learners Fang & Cox
LCP Alexander & Murphy

STUDENT DIVERSITY
● Some tips on student diversity
● Learning Thinking Styles
● Multiple Intelligences
● Learners with Exceptionalities

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
● Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov
● Connectionism Theory Edward Thorndike
● Behaviorism Theory John Watson
● Operant Conditioning B.F.Skinner
● Purposive Behaviorism Edward Tolman
● Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
● Gestalt Theory Max Wertheimer
Wolfgang Kohler
Kurt Koffkha
● Field Theory (life spaces) Kurt Lewin
Information Processing Theory Atkinson And
Shiffrin
Conditions Of Learning Robert Gagne

BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY

GRASPING METACOGNITION
Metacognition is one’s capability to use prior knowledge to
strategize to approach a learning task, take necessary steps to
solve a problem, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one’s
approach as needed. We do metacognitive activities so often in
our daily lives. Metacognition is when you are experiencing some
difficulty with a topic you are studying, and you try out different
strategies to learn better.

The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell (1979,

1987) he stated that metacognition consists of both knowledge and
experiences or regulation. It is simply put as “thinking about
thinking” or learning how to learn”. It refers to higher-order thinking
which involves active awareness and control over cognitive
processes.

I. Categories of Metacognition
Person Variables - It is how one views himself as a learner
or a thinker. It is on how human beings learn and process
information and personal knowledge of one's own learning
process.

Task Variables - It is about the nature of the task as well as

the type of processing demands that it will place upon the
individual. It is to know what needs to be accomplished,
gauge its difficulty, and know the kind of effort it will demand
from you.

Strategy Variables - It involves awareness of your strategy

to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is
effective.

❖ Meta-attention - This is the awareness of specific strategies

to keep your attention focused on the topic or task at hand.
 ❖ Metamemory - This is the awareness of memory strategies
that work best for you.

II. Application of Metacognition based on Omrod

❖ Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory
capacities.
❖ Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish
within a certain amount of time.
❖ Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which
are not.
❖ Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be
successful.
❖ Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new
material.
❖ Monitoring one's own knowledge and comprehension.
❖ Using effective strategies for retrieval or previously stored
information.
❖ Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in
a purposeful manner to ensure that a goal is met.

III. Metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the

following questions according to Huit:

● What do I know about this subject, topic, or issue?

● Do I know what I need to know?
● Do I know where I can go to get some information
and knowledge?
● How much time will I need to learn this?
● What are some strategies and tactics that I can use
to learn this?

Iv. Metacognitive Strategies To Facilitate Learning

Metacognition involves knowledge and skills which
you and your students learn and master.
Teaching strategies to develop metacognition are the
following:
 1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.
2. Teach students to study or learn strategies such as:

● TQLR (Tune in, Question, Listen, and Remember can be

taught to younger students before listening to a story or
presentation.
● PQ4R (Preview, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and
Reflect) - this is usually for older students in the intermediate
levels and onwards this strategy is used to study a unit or
chapter.

1. Have students make predictions.

2. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures.
3. Have students develop questions.
4. Have students know when to ask for help.
5. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes,
values, and skills to other situations or tasks.

Differences Between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Novice Learners Expert Learners

Learning

Knowledge in ● Have limited ● Have a deep

different subject knowledge in the knowledge in
areas different subject Different subject
areas areas because

Problem Solving ● Satisfied at just ● First try to

scratching the understand the
surface; hurriedly problem, look for
gives a solution to boundaries, and
the problem Create a mental
picture of the
problem.

Learning/Thinking ● Employ rigid ● Design new

Strategies strategies that strategies that
may not be would
appropriate to the Be appropriate to
task at hand. the task at hand.

Selectivity in ● Attempt to ● Select important

Processing process all information to
information they process; able to
receive break down
information into
manageable
chunks.

Production of ● Do not examine ● Check their errors

Output the quality of their and redirect their
work, nor stop to efforts to maintain
make revisions quality output.

Topic Summary
❖ Metacognition Refers to a student's ability to be aware of
what they are thinking and helps them analyze how they
think.

❖ Metacognitive knowledge is subdivided into three

categories such as:
➢ knowledge of person variables,
➢ task variables, and
➢ strategy variables, (including meta-memory and
meta-attention)

❖ Application of metacognition leads one to be expert

learners while learners who do not use metacognition
remain to be novice learners.
 LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES (LCP)

The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the

learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the
following aspects:

● They focus on psychological factors that are primarily

internal to and under the control of the learner rather than
conditioned habits or psychological factors.
● The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners
in the context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they are
best understood as an organized set of principles; no
principle should be viewed in isolation.
● The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1)
cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and
affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) individual
differences factors influencing learners and learning.
● Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners -
from children to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and
to community members involved in our educational system.

A. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is
an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.

3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.

4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.

B. Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's
motivation. Motivation to learn in turn is influenced by the
individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
habits of thinking.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner's creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity
all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated
by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal choice and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to
learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

C. Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and
constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains are taken into account
- Appropriateness of material
- Intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains
- Macro skills- interest and level of student
- Prior or past experiences- from school, home, culture, and
community factors
- Early and continuing parental-language interactions and
two-way
- Awareness and understanding of developmental differences
among children.

D. Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies approaches and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity

13. Learning and Diversity

Learning is more effective when differences in learners' linguistic
cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing
the learner as well as learning processes including diagnostic test
process and outcome assessments are integral parts of the learning
process.
- Standardized assessment - provides one type of
information about achievement levels both within and across
individuals that can inform various types of programmatic
decisions.
 - Performance assessment - provides other sources of
information about the attainment of learning outcomes.
- Self-assessment - helps improve students' self-appraisal
skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

Summary of 14 Principles by Alexander and Murphy

1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the

foundation of all future learning

2. Strategic processing and control. Learners develop skills to

reflect and regulate their thoughts and behavior in order to learn
more effectively (metacognition).

3. Motivation and affect. Intrinsic (from within) and extrinsic (from

other) people motivation is needed.

4. Developmental and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique

journey for each person because each learner has his own unique
combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence it.

5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of society

as well as within an individual.
STUDENT
DIVERSITY
FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT STUDENT
DIVERSITY
In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who
are in some way different from them. It also comes from other
factors like the following:

● Socioeconomic status
● Thinking/learning style
● Exceptionalities

HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT?
1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.
“The classroom is peculiarly the marketplace of ideas.”
–William J. Brennan
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as
responsible members of society. “The classroom can
provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a
lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a
‘public place’ where the community can be practiced.”
–Suzanne Morse
4. Student diversity can promote harmony.
 SOME TIPS ON STUDENT DIVERSITY

1. Encourage learners to share their personal histories

and experiences.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which
promote students’ multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of
unity that transcend group differences. “ Every human
is, at the same time, like all other humans, like some
humans, and like no other human.” –Clyde Kluckholn
cited in Wong, 1991)
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all
sub-groups.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate
student diversity in learning styles.
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in
order to provide multiple contexts that are relevant to
students from diverse backgrounds.
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and
learning styles by allowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities concerning what they
will learn and how they will learn it.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating
student learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students
from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of
students with different learning styles, different
cultural backgrounds, etc
LEARNING THINKING STYLES & MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES

One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/

learning styles. Individuals think and learn in distinct ways. In
any group of learners, there will always be different learning
characteristics, particularly in the learners’ manner of processing
information. Some would absorb the lesson better when they
worked with their hands when they would just listen. Others would
prefer to watch a video about a topic. Students have preferred
ways of expressing their thoughts, feelings, and ideas. Some
would prefer to write, others would draw or even dance and sing.
These preferences involve thinking /learning styles and
multiple intelligences.
LEARNING/THINKING STYLES
Refer to the preferred way an individual processes information.
They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking, remembering,
or problem-solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to
be bipolar dimensions. For instance, your particular
learning/thinking styles would lie at a point in a continuum. Having
a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to
behave in a certain manner. Your style is usually described as a
personality dimension that influences your attitudes, values, and
social interaction.

There are several perspectives on learning-thinking styles. We

shall focus on sensory preferences and the global-analytical
continuum.
Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or
two types of sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of
the following types:

VISUAL LEARNERS. These learners must see their teacher’s

actions and facial expressions to fully understand the content of a
lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block
their view. They may think in pictures and learn best from visual
aids including diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead
transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and hand-outs. During a lecture
or a classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take
detailed notes to absorb information.

Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:

Visual Iconic - those who prefer this form of input are
more interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays,
or pictures in order to solidify learning. They usually have good
“picture memory”, a.k.a. Iconic imagery and attend to pictorial
detail. They would like to read a map better than a book.

Visual - Symbolic - those who prefer this form of input

feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical
formulae, or written words. They would prefer to read a book than
a map and would like to read about things rather than hear about
them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do not require
practical means of learning.
AUDITORY LEARNERS. They learn best through verbal lectures,
discussions, talking things through, and listening to what others
have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings
of speech by listening to the tone, pitch, speed, and other
nuances. Written information may have little meaning until it is
heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and
using a tape recorder. They can attend aurally for details,
translate the spoken word easily into the written word, and are not
easily distracted in their listening ability.

Auditory learners fall into two categories

the “Listeners”. This is the more common type of “listeners”
most likely to do well in school. Out of school too, they remember
things said to them and make the information their own. They may
even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to end
what they learn by reviewing in their heads what they heard
others say.

“The talkers” are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They
often find themselves talking to those around them in a class
setting when the instructor is not asking questions
auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to whisper comments
to themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive and may not
even realize that they need to talk.

TACTILE KINESTHETIC LEARNERS. Persons benefit much

from a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world
around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods.
They may not benefit so much from the discussion or the written
materials and may become distracted by their need for activity
and exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward
active, sensorimotor learning. They tend to prefer learning by
doing, preferring the use of psychomotor skills to say abstract
thinking skills. They tend to have good motor memory and motor
coordination.

GLOBAL - ANALYTICAL CONTINUUM

Analytic. Analytical thinkers tend to war the linear step-by-step

processes of learning they tend to see finite elements of patterns
rather than the whole; they are the “tree seers”. They are more
comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of information.

Global. Global thinkers lean toward non-linear thought and tend

to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements. They are
the “forest seers” who give attention only to the overall structure
and sometimes ignore details.

Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum

to the left-brain/right-brain continuum. In accordance with Roger
Sperry's model, the left-brained dominant individual is portrayed
as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the
right-brained person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear,
and holistic in thought preferences.

Both sides of the brain can reason but through different

strategies in an Individual, one side may be more dominant than
the other. The left brain is regarded as analytic in approach while
the right is described as holistic or global. A successive processor
(left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format,
beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a
skill. A simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn
beginning with the general concept and then going on to specifics.
See the comparison below:

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style

1. Verbal 1. Visual

2. Responds to word 2. Responds to tone of

meanings voice

3. Sequential 3. Random

4. Processes information 4. Processes information in

linearly varied order

5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion

6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive

 7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces

8. Speaks with gestures 8. Gestures when speaking

9. Punctual 9. Less punctual

10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music

background while studying

11. Prefers bright lights while 11. Prefers frequent mobility

studying while studying.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by
Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines
intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allow a person to
solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued and one or
more cultures”. Gardner believes that different intelligences may
be independent abilities- a person can be low in one domain area
but high in another. all of us possess the intelligences but in
varying degrees of strength. His most current research indicates
that there are nine distinct forms of intelligences. In order to
facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies that
match these kinds of intelligences. The nine kinds are:

● Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)

● Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart)
● Logical - Mathematical skills
● Bodily - Kinesthetic Skills
● Interpersonal Abilities
● Intrapersonal Abilities
● Musical Abilities
● Naturalistic Abilities
● Existential Intelligence

LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and student
diversity in learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly
refer to learners with exceptionalities as persons who are different in
some way from the “normal” or “average”. The term “exceptional
learners” includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities,
behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments,
emotional disturbances, and giftedness.
 BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
"Men are built not born...Give me the baby, and I'll make it climb
and use its hands in constructing buildings of stone or wood…I’ll
make a thief, a gunman, or a dope friend. The possibilities of
shaping in any direction are almost endless. " - John B. Watson

What is the Behaviorist Theory?

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly
learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards after
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind, and the
possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.

Who are the proponents of the behaviorist

theory?
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward Lee. Thorndike
and Burrhus Frederick Skinner - had large contributions to the
development of the behaviorist theory.
Behavioral psychology is a subset science of psychology that
analyzes how organisms learn or modify their behavior as they
respond to their environment. Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov
was a leading behaviorist known for his testing of a dog to note
behavioral clues and manipulate the same behavioral clues.

American psychologist and behaviorist John Watson sought to

concentrate on observable facts and concluded that all such
behavior, even instinctual ones, are the result of conditioning.
Another American behaviorist, B.F. Skinner took it a step further
by studying the reinforcement of behavior.
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov, was a Russian and soviet experimental neurologist,
psychologist, and physiologist known for his discovery of classical
conditioning through his experiments with dogs.

Pavlov’s Experiment.

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (Neutral Stimulus) caused

no response from the dog. Placing food in front of the dog
(Unconditioned stimulus) Initiated salivation (Unconditioned
response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds
before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the
ringing of the (Conditioned Stimulus) alone produced salivation
(Conditioned response). This is classical conditioning.

Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalizations. Once the dog has learned to salivate
at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be

“recovered” after an elapsed time, but will extinguish again if the
dog is not presented with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between

similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the
presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned

to associate the bell with the food, another conditioned stimulus,
such as light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light
without the sound of the bell.

Edward Lee Thorndike. Connectionism theory gave us

the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a
hundred years ago he wrote a textbook entitled, Educational
Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained
that learning is a result of associations forming between stimuli
and responses.

Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened

by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for
S-R Theory was trial and error learning in which certain
responses came to be repeated more than others because of
rewards. The main principle of connectionism (like all behavioral
theories) was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states.

Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that learning has

taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus
and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:
Law of Readiness/ law of action Tendency.
A PREPARATION OF ACTION. This states that the more
readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger
will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to
respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes
annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, “Okay
we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for”.
And suddenly the power goes off, the students feel frustrated
because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were
prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready
to respond to a stimulus and is asked to respond, that also
becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher calls a student to
stand and recite, the teacher asks the question and expects the
student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will
be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should
remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds
before calling on anyone to answer.

In the context of education, Thorndike would have us believe that

teaching must be satisfying or pleasing. Hence, the educator must
see to it that his students are pleased or at least satisfied with
what is being fed to them.

Law of Exercise/ Law of Use & Disuse. Tells us that

the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect '' seems to be
associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of
exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that
practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.

Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection

between stimulus-response is strengthened when the
consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the
stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is
negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found out
that negative reward (punishment) did not necessarily weaken
bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do
not necessarily motivate performance.
Principles derived from Thorndike’s
Connectionism:
● Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of
exercise/effect)
● A series of S-R connections can be chained together if
they belong to the same action sequence (law of
readiness)
● Transfer of learning occurs because of previously
encountered situations.
● Intelligence is a function of the number of connections
learned.

John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to

work with Pavlov's ideas. He too was initially involved in animal
studies then later became involved in human behavior research.

He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and

emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is
learned through stimulus-response associations through
conditioning. he believed in the power of conditioning so much
that he said if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make
them into anything you want them to be, basically through
making stimulus-response connections through conditioning.
Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical
conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child,
and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat;
but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched
the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon
became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later the child's
response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was
also afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made
the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat without the loud noise.

Surely, Watson’s research would be questioned today;

nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in
the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This
may help us understand the fears, phobias, and prejudices that
people develop.

What Happened to Little Albert?

The question of what happened to Little Albert has long been one
of psychology's mysteries. Before Watson and Rayner could
attempt to "cure" Little Albert, he and his mother moved away.
Some envisioned the boy growing into a man with a strange
phobia of white, furry objects.

Recently, the true identity and fate of the boy known as Little
Albert was discovered. As reported in American Psychologist, a
seven-year search led by psychologist Hall P. Beck led to the
discovery.1 After tracking down and locating the original
experiments and the real identity of the boy's mother, it was
suggested that Little Albert was actually a boy named Douglas
Merritte.

The story does not have a happy ending, however. Douglas died
at the age of six on May 10, 1925, of hydrocephalus (a build-up
of fluid in his brain), which he had suffered from since birth. "Our
search of seven years was longer than the little boy’s life," Beck
wrote of the discovery.
In 2012, Beck and Alan J. Fridlund reported that Douglas was not
the healthy, normal child Watson described in his 1920
experiment. They presented convincing evidence that Watson
knew about and deliberately concealed the boy's neurological
condition. These findings not only cast a shadow over Watson's
legacy, but they also deepened the ethical and moral issues of
this well-known experiment.

In 2014, doubt was cast over Beck and Fridlund's findings when
researchers presented evidence that a boy by the name of
William Barger was the real Little Albert.4 Barger was born on the
same day as Merritte to a wet-nurse who worked at the same
hospital as Merritte's mother. While his first name was William, he
was known his entire life by his middle name, Albert.

While experts continue to debate the true identity of the boy at the
center of Watson's experiment, there is little doubt that Little
Albert left a lasting impression on the field of psychology.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson, and

Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of
conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes in
observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes
taking place in the mind. Skinner's (1948) book, Walden Two, is
about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also
wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed
out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social
institutions such as government, law, religion, economics, and
education.

Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before

him, in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors
used in operating on the environment). Thus the theory came to
be known as operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as

instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs
rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior; Is
based on the notion that learning is a result of a change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A
response produces consequences such as defining a word, hitting
a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular (S-R) pattern
is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior

that operates upon the environment to generate
consequences." Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the
range of learned behaviors we exhibit every day.

His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist

Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of
effect.3 According to this principle, actions that are followed by
desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those
followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A
reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response.
There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to
increase the response. An example of positive reinforcement is
when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children
who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who
promises a new cell phone for her son who gets good grades.
Still, other examples include verbal praise, star stamps, and
stickers.

A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the

increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or
removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact, it is a
reward. For instance, A teacher announces that a student who
gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods, will no
longer be taking the final examination. The negative reinforcer is
“removing” the final exam, which we realize is a form of reward for
working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5.

A negative reinforcer is different from punishment because

punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced
responses. An example would be a student who always comes
late and is not allowed to join a group work that has already
begun (punishment) and therefore loses points for that activity.
The punishment was done to reduce the response to repeatedly
coming to class late.

Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement:

Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated.
For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish
that behavior.

Shaping of Behavior. An animal in a cage may take a very long

time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To
accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the
behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the associations
between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the
animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the
lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the
lever, and finally for pressing the lever.

Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are

needed to be learned. The animal would master each step in
sequence until the entire sequence is learned; An operant
conditioning technique in which a complex behavioral sequence is
learned.

Reinforcement schedules are the precise rules that are used to

present (or to remove) reinforcers (or punishers) following a
specified operant behavior.

Fixed Interval Schedules produce an accelerated rate of

responses as the time of reinforcement approaches.

Variable Interval Schedules produce a steady rate of response.

Presses of the “redial” button on the telephone are sustained at a
steady rate when you are trying to reach your parents and get a
“busy” signal on the other end of the line.

Fixed Ratio Schedule delivers reinforcement after a certain

number of responses are delivered.

Variable Ratio Schedules is a partial schedule of reinforcement

in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number
of responses.

IMPLICATION OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) -

answer (response) frames which expose the student to the
subject in gradual steps.

2. Require that the learner makes a response for every

immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the questions so the response is always
correct and hence, a positive reinforcement.

4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with

secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes, and
good grades.

PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROM SKINNER’S

OPERANT CONDITIONING
 1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur;
intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective.

2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that

responses can be reinforced (“shaping”)

3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli

(“stimulus generalization”) producing secondary
conditioning.

NEOBEHAVIORISM : TOLMAN & BANDURA

Usually, people who worked on the maze activity which you just
did would say they found the second maze easier. This is
because they saw that the two mazes were identical, except that
the entrance and exit points were reversed. Their experience in
doing maze A helped them answer maze B a lot easier. People
create mental maps of things they perceive. These mental maps
help them to respond to other things or tasks later, especially if
they see the similarity. You may begin to respond with trial and
error (behavioristic), but later on, your responses become more
internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what
neobehaviorism is about. It has aspects of behaviorism but it also
reaches out to the cognitive perspective.
There are two theories reflecting neobehaviorism that stand out.
Edward Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s
Social Learning Theory. Both are influenced by behaviorism
(which is focused on external elements of learning), but their
principles seem to also be reflective of the cognitive perspective
(focused on more internal elements.)

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign
Learning Theory and is often seen as the link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman’s theory was founded
on two psychological views, those of the Gestalt psychologists
and those of John. Watson, the behaviorist.

Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning

involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the
environment and then revealing that knowledge through
purposeful and goal-directed behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory, that an organism learns by

pursuing signs to a goal, for example. Learning is acquired
through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized aspect of
learning: “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by
just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses.
Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and
elaborated in the central control room into a tentative map,
indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships,
which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will
finally make”.

Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between

stimuli rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new
stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful
stimuli (the significant) through a series of pairings; there was no
need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your maze
activity, the new stimulus or “sign” (maze B) became associated
with already meaningful stimuli, maze A and maze B, and used
your knowledge and experiences in maze A to learn to respond to
maze B.

TOLMAN’S KEY CONCEPT

1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive and
goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism acted
or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed
individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they
act on beliefs, attitudes, and changing conditions, and they
strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic,
purposive, and cognitive.

2. Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiments,

one group of rats was placed at random starting locations
 in a maze but the food was always in the same location.
Another group of rats had the food placed in different
locations which always required exactly the same pattern
of turns from their starting location. The group that had the
food in the same location performed much better than the
other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had
learned the location rather than a specific sequence of
turns. This tendency to "learn location" signified that rats
somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform
well on the maze. He also found out that organisms will
select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same

route going to school he acquires a cognitive map of the location
of his school. So when transportation re-routing is done, he can
still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest or
easiest way.

3. Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that

remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is
learning that is not outwardly manifested at once.
According to Tolman, it can exist even without
reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments
wherein rats apparently "learned the maze" by forming
cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this
knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.

Applied in human learning, a two-year-old always sees her dad

operate the t.v. remote control and observes how the tv. is turned
on or how the channel is changed, and volume adjusted. After
some time the parents are surprised that the first time that their
daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which
buttons to press for what function. Through latent learning, the
child knew the skills beforehand, even though she had never
done them before.

4. The concept of intervening variables. Intervening

variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve
as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that learning
is mediated or is influenced by expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs, and other internal or
 environmental variables. For example, in his experiments
with rats, he found out that hunger was an intervening
variable.

5. Reinforcement is not essential for learning. Tolman

concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning,
although it provides an incentive for performance. In his
studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire
knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e., to develop a
cognitive map, even in the absence of reinforcement.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a
social context. It considers that people learn from one another,
including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and
modeling. The ten-year-old boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam's
execution on t.v. and then must have imitated it.

Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading

proponent of this theory.

General principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.

2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists

say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in
behavior, in contrast, social learning theorists say that because
people can learn through observation alone, their learning may
not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or
may not result in a behavior change.

3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social

learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its
interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of
future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on
the behaviors that people exhibit.

4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a

transition between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive
learning theories.

How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling

People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others.

Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces
modeling. This is in several possible ways:

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example, a

student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of
students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus
reinforced by that group.

2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer

might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an
outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and
compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior
thus reinforcing that behavior.

3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences.

Many behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or
reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia class
could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This
student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience
enjoyment.

4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observer's

behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura
illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting
an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being
praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of
children began to also hit the doll.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement

and punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and
punishment have indirect effects on learning. They are not the
sole or main cause.

2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which

an individual exhibits behavior that has been learned.

3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive

processes that promote learning. Therefore attention plays a
critical role in learning. And attention is influenced by the
expectation of reinforcement. An example would be when the
teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is
not on the test. Students will not pay attention, because they do
not expect to know the information for a test.

Cognitive factors in social learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist
factors (actually operant factors).
1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction
between learning through observation and the actual imitation of
what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman's latent learning.

2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning

theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.

3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form

expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are
likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring
reinforcement and others to bring punishment. The learner needs
to be aware, however, of the response reinforcements and
response punishment. Reinforcement increases response only
when the learner is aware of that connection.

4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can

influence both the environment and the person. In fact, each of
these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the
environment can have an influence on each other.

5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live

model, and the actual person demonstrating the behavior. There
can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action
portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, or
computer programs.

Behaviors that can be learned through modeling.

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling.
Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read,
students can watch demonstrations of mathematics problems, or
seeing someone act bravely in a fearful situation. Aggression can
be learned through models. Research indicates that children
become more aggressive when they observe aggressive or
violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced
by observation and modeling. This includes moral judgments
regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through
modeling.
 Conditions necessary for effective modeling to
occur
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an
individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention - The person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention - The observer must be able to remember the

behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is
using the technique of rehearsal.

3. Motor reproduction - The third condition is the ability to

replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This
means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action,
which could be a problem for a learner who is not ready
developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children
have difficulty doing complex physical motions.

4. Motivation - The final necessary ingredient for modeling to

occur is motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they
have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary
among individuals, different people will reproduce the same
behavior differently.

Effects of modeling on behavior:

● Modeling teaches new behaviors.
● Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned
behaviors.
● Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
● Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For
example, a student might see a friend excel in basketball
and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall
enough for basketball.

Educational implications of social learning

theory
Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom
use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other
people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively

increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate
ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards
and consequences of various behaviors.

3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new

behaviors. Instead of using shaping, which is operant
conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means
for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling a
teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist;
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.

4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and

take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.

5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models.

This technique is especially important to break down traditional
stereotypes.
COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Gestalt Psychology?
Gestalt Psychology was at the forefront of cognitive psychology.
It served as the foundation of cognitive perspective to learning.
It opposed the external and mechanistic focus of behaviorism.
It considered the mental processes and products of perception.

Gestalt Theory
Was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the
importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual
perception. The term gestalt means “form” or “configuration”.
Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka
studied perception and concluded the perceivers (or learners) were
not passive, but rather active. They suggested that learners do not
just collect information as is but they actively process and
restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual
process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors
like past experiences, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation
can affect his perception.

According to gestalt psychologists, the way we form our

perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These
principles or laws determine what we see or make of things or
situations we meet.

Gestalt Principles
❖ Law of Continuity - states that perceptual organization
tends to preserve smooth continuities rather than abrupt
changes.
❖ Law of Closure - states that incomplete figures tend to be
seen as complete. In perception, there is a tendency to
complete contour lines.
❖ Law of Proximity - holds that things close together are
grounded together in perception.
 ❖ Law of Similarity - refers to the perception of similar objects
that tend to be related.
❖ Law of Pragnans - states that of all possible organizations
that could be perceived from a visual stimulus, the one that
will most likely occur is the one that possesses the best,
simplest, and most stable form.
❖ Law of Figure/ Ground - the eye differentiates an object
from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is
naturally perceived as a figure (object), while the surrounding
area is perceived as ground (background)
✔ Balancing figure and ground can make the perceived image
clearer. Using unusual figure/ground relationships can add
interest and subtlety to an image.

Conclusions
● Gestaltist views on learning and problem-solving We're
opposed to at the time dominant three behaviorist and
behaviorist views. Wertheimer emphasized the importance
of seeing the whole structure of the problem

● Gestaltism, therefore, suggests that learners should be

encouraged to discover the whole nature or relationships
between elements of a problem

Wolfgang Kohler Insight Learning Problem-Solving Theory

● The capacity to discern the true nature of a situation

● Imaginative power to see into an understand immediately
● Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring,
analyzing and structuring perception until a solution is
arrived at.

Lewin's Topological And Vector Theory Or Field Theory

● Authored by Kurt Lewin

● Focused on the psychological field or living space of an
individual
● Believes that every object exists in the field of forces that
move to change it and define it or give it a degree of
stability and substance
 ● The behavior of an individual at a given moment is the
result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life
space

Two Forces:

● Internal forces - individual’s feelings, attitudes, and needs

● External forces - everything in the physical world

including other human beings
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful
analogy The terms used in the information processing theory
(IPT)
extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and design
computers aim to make computers solve problems through
processes similar to that of the human mind. Read on to know
more about IPT.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence

the nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an
internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist
theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store
and retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks
about and interprets what s/he receives shapes what he/she will
learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information
processing theory.

IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from

the environment through the senses and what takes place in
between determines whether the information will continue to pass
through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and the
long-term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether
the information will be retrieved or "remembered" when the
learner needs it. Let us go into the details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may

receive.

"Types" of Knowledge

General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is

useful in many tasks, or only in one.

Declarative -This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the

nature of how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an
image. Examples are your name, address, nursery rhyme, the
definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.

Procedural - This includes knowledge of how to do things.

Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting
the least common denominator.

Episodic - This includes memories of life events, like your high

school graduation.

Conditional - This is about "knowing when and why" to apply

declarative or procedural strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory
register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Basically,
IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external
information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive
structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model,
etc.).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.

Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended

period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding.

Retrieval - The information is brought back at the appropriate

time and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure
of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes

could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to
processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the
memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most
theories of information processing revolve around the three main
stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a
very brief time.

● Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information

but it is more than what our minds can hold or perceive.

● Duration: The sensory register only holds the information

for an extremely brief period in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
● There is a difference in duration based on modality:
auditory memory is more persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention

● To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary
that we give later attention to it. Such that, we can only
 perceive and remember those things that pass through our
attention "gate”.

● Getting through this attentional filter is done when the

learner is interested in the material; when there is
conscious control over attention, or when information
involves novelty, surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.

● Before information is perceived, it is known as "categorical

information. This means that until that point, the learner
has not established a determination of the categorical
membership of the information. To this point, the
information is coming in uninterpreted patterns of stimuli.
Once it is perceived, categorize, judge, interpret and place
meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no
means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever
encountered.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

● Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 "chunks" of

information, sometimes described as 7 +/- 2. It is called
working memory because it is where new information is
temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM
maintains information for a limited time, until the learner
has adequate resources to process the information, or
until the information is forgotten.

● Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.

● To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need
to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep
the information active in STM, like when you repeat a
phone number just given over and over.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storage house for memory

information. It holds the stored information until needed again.

● Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

● Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite
Executive Control Processes
The executive control processes involve the executive processor
of what is referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes
guide the flow of information through the system and help the
learner make informed decisions about how to categorize,
organize or interpret information. Examples of processes are
attention, rehearsals, and organization.

Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when
needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

● Decay - Information is not attended to, and eventually
'fades'

away. Very prevalent in Working Memory.

● Interference - New or old information 'blocks' access to
the information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

● Rehearsal - This is repeating information verbatim, either
mentally or aloud.
● Meaningful Learning - This is making connections
between new information and prior knowledge.
● Organization - It is making connections among various
pieces of information. Info that is organized efficiently
should be recalled.
● Elaboration - This is adding additional ideas to new
information based on what one already knows. It is
connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
● Visual Imagery - This means forming a "picture" of the
information
● Generation - Things we produce' are easier to remember
than things we 'hear'.
● Context - Remembering the situation helps recover
information.
● Personalization - It is making the information relevant to
the individual
Other Memory Methods
● Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) - You will
remember the beginning and end of a 'list' more readily

● Part Learning - Break up the 'list' or "chunk" information to

increase memorization.

● Distributed Practice - Break up learning sessions, rather

than cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice)

● Mnemonic Aids - These are memory techniques that

learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve
information more effectively. This includes the loci
technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word,
and association techniques, among others

The Information Processing Model

Information is received through the senses and goes to the

sensory memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found
relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if given
attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to
the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different
cognitive processes applied to the information will then determine
if information can be retrieved when needed later.

Gagne's Conditions of Learning

In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of

learning. He stressed that different internal and external
conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is
called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instructional
events that serve as the basis for the sequencing of instruction.

Gagne's theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the

focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been
utilized to design instruction in all domains. In the earlier version
of the theory, special attention was given to military training
settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the role of instructional
technology in learning.

Gagne's Principles

1. Different instruction is required for different learning

outcomes. Gagne's theory asserts that there are several different
types or levels of learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that
each different type of learning calls for different types of
instruction. Gagne named five categories of learning: verbal
information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor
skills, and attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions are
required for each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive
strategies to be learned, there must be an opportunity for
problem-solving; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed
to credible role models or arguments that are convincing and
moving. Below are the categories of learning with corresponding
learning outcomes and conditions of learning:

Category of Learning Example of learning Condition of Learning

Outcome

Verbal Information Stating previously 1. Draw attention to

learned materials such distinctive features by
as facts, concepts, variations in print or
principles, and speech.
procedures, e.g., listing
the 14 learner-centered 2. Present information so
psychological principles that it

can be made into

chunks.

3. Provide a meaningful
context for the effective
 encoding of information.

4. Provide cues for

effective recall and
generalization of
information.

Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: 1. Call attention to

Distinguishing objects, distinctive features.
Discriminations, features, or symbols,
Concrete Concepts, e.g., distinguishing an 2. Stay within the limits
Defined Concepts, even and an odd number of working memory.
Rules, Higher Order
Rules Concrete Concepts: 3. Stimulate the recall of
Identifying classes of previously learned
concrete objects, component skills.
features, or events, e.g.,
picking out all the red 4. Present verbal cues to
beads from a bowl of the ordering or
beads combination of
component skills.
Defined Concepts:
classifying new 5. Schedule Occasions
examples of events or for practice and spaced
ideas by their definition, review.
e.g., noting "she sells
sea shells" as alliteration 6. Use a variety of
contexts to promote
Rules: Applying a single transfer.
relationship to solve a
class of problems, e.g.,
computing the average
monthly income of a
company

Order Rules: Applying a

new combination of rules
to solve a complex
problem, e.g., generating
a balanced budget for a
school organization

Cognitive Strategies Employing personal 1. Describe or

ways guide learning, demonstrate the
thinking, acting, and strategy.
feeling, e.g., constructing
concept maps of topics 2. Provide a variety of
being studied occasions for practice
using the strategy.
 3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or originality of
the strategy or outcome.

Attitudes Choosing personal 1. Establish an

actions based on internal expectancy of success
states of understanding associated with the
and feeling, e.g., desired attitude.
deciding to avoid soft
drinks and drinking a 2. Assure student
least 8 glasses of water identification with an
with everyday admired human model.

3. Arrange for
communication or
demonstration of choice
of personal action.

4. Give feedback for

successful performance;
or allow observation of
feedback in the human
model.

Motor Skills Executing performances 1. Present verbal or

involving the use of other guidance to cue
muscles, e.g., doing the the executive subroutine.
steps of the singkil
dance 2. Arrange repeated
practice. 3. Furnish
immediate feedback as
to the accuracy of

performance.

4. Encourage the use of

the mental practice.

2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be

learned and a sequence of instruction. Gagne suggests that
learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response
generation, procedure following, use of terminology,
discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and
problem-solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to
identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate
learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task
analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a
basis for the sequencing of instruction.

3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that

constitute the conditions of learning. These events should satisfy
or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the
basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media.
The theory includes nine instructional events and corresponding
cognitive processes:

(1) gaining attention (reception)

(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) eliciting performance (responding)
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8)assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They

reflect the events of instruction
Example 1

Lesson: Equilateral Triangles

Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles Target

group: Grade 4 pupils

1. Gain attention - show a variety of computer-generated

triangles

2. Identify objective - pose the question: "What is an

equilateral triangle?"
 3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles

4. Present stimulus - give the definition of equilateral

triangle

5. Guide learning - show example of how to create an

equilateral triangle

6. Elicit performance - ask students to create 5 different

examples

7. Provide feedback - check all examples as

correct/incorrect

8. Assess performance - provide scores and remediation

9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects

and ask students to identify equilaterals

BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY

1. Remembering
● The student can recall, define recognize or identify
specific information during instruction.
● knowledge of terminology and conventions, trend
and sequences classifications, categories,
criteria, and methodologies
Ex. Identify the capital of the Philippines

2. Understanding
● The students can demonstrate understanding of
information by translating it into a different form or
by recognizing it in translated form.
● example giving definition in his or her own words
paraphrasing summarizing giving an original
example, recognizing an example, interpreting,
explaining, etc.
● Example: interpret a table showing the population
density of the world.
3. Applying
● The student can apply the information in
performing concrete actions. These actions may
involve figuring, writing, reading, handling
equipment, implementing, carrying out, executing,
using, etc.
● Use of abstractions in particular situations
Ex. Predict the probable effect of a change in
temperature on a chemical

4. Analyzing
● The student can recognize the organization and
structure of a body of information, break this
information down into its constituent parts, and
specify relationships between these parts.
● Comparing, organizing, deconstructing,
interrogating, finding
● Example: Deduce facts from a hypothesis
5. Evaluating
● Students can apply a standard in making a
judgment on the worth of something- an essay. an
action or a design.
● Judging in terms of internal evidence or logical
consistency
● Justifying a decision or course of action Examples:
Checking, hypothesizing, critiquing, experimenting,
judging
● Ex. Recognize fallacies in an argument

6. Creating
● Putting parts together in a new form such as a
unique communication, a plan of operation
● The student can bring information from various
sources to create a product uniquely his or her
own.
● Generating new ideas, products, or ways of
viewing things
● Examples: Designing, constructing, planning,
producing, inventing.
● Example: To produce an original piece of art
 BLOOM'S 3 DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Cognitive - Knowledge - What will students know?
Example: Air Pollution
2. Psychomotor - Skills - What will students be able to do?
Example: Researching on the level of air pollution in the
locality and on the causes of air pollution
3. Affective - Values, Attitudes - What will students value or
care about?

Kendall and Marzano's (2007) Three Domains of

Knowledge

3 DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Information (Declarative Knowledge)
- This is declarative Knowledge. Example: Facts, concepts,
generalizations, principles, and laws.
EXAMPLE: (INFORMATION)
1. Vocabulary - isosceles, equilateral, right triangle
2. Generalization- All right triangles have one angle of 90
degrees.

2. Mental Procedures (Procedural Knowledge)

- This is PROCEDURAL Knowledge.
Example: Writing a term paper, reading maps, algorithms like
computing long division.
Specific Example: Conducting proofs and figuring the length of
the side of a right triangle

3. Psychomotor/Physical Procedures (Motor Skills) - Specific

example: Constructing a right triangle with a compass and a ruler.
Playing basketball, building furniture

These 3 domains are processed in six (6) different levels

6 LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE (Kendall and Marzano, 2007)

1. Retrieval (Cognitive System)

2. Comprehension (Cognitive System)
3. Analysis (Cognitive System)
4. Knowledge Utilization (Cognitive System)
5 Metacognitive System
6. Self-System

RA 10533, the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 states:

"The curriculum shall use pedagogical approaches that are
constructivist, inquiry-based, reflective, collaborative, and
integrative..." It shall be learner-centered, inclusive, and
developmentally appropriate.

Teaching Approaches of Subjects in the K to 12

1. Learner-centered - Lemurs- primary consideration
2. Inclusive- No exclusivity, teacher taught everybody
3. Developmentally Appropriate- Within their developmental
stage Learning activities fit the
developmental stage of children
4. Relevant and Responsive
✓ Relevant- answer their questions and concerns; no to
mile-wide-inch-deep understanding
✓ Responsive - making teaching meaningful to students' daily
experiences.
5. Research Based- Interesting, updated, convincing, and
persuasive
6. Cultured Sensitive - Mindful of the diversity of learners
because all learners are unique.
7. Contextualized and Global
8. Constructivist- Building upon prior knowledge; learners
constructed new lesson meanings.
9. Inquiry-Based- Student-centered generated questions- core of
the learning process.
10. Integrative- lesson was multidisciplinary
11. Interdisciplinary- separate subject brought together. Ex.
Math in Ap and Science
12. Transdisciplinary- real life.
13. Mother Tongue Based-Language of instruction from K to
Grade 3 is mother tongue

David Krathwol's Affective Domain

1. Receiving
● The student shows willingness to attend to particular
classroom stimuli or phenomenon in the environment
● Ex. to listen attentively to group discussion

2. Responding
● The student is required active participation based on the
stimuli.
● Ex. to contribute to group discussion by asking questions

3. Valuing
● The student displays definite involvement or commitment
toward some experience.
● Ex. to argue over an issue involving health care To
support, to debate, etc.
4. Organization
● The student has integrated a new value into his general
set of values and can give it its proper
● Examples are: to discuss, to theorize, to formulate, to
balance, to examine. place in a priority system.
● Ex. To organize a meeting concerning a neighborhood's
housing integration

5. Characterization
● The student acts consistently according to the value and is
firmly committed to the experience.
● Ex. To display a professional commitment to ethical
practice on a daily basis.