A HISTORY

OF EGYPTI AN
ARCHITECTURE
The Empire (the New Kingdom)
From the Eighteenth Dynasty to the
End oj the Twentieth Dynasty

If 80-I08J B.C.
CoLOR PLATE r. Restored perspective of the Harem pavilion of King Ay at Thebes (see p. 25).
The restoration is based on the mural in the tomb of Neferhotep in Western T hebes (see p. 25,
fig. II). That the pharaohs had special annexes for the ladies of their court is proved from the
existence of the remains of such harem pavilions in the palaces at Malqata and 'Amarna. T he in-
formation provided by the mural is necessarily restricted to what the painter could convey by
means of his composite views of front and side elevations. T he house is located at the rear of a
garden that had sycamore trees and a kiosk on four papyriform colum ns. It is preceded by a porch
on four tall slender papyriform colum ns painted green which shaded the large window of appear-
ance that seemingly forms the only fea ture of the fa\:ade. The lateral elevation shows the entrance
doorway, probably in pink granite, a row of small windows with vertical grating bars opening at
the level of the lin tel of the door and two large windows with mullion and colorful tracery on the
upper floor. Red horizontal lines running at regular in tervals relieve the monotony in the upper
part, of the lilac wall. Much attention is bestowed on focusing ornament on the front fa\:ade, a
trend corroborated from the remains of the Ramesside temple palaces with windows of appear-
ance in Western Thebes. Here the window opens in the upper part of a rectangular design framed
by a band of rectangles in red, blue, and green derived from the torus molding, surmounted by a
cavetto cornice and flanked by two papyriform columns carrying a second cavetto cornice. The
wall beneath the opening is given an interesting texture imitating that of a reed partition with
vertical stems and horizontal bindings, possibly in glazed tile, a material much used in the temples,
palaces, and houses during the Empire.
 /
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A HISTORY
OF EGYPTIAN
ARCHITECTURE
The Empire (the New Kingdom)
From the Eighteenth Dynasty to the
End of the Twentieth Dynasty
If 80-ro 85 B.C.

By ALEXANDER BADAWY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley and Los Angeles · 1968

+
 Preface
As promised, this volume appears only two years after the preceding one, A
History of Egyptian Architecture: The First Intermediate Period, the Middle
Kingdom , and the Second Intermediate Period (Vol. II). This relatively short
period acknowledges in part the favorable reception met by the work among
readers and reviewers.
The same care for clarity has been bestowed on the preparation of the
drawings according to a uniform style, and to the redaction of accurate de-
scriptions. The same method of research on literary and representational
evidence has been followed, for the well-implemented architectural historian
can derive much information from the Egyptian descriptions of architectural
monuments, their murals, and their technical terms. As much importance has
been awarded to dependable architectural perspectives restored after murals
in private tombs and wall scenes in temples.
Photographic material has improved in both quality and quantity. To
give some idea about the essential role of color in Egyptian architecture, color
illustrations have also assumed more importance. Several of my colleagues
among archaeologists and architectural historians find the colorist effect of my
former restorations too bold. Yet, one added as an afterthought that Egyptian
colors were gaudy. Even though some preconceived image may be shattered
it is time, indeed, to realize that Egypt was not a country of gods and graves,
but of lively people full of artistic sense and humor, who in their own words
"liked life and hated death." Their ethics prescribed the paradox of dedicating
a lifework to achieve an eternity of happiness. Yet theirs was not a sad life, nor
were their palaces or houses gloomy. The murals in the tombs of the grandees
Vniversity of California Press of Thebes-capital of the world during the Empire- represent in their original
Berkeley and Los Angeles gorgeous colors and elaborate patterns the decorations of the fa~ades and in-
Cambridge University Press
ternal halls of their palaces and houses. Though not built of stone "for
London, England
@ 1968 BY THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORN IA eternity," as were the temples and tombs, this domestic architecture displayed
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: AJ5-4746 much taste in the coloristic effect of its painting· and faience inlays.
Designed by Marion Skinner
Printed in the United States of America To avoid redundancy the glossary of architectural terms and the list of

i 70-4° 20 1
 Vl PREFACE

pharaohs already printed in the preceding volume are not duplicated. It will
be noted that while many Egyptian terms used during the Empire are the
same as those used during the Middle Kingdom, their spellings, and probably
their pronunciation, differ- a natural evolution after five centuries, even in so
traditionalist a culture as that of Egypt.
Due acknowledgment accompanies illustrations, but it is still a pleasure
to express my indebtedness to all those colleagues and friends who offered
their collaboration. A mention for those who departed for the better world of
the "justified," and especially for Professor Vladimir Vikentiev, who was from
Contents
1936 to 1959 my professor, colleague, and endeared friend.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the support of Professor K. Birkmeyer,
Chairman of the Art Department, University of California at Los Angeles.
A substantial contribution to meet the unexpected publishing expenses was
I: The Influences I
made by Professor G. E. von Grunebaum, Director of the Near Eastern GEOGRAPHICAL l
Center, University of California at Los Angeles. To him and his Center, our GEOLOGICAL 2
abiding appreciation. RELIGIOUS 2
Whatever elegance this publication achieves is to the credit of the Univer- SOCIAL 5
HISTORICAL 8
sity of California Press, and especially its Los Angeles Editor, Mr. R. Y.
EGYPT AND THE OUTER WORLD 10
Zachary, its Managing Editor, Mr. J. Kubeck, and Mr. Geoffrey Ashton and
Mrs. Teresa Joseph who went through the arduous task of reading the manu-
script, as well as Mr. V. Ryan who read the proofs.
II: Domestic Architecture 1 r
It is hoped that the next and final fourth volume dealing with Egyptian EVIDENCE FROM TEXTS l l
architecture during the Late Dynasties, the Ptolemaic Dynasty, and the Roman REPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE 15
THE TowN HousE 15
Age, will also appear without undue delay.
House of Thutnefer (Tomb 104) 15
House represented in Tomb 254 17
ALEXANDER M. BADAWY House of Tjoy (Tomb 23) 18
House of Sennufer (Tomb 96) 18
The typical town house at Thebes in the New Kingdom 19
THE Cou NTRY HousE 21
Examples of Land Houses 21
Ineny 21
House of Hatiay (Tomb 324) 22
Examples of Rest Houses 22
Nebamun (Tomb 90) 22
Nakht (Papyrus of Nakht) 22
House of Nakht 22
The typical country house in the New Kingdom 22
 Vlll CONTENTS CONTENTS lX

The Theban town house after the restoration of Amun 24 Houses around the Temple at Medinet H abu 73
The Harem of King Ay (tomb of Neferhotep 40) 2s Administration Buildings in the Temple at Medinet H abu 7S
House of Meryre' II 26 THE 'AMARNA PERIOD 7S
The 'Amarna Period 26 THE CAPITAL AKHETATEN ('AMARNA) 76
The royal domain (tomb of Mery re' II) 27 The South City 78
The palace 29 The Central City 79
Typical representations of the palace from the southern tombs 29 The North Suburb So
Meryre' 29 THE PALACES 82
Tutu 30 T he official palace 82
The landing quay of the palace 33
T he servants' quarters 82
The window of appearance 33
The Harem 82
The kiosks 34
Some structural elements 34 The state apartments 84
Windows 34 The bridge 86
Doors 35 The coronation hall 87
The K ing's House 88
THE PALACES 3S
THE TYPICAL TEMPLE PALACE 36
The North Palace 90
THE HousEs 92
Palace of Ay (Medinet Habu) 36
Palace of Ramses II (Ramesseum) 37 General description 93
Palace of Merneptah (Thebes) 38 T ypical examples 97
Palace of Ramses II (Deir el Medina) 38 House 0.49.23 (South City) 97
The first temple palace of Ramses III (Medinet H abu) 40 The official residence of Panehsy (Central City) 99
The second temple palace of Ramses III (Medinet Habu) 42 House R.43.r rno
THE TYPICAL RESIDENTIAL PALACE 44
The house of the vizier Nakht (South City, K.50.r) rno
The Two Palaces at Deir el Ballas ( 16 km. south of Dendera) 47 House V.37.1 (North Suburb, S.E.) IOI
The Palaces of Amenhotep III in Western Thebes (Malqata) 47 House T.36.11 (North Suburb, S.W.) rn3
The Palace of Merneptah S4 House Tj6.36 (North Suburb, Central City, West) rns
Houses T.35.3 and T-3S·9 (North Suburb, N.W.) rns
THE CITIES: PLANNING AND HOUSING S5
The house of the architect Hatiay (North Suburb, T.34.1; 344) rn8
Town of Ahmose (Abydos) 56
House V.36.7, 12, 13 (North Suburb, E.) rn9
The City of Sesebi (Sudan) S7
To wn planning in the Eastern V illage 1rn
Town planning 58
General description of a house II3
Houses 58
Houses at Hagg Qandil IIS
Type I 58
Three priests' houses in the Sanctuary of the Great Temple 117
Type II 59
The officials' quarters 117
Thebes S9
The Eastern Village at 'Amarna 60 The Records Office II8
Deir el Medina "The Place of Truth" 6i The Foreign Office II8
T he "House of Life" II8
Town planning 63
The central block r 19
Houses 64
Medinet Habu (before Ay ) 68 The eastern block 119
THE MAGAZINES I 19
The Delta Residence Pi-Ra'messe 70
The City of Pithom "House-of-Atum" (Per-Atum) 72 The Great Temple magazines "The-Ka-of-Re'-Lives" 121
Storehouses "Rich-in-Provisions" between the temple magazines and the royal
estate 121
 x CONTENTS CONTENTS Xl

The magazines in the official palace 121 The so-called Sun-Shade of Tiy 170
The magazines of the royal estate 122 The pylon of the Theban Temple (Egyptian bekhen) 170
The magazines of the Sanctuary 123 The pylon of the Theban Chapels 171
The magazines of the military and police quarters 123 The temples 172
Paired silos (south of the City) 123 The temple of Karnak (from the tomb of Neferhotep) 172
Ovens 125 Plan of a temple at Heliopolis 172
The military and police quarters 125 Model of a temple of Re'Horakhty-Atum 174
House in the fortress of Kuban (Nubia) 126 The landing quays of temples 174
House in the fortified town of Mi'm ('Aniba in Nubia) 126 THE TYPICAL CULT TEMPLE IN THE NEW KINGDOM 176
Magazines 126 The pylon (Egyptian bekhe11) 177
THE GRANARIES AND MAGAZINES 128 The forecourt (Egyptian 111ba, "Open Court") 1 79
R EPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE 128 The hypostyle hall (Egyptian 111adjit, "Hall of Papyriform Columns") 179
Th e granaries 128 The sanctuary l 80
The magaz in es 131 THE FuNCTION OF THE TEMPLE FROM lTs WALL ScENES 181
The magazines of the temple of Amun ( from the tomb of Rekhmire') 131 THE ORIENTATION OF TEMPLES 183
Magazines of Amenmose 131 The solar orientation 187
Magazine and poultry yard ( Stela 5412, F lorence Muse um) 131 The theory of the stellar orientation 188
Shed (Horemheb) 133 TYPICAL ExAMPLES OF CuLT TEMPLES 189
Magazines of the temple of Aten ('Amarna) 135 The temples at Pi-Ra'messe (Arabic, San el Hagar) 189
Magazines of the temple at Karnak (tomb of Neferhotep) 135 The Great Temple 189
The chancery office under Ramses II (tomb of Tjoy) 136 The Northern Temple 191
Wine presses l 36 The temple of Anta 192
EXAMPLES OF MAGAZINES, SILOS, AND OVENS I 38 The obelisks at Pi-Ramses 192
Magazines in the temple of Ay-Horemheb (Medinet Habu) 138 Details of construction in the Great Temple (Tanis) 194
Magazines in the temple of Seti I at Abydos 140 The temple of Herisl1ef at Elmasya 197
The magazines of the Ramesseum 14 l The temenos 111all of the tem ple at Heliopolis 197
Administration buildings, magazines, wells (mortuary temple of Ramses III at A General survey of the temples at Memphis 198
Medinet Habu) 142 'A manza 200
Silos at Medinet Habu 147 Typical examples at 'Amarna 201
Ovens 148 The desert altars 201
THE ACH IEVEMENT OF DOMEST! C ARCHITECTURE 148 The Great Temple 203
The Sanctuary 204
The Per-Ha'i/Gem-Aten 206
The Royal Temple 208
III: Religious Architecture 154 The Maru-Aten 209
The temple of Seti I at Abydos 214
EVIDENCE FROM TEXTS 154
The Osireion or cenotaph of Seti I (Abydos) 218
RoYAL INSCRIPTIONS 156
The temple of Ramses II (Abydos) 222
PRIVATE TEXTS 163
The temple of Amu11 at Luxor "Southern Harem" or "Southern Private Area"
REPRESENT AT I ON AL EVIDENCE 165 (i pet resyt) 225
'Amarna 165 The temples at Kamak (Egyptian ipet iswt, "The-011e-checki11g-the-ce11sus-of-
The pylons 165 places11) 232
The Great Temple at 'Amarna 166
XII CONTENTS CONTENTS Xlll

A historical sketch 232 T HE TYPES 284

General layout 234 TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF PERIPTERAL TEJ\'!PLES 285
I . Tl1e Central Group. The Great Temple of Amun-Re' 238 T ype I 285
The prison 248 Wadi Haifa West 285
The F estival H all of Thutmose III "Menkheperre'-is-brill iant-of-monuments" (Egypt- Chapel of H athor at Deir el Med ina 285
ian Akh-Menw) 250 'Amada 285
The Sacred Lake and its scarab 253 Type II 288
The temple of Amun-Re'Horakhty 253 C hapel in front of the Sacred L ake ( Karnak) 288
Cosmic symbolism of the temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak 253 Chapel at E l Kab North 288
The temple of Khonsu ("Temple-of-Ramses-heqa-Iwnw-in-the-Domain-of-K honsu"; Chapel at E lephantine 288
later named Benenet) 255 The north chapel at E lephantine 290
The temple of Ptah ("T emple-of-Ptah-South-of-his-Wall-in-Waset" ) 257 Chapelatl(uban 290
The area south of the Great Temple of Amun-Re' 258 The small temple at Medinet Habu 290
The temple of Amenhotep II 258 ROCK-CUT TEMPLES 292
II. The Southern Group 260 TYPICA L ExAll•IPLES OF RocK-CuT TEMPLES 295
The temple of Mut (Amenhotep III) 260 The Speos Artemidos ( Beni Hassan) 295
The temple of Amun-Kamutef ( Hatshepsut, Thutmose III[? ]) 263 The rock temple of Horemheb (Gebel SiJsila) 295
The temple of Ramses III called "The-Temple-of-Userma'tre'-meryamun-in-the- The rock temple of Min (Wadi el Miyah or Redesiya, Eastern Desert) 297
Domain-of-Amun-in-the-City" 263 The rock temple at Beit el Wali (Nubia) 298
III. Tl1e Northern Group 264 The rock temple of Ptah (Garf Hussein) 299
The temple of Amenhotep III (Karnak North) 264 The rock temple of Am un, Ramses II and Re' H orakhty at Wadi el Sebu'a 300
El Kab 266 The rock temple of Re'H orakhty at Derr 302
Temple of Thot (Amenhotep II) 266 The rock chapel of Min (El Salamuni, Akhmim) 304
The desert temples: T emple of Nekhebet (Amenhotep III) 268 The rock temple of Amun-Re' and T hot (Gebel Adda) 304
The chapel of Thot 270 The great rock temple of Re'Horakhty at Abu Simbel 304
Deir el Medina 270 The rock temple of Hathor at Abu Simbel 314
Temple of Hathor at Deir el Medina (Seti I ) 270 The temple of Hathor at Serabit el Khadem (Sinai) 318
Temple of Amun at Deir el Medina (Ramses II ) 270 THE MORTUARY TEMPLES 321
Temple of Hathor at Deir el Medina (Ramses II) 272 The sanctuary of Amun 322
Cult T emples in Nubia and th e Sudan 272 The rooms for the mortuary cult 323
'Amada 273 The altar court of Re'Horakhty 323
Sesebi 274 The general plan of the mortuary temple 323
'Amara West 275 TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF MORTUARY TEMPLES FROM THE NEW KINGDOM 324
Mi'm ('Aniba) 276 T he mortuary temple of Queen Tetisheri 324
Paras 276 T he mortuary temple of Thutmose II 324
Buhen 276 The mortuary temple of Hatshepsut ( Deir el Bahari) 324
Semna 278 The temple of Thutmose III at D eir el Bahari 337
Kumma 278 The mortuary temple of T h utmose III ( H enqet 'ankh) 337
Soleb 279 The temple of Amenhotep II 338
Kawa 281 The mortuary temple of Amenhotep III 338
THE PERIPTERAL TEMPLES 282 The mortuary tem ple of T hutmose IV 340
REPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE 282 The mortuary temple of Ay-H orem heb 340
The mortuary temple of Seti I (Qurna) 342
 X IV CONTENTS CONTENTS xv

The mortuary temple of Ramses II (Ramesseum) 344 Thutmose I (No. 38) 400
The mortuary temple of ivferneptah (Medinet H abu) 352 H atshepsut 400
The mortuary temple of Ramses III named "United-with-Eternity" (Medinet Thutmose III (No. 24) 40 1
H abu) 352 Amen hotep II (No. 35) 40 1
The mortuary temple of Ramses III as an architectural achievement 358 Thutmose IV (No. 43) 40 1
THE PRIVATE MORTUARY C HAPELS 360 Amenhotep III (No. 22) 401
Typical Examples of Mortuary Chapels for Private People 360 Amenhotep IV-Akhenaten 402
Medinet Habu 360 Tut'ankhamun (No. 58) 402
Small double temple of Seti I (Ramesseum) 36 1 Ay (No. 23) 402
Mortuary temple of Amenhotep son of H apu 362 Horemheb (No. 57) 402
Two anonymous temples, north and south of the temple of Amenhotep 364 N ineteenth Dynasty 405
THE ACH IEVEMENT OF RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 364 Ramses I (No. 16) 405
Seti I (No. 17) 405
Ramses II (No. 7) 405
IV: Funerary Architecture 372. Merneptah (No. 8) 405
EVIDENCE FROM TEXTS 372 Amenmes (No. ro) 406
REPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE 375 Siptah (No. 47) 406
Type I 376 Seti II 406
Type II 377 Setnakht (No. 14) 406
Type III 38 1 Twentieth Dynasty 406
Papyrus of Nebged 383 Ramses III ( No. r 1) 406
Sketch on an ostracon (Eighteenth D ynasty) 384 Ramses V ( usurped by Ramses VI ; No. 9) 406
Tomb of Ramses IV 384 Ramses VII (No. 1) and Ramses X ( No. 18) 407
The dimensions of a royal tomb 385 Ramses XI (No. 4) 407
Tomb of Ramses IX 386 The tombs of the queens 407
Plan of a tomb (Senmut's tomb) 387 THE PRIVATE TOMBS 407
Examples of funerary chapels in the 11ecropolis 387 THEBES 408
Thutmose III (from the tomb of Khons) 387 Typical examples of private tombs at Thebes 411
Funerary chapel of Nakhtmin 387 Rekhmire' (No. 100) 411
A description of the typical fun erary com plex of a private tomb 390 Ra'mose (No. 55) 4 I I
TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF ROY AL TOMBS IN THE NEW Serer (No. 48) 413
KINGDOM 391 Sennufer (No. 96 ) 41 3
Cenotaph of Ahmose at Abydos 392 Amenhotep, called Huy (No. 40) 4r4
Cenotaph of Queen T etisheri 392 Tjoy (No. 23) 414
Tomb of Amenhotep I ( ?) 393 Nebunenef (No. 157) 414
The Valley of the Kings (Arabic, Biban el Moluk) 394 Amenhotep (No. 73) 41 4
T YPES AND EvoLUTION OF RoYAL ToJ1.1Bs 396 DEIR EL M EDINA 4 15
Type I 396 The pyramid chapel 415
Type II 396 The rock tomb with pyramid 415
Type Ill 397 Typical tombs at Deir el Medina 416
THE DECORATION oF THE RoYAL ToMn, ITS EvoLunoN AND STYLE 398 P yramid chapel and tomb of the architect Anhorkhawy (No. 359) 416
DESCRIPTION OF RoYAL ToMns 400 The rock-cut chapel and tomb No. 217 41 9
Eigh teenth D ynasty 400 The votive chapels 419
 XVl CONTENTS CONTENTS xvu

Votive chapel No. 12I3 421 Type IIIb. Double enclosure with towers and citadel 453
'AMARNA 422 T ype IV. Many enclosu res 454
General description 422 The frontier post at Tjalu 455
Typical examples of tombs at 'Amama 425 Comparison of the representational evidence with t/1e contemporaneous oriental
The fan-bearer Ahmose (No. 3) 425 fortification 455
Panehsy, priest and superintendent of the granary of the Aten (No. 6) 427 DESCRIPTION OF FORTIFIED STRUCTURES 457
The chief servant Tutu (No. 8) 427 T/1e fortified city of i\lli'm ('Aniba in Nubia ) 457
PROVINCIAL CEMETERIES 428 The fortified city of Buhen (Nubia) 457
Kom el A hmar (near Minya): tomb of Nefersekheru 428 The fortified enclosure of the temple area at Medinet Habu 462
Deir Rifa 429 The great girdle wall 463
Tutu 429 The outer wall 463
Nag' el Mashayekh (north of Abydos) 430 The moat 463
El'Amra(Abydos) 430 T he two gateways 463
Typical examples: Eighteenth Dynasty simple type: D. 9 430 The eastern gateway 463
Larger type: D. 8 430 The western gateway 468
Nineteenth-Twentieth dynasties: D. 24 431 The inner enclosure wall 470
El 'A raba (Abydos) 432 City enclosure lllall (Tell el Retaba) 470
Typical Examples: E. IO (Eighteenth Dynasty) 432 Fortified enclosure wall of the city of Sesebi (Sudan, Eighteenth-Nineteenth
Khnumy and Minmose (Nineteenth Dynasty) 432 dynasties) 472
Esna 432 TH E ACHIEVEMENT OF MILITARY ARCHITECT URE 473
El Kab 434
Typical examples: Ahmose Pennekhebet (from the reign of Ahmose to that of
Hatshepsut) 435
VI: Architectural Statuary 473
Ahmose son of Ibana (reign of Ahmose to Thutmose I) 435 THE IDEOLOGY OF MONUMENTAL STATUARY IN T H E
Paheri (Eighteenth Dynasty) 435 TEMPLE 476
Hierakonpolis (Arabic, Kom el A hmar) 436 DISPOSITION AND TYPES OF STA TUES 478
Harmose (reign of Thutmose III) 436 EVOLUTION IN THE TYPE AND STYLE 483
'Aniba (Egyptian Mi'm) 436
AN APPRECIATION 486
Chapel type I 436
Chapel type II 438
Rock tomb of Pennut (Ramses VI) 438
VII: Garden Architecture
Catacombs of animals (Eighteenth Dynasty, Dendera) 1\38 EVIDENCE FROM TEXTS 488
THE ACHIEVEMENT OF FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 440 REPRESENTATIONS OF GARDENS 49 I
GARDENS OF HousEs 491
V: Military Architecture SACRED GARDENS 495
FUNERARY GARDENS 495
EVIDENCE FROM TEXTS 446 REMAINS OF GARDENS 496
REPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE 448
Type Ia 450 VIII: The Achievement of Monumental
Type lb. Simple enclosure with citadel 450
Type Ila. Double enclosure with one doorway 452 Architecture in the Empire 500
Type Ilb. Double enclosure with two doorways 452 PROGRAM 500
Type IIIa. Double enclosure with towers 453 STYLE 501
 X\1111 CONTENTS
CONSTRUCTION 505
HARMON IC ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 506

Notes
List of Figures
Hieroglyphic Lexicographical Evidence
SELECTION OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS OF THE NEW KINGDOM 525

General Bibliography 1. Section in the town house of Th utnefer at Thebes (N. de G. Davies, The Town-
house, Metropolitan Museum Studies, Vol. I/2 [New York, 1929J, pp. 233-255;
Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 80 ) .
Indexes 53 I 2. Representation of a two-storied house from tomb 254 at Thebes (Badawy, Dessin
INDEX OF AUTHORS 531 Architectural, fig. 81).
INDEX OF HISTORICAL ITEMS 531 3. Restored perspective of house from tomb 254 (Badawy, Dessi11 Architectural, fig. 82) .
INDEX OF PLACES 535 4. Representation of a house from the tomb of Tjoy (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 539 83) .
5. Compound representation of a plan and an elevation of a house from the tomb of
Sennufer (Badawy, Dessi11 Architectural, fig. 84) .
6. Representation of the land house of the architect lneny (Badawy, Dessin Architec-
tural fig. 87) .
7. Representation of the estate of Hatiay, the O verseer of the prophets (Badawy, Dessin
Architectural, fig. 89) .
8. Representation of the house of Nebamun (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 90 ) .
9. The house of Nakht from a drawing in his papyrus (Badawy, Dessin Architectural,
fig. 91).
ro. Restored perspective of the house of Nakht (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 92).
1 I. Representation of the building for the H arem of King Ay from the tomb of
Neferhotep (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 94b) .
12. Restored perspective of the Harem of King Ay (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig.
96).
13. The mansion of Meryre' II at 'Amarna (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 98) .
14. Representation of the royal domain at 'Amarna from the tomb of Meryre' II
(Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. IO I).
15. Two representations of the palace from the tomb of Meryre' at 'Amarna (Badawy,
Dessin Architectural, figs . 102, 103).
16. Representa tion of the palace from the tomb of Tutu at 'Amarna (Badawy, Dessin
Architectural, fig. 105).
 xx LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES XXl

17. Representation of the la nding quay of the palace and restored view (Badawy, Dessin 35. View of the remains of a house showing the altar in the vestibule ( Badawy, Maison,
Architectural, fig. 113). fig. 25).
18. Represen tation of a window of appearance at 'Amarna (Badawy, Dessin Archi- 6. Painted frieze from the altar representing the household genius Bes (Bruyere, Deir
3
tectural, fig. l 18). el Medi11eh, H ouse N. E. X).
19. Drawing from a tomb at 'Amarna showing a kiosk, a hypaethral chapel, and altars 37. Typical clay oven from the Twentieth Dynasty ( L. Borchardt, "Ein Brot," A.Z., 68
(Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. n7). [1932], fig. 2).
20. P lan of the palace of King Ay with wooden colonnades in front (Holscher, Medinet 38. Fresco from Deir el Medina representing a dancing Aute player (B. Bruyere, Deir
H abu, II, fig. 71). el Medi11eh (1934- 1935) [Cairo, 1939 ], pl. X, 3. J. Vand ier d'Abbadie, "Une fresque
2r. Plan of the temple palace of Ramses II in the Ramesseum ( Holscher, Medinet Ha bu, civi le de Deir el Medineh," Revue d'Egyptologie, III [ 19381, 26).
III, fig. 53). 39. Plans of three houses ( l-3) and grooves in the bedrock for reed huts at Med inet
22. Temple palace of Ramses II at D eir el Medina in plan and restored perspective Habu ( H olscher, Medinet Habu, II, figs. 54-59).
(Bruyere, Deir el Medin eh [ 1935-1940 ], Quatrieme Partie [Cairo, 1948 ], pl. 3). 40. General layout of Tanis (A. U zine, " Le T emple du Nord a T anis," Kemi, X II
23. First temple palace of Ramses III at Medinet Habu : l, restored elevation of the [1952], pl. I).
window of appearance; 2, restored plan; 3, double false-door from the throne room; 4r. Layout of the city of Pithom (E. Navi lle, The Store-City of Pithom [London, 1895],
4, restored cross section (Holscher, M edinet Habu, III, 44- 48). map).
24. Second temple palace of Ramses III in his mortuary temple at Med inct H abu: l, 42. Plan and cross section of contiguous houses between the two enclosu re walls at
axonometric view of plan; 2, royal bathroom; 3, throne dais in great hall (Holscher, Medinet Habu (Holscher, Medinet Habu, IV, fig. 15).
M edinet Habu, III, 49- 59). 43. Detailed restored elevat ion of screen wall in one of the contiguous houses (Holscher,
25. Plans of the two palaces at Deir el Ballas (Sm ith, Art of Egypt, figs. 51-53a). Medinet Habu, IV, fig. 16) .
26. General layout and detailed plan of the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata, and 44. Plan and suggested restoration of the south administration build ing in the temple at
details of the decoration (Smith, Art of Egypt, figs. 54-60 ; R. de P . Tytus, Palace of Medinet Habu (Holscher, Medi11 et Habu, IV, fig. 17).
Amenhotep Ill [New York, 1903]). 45. Map of 'Amarna (H. W. Fairman, "Town Planning in Pharaonic Egypt," T own
27. Restored perspective of the bedroom of Amenhotep III in his palace at Malqata. Pla1111i11g Review, XX [1 949], fig. l).
28. Rows of suites on a uniform plan in the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata: plan 46. Restored perspective of the main part of Central City at 'Amarna (J. D. S. Pendle-
and restored axonometric projection (Badawy, Maison, fig. 28). bury, Th e City of Akhe11ate11, III [London, 19511, pl. I ).
29. Plan of the palace of Merneptah at Memphis ( H. Ricke, Der Cmndriss des Amama- 47. Plan of the servants' houses in the Great Palace at 'Amarna (J. D. S. Pendlebury,
Wo/111ha11ses [Leipzig, 1932], fig. 58). The City of Akhenaten, III, pl. XIIIa, 1).
30. Plan of the eastern edge of South City at 'Amarna, giving an idea of the loose layout 48. Harem quarters in the G reat Palace at 'Amarna: l, plan; 2, isometric view of the
of the streets ( L. Borchardt, "Das iigyptische Woh nhaus im 14. Jah rhundert v. north Harem, restored; 3, wall decoration; 4-5, pavement decoration in painting on
Chr.," in Zeitschrift fiir Bauwesen [Berlin], 66 [ 1916], fig. l) . plaster (J. D.S. Pendlebury, Th e City of Akhenaten, III, pls. X IIIa, XV, figs. 8, 10,
3 r. Contiguous mansions in the town of Ahmose at Abydos (E. R. Ayrton, C. T. n).
Currelly, and A. E. P. Weigall, Abydos Ill [London, 1904 l, pl. Liii). 49. T he Great Palace at 'Amarna: 1, plan; 2, restored perspective of the broad hall ; 3,
32. P lans of the fortified town of Sesebi in the Sudan (A. M. Blackman, "Excavations pai nted pavement in the broad hall (J. D. S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenate11,
at Sesebi," J.E.A., XXIII [ 1937], pls. X III, X IX ). III, pls. X IV-XV, fig. 13).
33. Plan of the second (left) and third stages of the workmen's city at Deir el Med ina 50. Plan of the coronation hall in the Great Palace at 'Amarna (J. D. S. Pendlebury,
(B. Bruyere, Deir el Medin eh (1934- 1935) [Cairo, 1939], pls. VI, V II ). The City of Akhe11ate11, III, pl. XIIIc).
34. Section and plan of a typical house at Deir el Medina (Bruyere, Deir el Medi11eh 5r. Plan of the King's House and magazi nes, and detail of painted pli nth in main hall
(1934-1935), fig. 15). (J. D. S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, III, pl. XVI).
 XXll LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES XXlll

52. Plan of the North Palace at 'Amarna (J. Whittemore, "Excavations at El-'Amarnah," 70. Detail of a stairway upon beams (E. Peet and L. Woolley, The City of Akhenaten,
/.E.A., XII [1934], pl. II) . I, pl. X VII, 4).
53. Details of bathroom and latrine with isometric view, restored, of bathroom 7L Painted pilaster from the workmen's village, No. 9, Main Street ( E . Peet and
('Amarna) and two wooden closet seats (Thebes) (H. Ricke, Der Gru11driss des L. Woolley, The City of Akhenaten, I, pl. IX).
Amama-Wohnhauses [Leipzig, 1932], figs. 32-34; L. Borchardt, "Das altagyptische 72. Plan of contiguous houses in the suburb of H agg Qandil at 'Amarna, 0-49·6
Wohnhaus," figs. 42, 43, 47). (Badawy, Maison, fig. 20).
54. Plan of villa 0.49.23 in South City at 'Amarna (E. Peet and L. Woolley, The City of 73. Plans of three houses of "priests on duty" in the south corner of the court of the
Akhe11ate11, I, pl. I). Sanctuary of the Great Temple (J. D.S. Pendlebury, Th e City of Akhenaten, III, pl.
55. Plan of the official house of Panehsy and elevations of the shrine in the central hall VIII).
(Central City; J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, III, pl. XI). 74. Plan of clerks' houses (J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, III, pl. XX) .
56. House R.43.1 at 'Amarna (S.E.): plan, isometric view of pavilion, and detail of 75. Layout of the magazines between the King's House and the Great Temple (J. D. S.
cornice (J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, III, pl. XXIII, fig. 20). Pendlebury, Th e City of Akhenaten, III, pls, XII, XVIII ).
57. Plan of the house of the vizier Nakht and restored perspective of the central hall 76. Magazines of ( 1) the G reat Palace and of ( 2) the sanctuary and priests' quarters
(E. Peet and L. Woolley, The City of Akhenaten, I, pls. III, IV). (J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, III, pls. XIIA, XVI ) .
58. Restored N.-S. section of house V.37.1 (H. Frankfort and J. D. S. Pend lebury, The 77. Plan of paired silos at 'Amarna (W. FI. Petrie, Tell el Amama, pl. XLI ) .
City of A khenaten, II, pl. XVI). 78. Plans and sections of ovens in houses at 'Amarna ( L. Borchardt, "Ein Brot," A .Z.,
59. Plan of house V.37.1 (H. Frankfort and J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhe11ate11, 68, pl. IV) .
II [London, 1933], pl. III). 79. Plans of the ground floor and the upper floor in house No. I in the fo rtress at Kuban,
60. Restored plan of house T.36.36 and detail of the decoration of the beams (H. Frank- and details of springing of arches and fire pan (W. B. Emery an d L. P . Kirwan, The
fort and J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, II, pls. XIV, LV). Excavations and Survey between Wadi es-Sebua and Adindan, 1929-1931 [Cairo,
6I. Plan of house T.36.36 and detail of painted decoration on beams from the central 1935), pl. VI).
room and the north loggia. 80. Plans of a large mansion (upper figure) in the town of Mi'm and magazines outside
fo. Plan of houses T-35·9 and T.35J in the northwest quarter at 'Amarna (H. Frankfort the town (G. Steindorff, A11iba II [Gliickstadt, 1937), fig. 3, Blatt 8).
and J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhe11ate11, II, pl. VII; supp., pl. XVII). 8I. Representation of a court with silos from the tomb of Pehsukher (Badawy, Dessin
63. Restored perspective of the two houses T.35.3 and T.35.9 (H. Frankfort and J. D. S. Architectural, fig. 147 ).
Pendlebury, The City of Akhe11ate11, II, pl. XVII; see plan pl. VII). 82. Adjacent silos surmounted by a platform (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 149) .
64. House of Hatiay, T.34.1; 34.4 (H. Frankfort and J. D. S. Pendlebury, The City of 83. H eaps of grain on a circular platform within copings ( Badawy, Dessin Architectural,
Akhe11ate11, II, pl. XV). fig. r50).
65. Plan of the tax collector's complex of buildings at '~iarna (H. Frankfort and 84. Typical fa~ades of storerooms in the temple of Amun from the tomb of Rekhmire'
J. D.S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhenaten, II, pl. XIII). (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 151).
66. Plan of the workmen's village in 'Amarna East (E. Peet and L. Woolley, The City 85. Plan of three adjacent magazines from the tomb of Amenmose ( Badawy, Dessi11
of Akhe11ate11, I, pl. XVI). Architectural, fig. 152).
67. Detail of some of the houses in the workmen's village (E. Peet and L. Woolley, The 86. Plan of magazines and poultry yard represented on Stela 5412 (Florence Museum;
City of Akhe11ate11, I, pl. XVI). Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. r53).
68. Restored sketches of a street and the main hall of a workman's house in the work- 87. Restored bird 's-eye view of the magazines and poultry yard ( Badawy, Dessin Archi-
men's village (L. Veltheim-Lottum, Kleine Weltgeschiclite des stiidtischen tectural, fig. 154).
Wohnhauses [Heildelberg, 1952], pp. 90-91). 88. Sectional view of two gabled sheds from the tomb of Horemheb ( Badawy, Dessin
69. Cross section of roof in house No. l l in East Street at 'Amarna (E. Peet and L. Architectural, fig. 155).
Woolley, The City of Akhenaten, I, fig. 6). 89. Suggested plan of the magazines of the temple of the Aten at 'Amarna, from the
representations ( Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 156).
 <

XXl V LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES xxv

90. Plan of the magazines of the temple of Amun at Karnak, from the tomb of Neferho- rn7. Egyptian plan of a temple at Heliopolis and its interpretation ( H . Ricke, "Eine
tep (Badawy, Dessin Architectural , fig. 157) . Inventartafel aus H eliopolis," A.Z., 71 (1935 ), fig. 7).
9 1. Plan of the chancery office under Ramses II, from the tomb of Tjoy and its interpre- rn8 . Egyptian project for a landing quay at Thebes (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig.
tation (Badawy, D essi11 Architectural, fig. 158). 238) .
92. Murals representing Nakht's wi ne press (N. de G . Davies, "Akhenaten at Thebes," 109. Restored plan and section of the project fo r a landing quay (Badawy, Dessi11 Archi-
f.E.A., IX (1 923), pl. XXVI), and Parennefer's wine press and vine (Ibid., pl. tectural, fig . 239) .
XXVI). 1JO. T he approach and landing quay of the temple of Amun at Karnak as represented
93. Plan of the temple and the temple palace of Ay, with additions by H oremheb at in the tomb of Neferhotep ( Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 241).
111. Diagram showing the orientations of tem ples d uring the Empire.
Medinet H abu ( H olscher, Medi11et Hab11 , II, fig. 95).
94. Plan of some magazines of the temple of Seti I at Abydos and restored perspective of 112. Map of Thebes showing the interrelated orientations of Deir el Bahari and Luxor
the court (E. Ghazouli, "The Palace and Magazines attached to the T emple of Sety toward Karnak.
I at Abydos and the fac;ade of this Temple," A .S.A ., L VIII, fig. 3). 113. Layout of T anis (P. Montet, La Necropole royale de Tanis, I. Les Constructions et
95. Plan of the magazines of the Ramesseum ( H olscher, Medinet Hab11, III, pl. 10 ). a
le tom beau d'Osorkon II Tanis (Paris, 1947 ], figs. 1, 3).
96. Plan of the dependencies around the temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu 114. Restored plan of the Northern T emple at T anis ( A. Lezine, "Le Temple du Nord
(Holscher, Medi11et Habu, III, fig. 34). a Tanis," Ke mi, XII [ I 952]) fig. I).
97. Plans and sections of two wells in the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet 115. Plan, elevation, and details of obelisks at T anis (P. Montet, "Les Obelisques de
H abu (Holscher, Medinet Habu, III, figs. 42- 43). Ramses II," Kemi, XI ( 1950 ), fig. 1 ).
98. P lan and section of a large silo (before Ay) and series of six ovens (before Ramses 116. Details of gateways in girdle wall of Tanis (J. L. Fougerousse, "Etudes sur Jes con-
III) at Medinet H abu, and paintings from the tomb of Ramses III representing two structions de Tan is," Kemi, V (1935 ), fig. 11).
ovens ( H olscher, Medinet H ab11, II, figs. 62-63; Borchardt, "Ein Brot," A .Z., 68, pl. 117. Constructional details from Tanis (J. L. Fougerousse, "Etudes sur Jes constructions
IV). de Tanis," Kemi, V ( 1935), figs. 10, 18, 19) .
99. Representation of the pylon of the Gem-Aten from the tomb of Meryre' at 'Amarna 118. Restored plan and fr ont fac;ade of the temple of Herishef at Ehnasya, and palmiform
(N. de G. Davies, Rock tombs of El Amarna [London, 1903), I, pl. XXVII). granite capital of the portico (W. FI. Petrie, Elwasya (London, 1905), pls. VIII-X).
100. Representation of the pylon of the Sanctuary from the tomb of Mahu at 'Amarna (N. 119. Sketch plan of some temples at Memphis (W. FI. Petrie, Memphis I (London, 1909),
de G. D avies, Th e Rock .Tombs of El Amarna, IV, pl. XX) . pl. I ).
101 . Plan and elevation of the Great Temple at 'Amarna from the tomb of Meryre' show- 120. P lan of the western hall (Ramses II ) in the temple of Ptah at Memphis (W. FI.
ing from the bottom upward: the entrance portal and court, the fac;ade of the temple Petrie, Memphis I (London, 1909), pl. II).
pylon, the great altar court, a second court, a third court with its portico, a fou rth 1 2 1. Imitation of three rows of cord at the bottom of shafts in the columns of Kha'mwas

court, and part of the fifth court bordered by eig hteen c,lls (N. de G. Davies, Tlie (temple of Merneptah at Memphis) (W. FI. Petrie, Memphis I (London, 1909), pl.
Rock Tombs of El Amama, I [London, 1903), pl. XII ). XXV).
102. Plan with rabatted elements of the Sanctuary, fro m the tomb of Ahmose (N. de G. 122. Plan of the desert altars, east of North Suburb at 'Amarna (H. Frankfort and J. D. S.
Davies, The Rock Tombs of El A mama, III, pl. XXX). Pendlebury, Tlie City of Akhenaten, II [London, 1933), pl. XXVI).
103. Egyptian low relief representing the pylon of H erihor on the temple of Khonsu at 123. General layout of the G reat Temple at 'Amarna (J. D . S. Pend lebury, The City of
Karnak (Badawy, D essi11 Architect11ral, fig. 220). Akhe11aten, III, pl. I ) .
104. Restored view of the device for fixing flagstaffs ( Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 124. Restored bird's-eye view and plan of the sanctuary of the Great Temple at 'Amarna
227). (J. D. S. Pendlebury, Tlze City of Akhe11aten, III, pls. VIII, IX).
105. Painting representing the pylons of T heban chapels (Badawy, D essi11 Architectural, 125. Restored plan and isometric view of part of the Per-Ha'i and Gem-Aten (J. D. S.
fig. 223a) . Pendlebury, The City of Akhenate11, III, pls. IV, VI).
106. Representation of the temple of Amun from the tomb of Neferhotep (Badawy, 126. General layout and restored plan of the sanctuary of the Royal Temple at 'Amarna
Dessi11 Architectural, fig. 226). (J. D . S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhe11aten, III, fig. 18, pl. I).
 XXVl LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES XXVll

127. The Maru-Aten: l , plan; 2, restored cross section of the kiosk island ; 3, deta iled plan 14 4. Plan of the temple of Nekhebet, details of its columns, and plan of the chapel of
and section of part of the tanks; 4, painted pavement from the water court (E. Thot at E l Kab ( Porter-Moss, Bibliography, V, 186).
Peet and L. Woolley, The City of Aklie11ate11, I, pls. XXIX, XXX, XXXII, 1 45. Plan and section of the temple of Amu n, plan of the temple of H athor, and details
XXXVII ). of wall paintings at Deir el Med ina (B. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh ( 1935-1940)
128. Perspective of second hypostyle hall, of one of the chapels, and plan of the temple [Cairo, 1948), pls. l , 3, figs. 53, 67).
of Seti I at Abydos (J. Capart, L'arcl1itecture [ Brussels, 1922], pls. 125, 127; Stein- 14 6. Plan of the temple at 'Amada (H. Gauthier, L e Temple d'Amada [Cairo, 1913-
dorf!, Egypt ( Baedeker), p. 252) . 1926), pl. a).
129. General layout, plan, and section of the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos (H. Frankfort, 147· Plan and section of three ad jacent temples and plan of the Aten temple at Sesebi in
The Ce11otaph of Seti I at Abydos [London, 1933), pls. I, H, III). the Sudan (A. Blackman, "Preliminary Report on the Excavations at Sesebi, North-
130· Plan of the temple of Ramses II at Abydos ( Porter-Moss, Bibliogrnphy, VI, 32). ern Province, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1936-37,'' J.E.A., XXIII [ 1937 J, pl. XIV.
131. Plan of the temple at Lu xor, restored front, and details of col umn > from the ( l) 148. Plan of the temple of Ramses II at 'Am ara West ( H. W. Fairman, " Preliminary
hypostyle hall, (2) processional colonnade, and (3) forecourt of Ramses II ( P. Lacau, Report on the Excavations at 'Amarah West, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1938-9'', J.E.A.,
Memoires de I' Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-L ettres [Paris l XLIII, 2 , pp. 77 ff.). XXV [1939) , pl. XIII ).
132· General layout of the temples at Karnak (H. C hevrier, "Plan d'ensemble de Karnak," 149· Restored plan of the temple in the fortified city of Mi'm and detail of a palmiform
A.S.A., 36 [1936) , pl. I). capital (G. Steindorf!, Aniba II, fig. 1, Blatt 8) .
1 33· The Great Temple of Amun at Karnak : plan, restored perspective of the hypostyle 150. Plan of the temple of Tut'ankhamun at Faras (Vandier, Manuel, II, fig. 454).
hall, and of the tribune, and detai l of an open papyriform capital from the hypostyle 151. Plan of the temple at Buhen (D. Randall-Maciver and L. C. Woolley, B11he11 [Phi la-
hall (H. Chevrier, A.S.A., 36 [ 1936), pl. I ). delphia, 1911) , pp. 84-94).
1 34· Plan of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III and perspective of the upper part of the hall 152. Plan and section of the temple at Semna, and restored plans of the first, second, and
(Porter-Moss, Bibliogrnph y, II, 40; S. Clarke and R. E ngelbach, Ancient Egyptian third stages (L. Borchardt, Altiigyptiscl1e Fest1111ge11 a11 der z rveiten Nilsclmelle
Masonry [Oxford, 1930 ), fig. 174). [Leipzig, 1923 ), fig. 7, Blatt 21).
1 35· Restored sectional bird's-eye view, plan, and view of the court of the temple oi 153· Plan and section of the temple at Kumma (D. Dunham, Se11111a, Kumma [ Boston,
Khonsu, Central Group at Karnak. 1960), pls. XVI, XVIII ) .
Plan of the temple of Ptah, Central Group at Karnak (Porter-Moss, Bibliography, II, 154· Plan of the temple of Amenhotep III at Soleb (Vandier, Ma11uel, II, fig . 457).
64). 155· Plan of the tem ple of Amun-Re' at Kawa, and detail of a fl uted column (L. Macadam,
1 37· Connection between the Great Temple of Amun and that of Mut at Karnak (H. Tire T emples of Kallla, II [London, 1955], pl. 4, fig. 4).
Chevrier, A.S.A., 36 [1936), pl. I ). 156. Painting from the tomb of Ipuy representing a peripteral chapel (N. de G. Davies,
Temple of the jubilee of Amenhotep II, Central Group at Karnak (L. Borchardt, Two Ramesside Tombs at T hebes [New York, 1927), pl. XXIX; Smith, Art of
.iigyptische Tempel mit Umgang [Cairo, 1938 ), figs. 21_:-22) . Egypt, pl. 16w) .
Plan of the temple of Mut, Southern Group at Karnak. 157· Sketch on an ostracon representing a peripteral temple, and interpretation (Badawy,
Plan of the temple of Kamutef at Karnak (H . Ricke, Das Kamutef-Heiligtum D essin Architectural, fig. 242).
H auhepsuts rmd Tlrutmoses' Ill in Karnak [Cairo, 1954 ), pl. 2) . 158. T emple at Wadi Haifa West: plan and restored fa~ade of chapel ( L. Borchardt,
Plan of the temple of Ramses III, Southern G roup at Karnak (Porter-Moss, Bibliog- /igyptiscl1e Tempel mit Umgang [Cairo, 1938] , Blatt II, fig. 16).
raphy, II, 96). 159· Plan of the temple of Hathor at D eir el Medina (B. Bruyere, Deir el Medinelz ( 1935-
Plan of the temple of Amun-Re'-Montu at Karnak North and details of a sliding 1940) (Cairo, 1948], pl. 2).
door (C. Robichon and L. C hristophe, Karnak-Nord, Ill, 1945- 1949 [Cairo, 195 1), 160. Plan and section of a temple with peristyle at 'Amada (L. Borchardt, /lgyptiscl1e
pls. XLI-XLII). Tempel 111it Umgang [Cairo, 1938 '1, Blatt 13).
1 43· Plan of the temple of T hot at El Kab (Fondation Egyptolog ique Reine E lisabeth, 161. Restored plans and elevation of peripteral chapels: 1, E l Kab ( Thutmose III ); 2,
Foui/les de E f-Kab: Docu111e11ts [Brussels, 1940--(1954)) , pls. 7-8). Sacred Lake at Karnak (Thutmose III); 3, Elephantine South ; 4, Kuban (Amen-
 XXVlll LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES XXl X

hotep III ) ( L. Borchardt, jigyptische Tempel mit Umga11 g [Cairo, 1938], fig. 27, 178. Reconstruction of an Osiride statue of Hatshepsut at the southeast end of the lowest
Blatt 20-21). portico of the mortuary temple (Winlock, Excavations at Deir el Ba~1ri).
162. Small temple at Medinet Habu: restored perspective, plan as completed by Thutmose 1 79. Restored plan and elevation of the mortuary temple of Thutmose III at Sheikh
III, and project of Hatshepsut (Holscher, Medi11et H abu, II, pl. 4, fig. 41). 'Abdel Gurna ( H. Ricke, Der Tote11tempel Thutmoses' Ill [Cairo, 1939], pls. 5, 7).
163. Plan and perspective of the Speos Artemidos at Beni Hassan (Porter-Moss, Bibliog- 180. Restored plan of the mortuary temple of Thutmose IV (H. Ricke, Der Totentempel
raplzy, IV, p. 150; G. Maspero, Histoire a11cie1111e, II, [Paris, 1897 ], 349). T Ii utmoses' II/, pl. II).
164. Rock temple of Horemheb at Gebel Silsila (Porter-Moss, Bibliography, V, 209). 181. Plan of the mortuary temple of Ay-Horemheb at Medinet H abu, section of the large
165. P lan, section, and perspective of the rock temple at Wadi el Miyah dedicated by Seti hypostyle hall and detail of its column, and capital from the rear hall of Horemheb
I to Min ( H . Gauthier, "Le temple de l'Ouad i Miyah (El Knais)," B.l.F.A .O., XVII (Holscher, M edinet Habu, II, figs. 95, 65, pl. 8, fig. 68) .
[ 1920 ], pl. 20, pp. 1-38). 182. Plan of the mortuary temple of Seti I, and double false-door in the sanctuary (Hol-
166. Plan of the rock temple at Beit el Wali and perspective of a column ( G. Roeder, scher, Medinet H abu, III, pl. 2, fig. 14).
Der Felse11tempel vo11 Bet el-Wali [Cairo, 1938], pl. 10, fig. 190). 183. Plan of the mortuary temple of Ramses II (Ramesseum) (Holscher, Medi11et H ab11,
167. Section and plan of the rock temple at Garf Hussein (G. Maspero, L es T emples III, pl. IO).
immerges de la Nubie. Documents. Premiere Livraison [Paris, 1912], pls. XX II- 184. Plan of the mortuary temple of Merneptah in Western Thebes (W. F I. Petrie,
XXIV). Six Temples at Thebes [London, 1897], pl. XXV) .
168. Plan of the rock temple at Wadi el Sebu'a, and perspective of a sphinx and of a 185. Mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu: section of the great pylon, restored
pillar with statue (H. Gauthier, Le temple de Ouadi es-Siboua [Cai ro, 1912], II, pls. isometric view of the temple, plan and transverse section of the great hypostyle hall
a, VI, XXXVIII ). (Holscher, Medinet Habu, III, figs. 2 , 3, 5, 6).
169. Plan of the rock temple at Derr (A. M. Blackman, Th e Temple of Derr [Cairo, 186. Plans of the five mortuary temples of the Twentieth D ynasty behind Medinet H abu
and restored isometric view of Chapel V (Holscher, Medinet H abu, IV, pl. 42, fig. 25) .
1913], pl. I).
187. The small double temple of Seti I as rebuilt by Ramses II at Medinet Habu (Hol-
170. Plan of the rock temple of Amun-Re' and Thot at Abahuda, Gebel Adda (Porter-
scher, Medi11et Habu, II, fig. 49) .
Moss, Bibliography, VII, 120).
188. Temple of Amenhotep son of Hapu in Western Thebes: 1, plan, with that of the
17i. Fa~ad e and plan of the G reat Temple of Re'Horakhty at Abu Simbel.
temple of Thutmose II- II I and two anonymous ones; 2, longitudinal section in
172. Elevation, plan, and perspectives of the small rock temple of Hathor at Abu Simbel.
the rear part; 3, bird's-eye view restored of the temples of Amenhotep and Thutmose
173. Plan of the temple of H athor at Serabit el Khadem (from pylon eastward) by
II-III; 4, cross section of a fluted column from the second court (C. Robichon and A.
Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, and detail of a Hathoric pillar of Thutmose III (right)
Varille, Le Temple du scribe royal A menhotep, fils de H apou [Cairo, 1936], pls. IV,
and Amenhotep III ( left) ( W. FI. Petrie, Researches in Sinai [New York, 1906],
XI, XX, fig. 8).
figs. 95, 103, map 4).
189. Restored perspective of an entrance to the chapel of a Theban private tomb, afte r
174. Plan of the shrine of Queen Tetisheri at Abydos (E. R:Ayrton, C. T. Currelly, and a representation in an Egyptian mural (L. Borchardt, 0 . Konigsberger, and H .
A. E . P . Weigall, Abydos III [London, 1904 ], pl. LI). Ricke, "Friesziegel in Grabbauten," A.Z., 70 [ 1934], 29).
175. Plan of the mortuary temple of Queen Tetisheri at Abydos (E. R. Ayrton, C. T . 190. Restored perspective of the superstructure of the tomb of Nakhtamun, after the mural
Currelly, and A. E. P. Weigall, Abydos l/l, pl. LI). in his tomb (Badawy, Dessi11 Architectural, fig. 217) .
176. Layout of the mortuary temple of Queen H atshepsut at D eir el Bahari (H. E . Win- 191. Representation of the superstructure of the tomb of Neferhotep from his tomb murals
lock, Excavations at Deir el Bahri [New York, 1942 ], cover). (N. de G. Davies, "Some representations of Tombs from the Theban Necropolis,"
177. The mortuary temple of Queen H atshepsut: 1, restored bird's-eye view; 2, plan; 3, f .E.A., 24 [ 1938], 25-40, pl. XXIV).
end of the balustrade of the upper stairway; 4, end of the balustrade of the lower 192. Restored perspective of the superstructure of Neferhotep's tomb (L. Borchardt,
stairway; 5, palace fa~ade paneling on south retaining wall ; 6, portico of Anubis Konigsberger, and H. Ricke, "Friesziegel in Grabbauten," A.Z., 70 [1934], 29).
chapel; 7, side and front elevations of a Hathoric capital from the Hathor chapel. 193. Representation of the funerary chapel of Khonsmose from his tomb murals (N. de
 xxx LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES xxxi
C. T.
G. Davies, "Some representations of Tombs from the Theban Necropolis," J.E.A ., 210. Layout, plan, and section of the cenotaph of Ahmose at Abydos ( E. R. Ayrton,
Currelly, and A. E. Weigall, Abydos ll!, pl. XLIX).
24 (1938], fig. 21).
a,
Restored view of the funerary chapel of Khonsmose ( Badawy, Dessin Architectural, 211. Plan and section of a royal tomb (H. Carter, "Report on the Tomb of Zeser-ka-r
Amenhotep f," /. E.A. III l 1916J, pls. XXIII, XX; G. Steindorff and W. Wolf, Die
fig. 279).
Superstru cture of a tomb in the form of a pyramid at D eir el Medina (B. Bruyere, Tlieba11isc/1e Griiber1Ve/t (Gliicksta dt, 1936], p. 73).
1 95·

Deir el Medineh (1923-1924) (Cairo, 1925], pl. XIV). 212. Plans of roya l tombs of the Eighteent h Dynasty at Thebes West ( Valley of the Kings),
196. Front elevation of the superstructure of the chapel of Kha' (B. Bruyere, Deir el Medi- and at 'Amarna (G. Steindorff and W. Wolf, Die Tlieba11isclie Griiber1Velt, figs.
25-31).
neh (1923-1924), pl. XV).
213. Plans of the royal tombs of the N ineteenth and Twentieth dynasties at Thebes West
Two types of statues of the deceased kneeling and set in the eastern niche at the top
of the pyramid (B. Bruyere, Deir el M edineh (19 23-1924), pl. XXX). (G. Steindorff and W . Wolf, Die Theba11isc/1e Griibenve lt, figs. 32-35) .
198. Restored perspective of an entrance to a private tomb with
a porch surmounted by Plans of private tombs at Thebes West (G. Steindorff and W. Wolf, Die Thebanisch e
fig. 291 ). Griibertvelt, figs. I 3-22).
a pyramid (Badawy, Dessin Architectural,
1 99· Restored perspective of an entrance to a private tomb featuring a front portico Plans and sections of tombs Nos. 359 and 360 at Deir el Medina ( B. Bruyere, Deir
(Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 295b). el Medi11e/1 (1930), (Ca iro, 1933], figs. 17-18).
tomb (Badawy, 216. Plans, sections, and restored perspective of the superstructures of tombs Nos. 359 and
200. Drawing from the Papyrus of Nebqed representing a complete
Dessin Architectural, fig. 296). 360 (B. Bruyere, Deir el 1\l/edi11eh (1930), pls .. XXI V, XXXII).
217. Plan of the substructu re of tomb No. 217 at Deir el Medina (B. Bruyere, Deir el
201. Sketch on an ostracon representi ng the cross section of a tomb (G. Steindorff, and
W. Wolf, Die Th ebanische Griibert11e lt (Gliickstadt, 1936 ], fig. n; Badawy, Dessin Medi11e/1 ( 1923-1924 ), [Cairo, 1925] pl. V I ).
218. Plan and section of the rock-cut chapel No. 21 7 (B. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh ( 1923_
Architectural, fig. 297).
1924), pl. vr).
202. Ancient plan of the tomb of Ramses IV on papyrus (H. Carter and A. H. Gardiner,
219. Plan and restored perspective of the votive chapel No. 1213 at Deir el Medina ( B.
"The Tomb of Ramses IV and the Turin Plan of a Royal Tomb," J.E.A ., IV [ 1917 ],
130 ff; Badawy, Dessin Architectural, pp. 235-241). Bruyere, Deir el Medi11e/1 ( 1929) !Cairo, 1930], p. 19, pl. I) .
220. Plan and section of the rock-cut chapel of Ahmose at 'Amarna (N. de G. Davies, The
Pla n on an ostracon of the tomb of Ramses IX, compared to the actual plan (G.
Daressy, Catalogue General du Musee du Caire: Ostraca (Cairo, 1901], pl. 32; Ba- Rock Tombs of El A mama (London, 1905), III, pl. XXVI).
22 1. Tomb of Panehsy at 'Amarna: 1, section; 2, plan; 3, south column in front hall; ,
dawy, Dessin A rchitectural, fig. 304). 4
Sketch of a corridor and chambers in the tomb of Senmut (W. Hayes, Ostraca and design of ceiling patterns (N. de G. Davies, The Rock Tombs of El Amama, II, pls.
Name Stones from the Tomb of Sen-miit (N. 71) at Th ebes, Metropolitan Museum of
II, III, IV, IX).
222. Plan, section, and detail of column from the tomb of T utu at 'Amarna (N. de G.
Art Expeditio n [New York, 1942], nn. 31-32, p. 15, pl. VII; Badawy, Dessin Archi-
tectural, fig. 305). Davies, The Rock Tombs of El A111ar11a, V I, pls. XI, XII, XIII, XIV).
Representation of a quay and the chapel of Thutmose III from a mural in the tomb Plan of the chapel of the tomb of Nefersek heru at Korn el Ahmar (Porter-Moss
Bibliograp hy, IV, 132, 139; V, 2). '
of Khons (W. Wreszinsk i, Atlas zur altaegyptisc/1en Kulturgeschichte [Leipzig,
1935], II, 129; Badawy, Dessin Architectural, fig. 306) . Plan of the chapel of Tutu at D eir Rifa (M. Pillet, "Structure et decoration arch itec-
206. Restored perspective of the entrance to the chapel of Thutmose III
(Badawy, Dessin tonique de la necropole antique de D ei r-Rifeh (province d 'Assiout)," Mela11ges
Architectural fig. 306) . Maspero [Cairo, 1934 ], I, fig. 8).

207. Mural representi ng the funerary chapel of Nakhtmin

(W. W reszinski, Atlas zur Plans of chapels D . 9 ( 1), D. 8 (2), D. 24 (3) at El 'Amra (D. Randall-Maciver,
altaegyptischen Kulturgeschicl1te, II, 278). El Amrah and Abydos [London, 1902), pls. XXIV-XX VI).
208. Restored perspective of the chapel of Nakhtmin and its
garden (Badawy, Dessin Tombs at El 'Araba: 1, plan and section of a tomb from the Eighteent h Dynasty; 2,
Architectural, fig. 308) . plan of a tomb from the Eighteent h Dynasty; 3, plan and section of the substructure
209. Plan and section of the superstruc ture of a tomb at Deir
el Medina (Badawy, Dessin of Minmose (Nineteenth Dynasty) (J. Garstang, El Arabah [London, 1900 ], pls.
XXXIII-X XXV).
Arcl1itectural, fig. 295a).
 XXXll LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF FIGURES xxxiii

227. Plans of two tomb shrines (E. 250, E. 251) from the Twentieth Dynasty at Esna, and north side (D. Randall-Mac iver and L. Woolley, Buh en [Philadelphia, 19 II], pls.
detail of the slab representing the cow of Hathor, and a pointed arch (J. Garstang,
G, E).
"Excavations at Hierakonpolis, at Esna, and in Nubia," A.S.A., VIII ( 1907 ], pp. 145- 246. Plan of entrance fa~ade and restored perspecti ve of the fortress at Buben d uring the
148, pl. XV). N ew Kingdom (W. Emery, "A Master-work of Egyptian Military Architectu re,"
228. Rock tombs of Ahmose Pennekhebet (2), Ahmose son of lbana (5), and Paheri (3) Illustrated L ondon Nell/s [Sept. 12, 1959], p. 250, figs. 1, 2).
at E l Kab (Porter-Moss, Bibliography, V, 184-185). 247. The great g irdle wall at Medinet H abu: reconstructed bird 's-eye view from the east,
229. Plans and sections of tombs Nos. 3 and 5 at 'Aniba (G. Steindorff, Aniba II, Blatt, plan, section of wall, elevation of north face of the eastern gateway, and detail of
II, 12). brickwork with horizontal or "hanging" courses ( H olscher, M edinet H abu, II, pl. 2 ,
figs. l, 2) .
230. Plan, sections, and restored axonometric view of tomb No. 66 a 'Aniba (G. Stei n-
dorff, A11iba II, Blatt 27, 44). 248. Restored perspective of the landing quay in fron t of the eastern gateway at Medinet
231. Plan, restored elevation, and two axonometric views of chapel S. A 35, and axon- Habu ( H olscher, Medinet Habu, IV, fig. 13).
ometric view of S. 56 at 'Aniba (G. Steindorff, A11iba II, pp. 242 ff.). 249. The eastern fo rtified gateway at Medinet Habu: reconstructed perspective, longitudi-
232. Plan of the catacombs for animals at Dendera (Eighteenth D ynasty), and sketch of a nal section, and plan of the third Aoor (Holscher, !'vfedi11et Hab11, II, pls. 1 , 2 , 11 , 41).
blue-glazed pottery stand in the shape of a papyriform colu mn from a shrine (W. FI. 250. Engaged composite column in the western fortified gateway of the mortuary temple
Petrie, Dendere/1 [London, 1898], pls. XXXVI, XXIII). of Ramses III at Medinet H abu (Holscher, Medinet H abu, II, pl. 4 ).
233. Restored types of fortresses in Syria during the Empire after Egyptian representations 25 ' · Plan of the inner fort ified enclosu re, section of the south wall in the south west corner
on temples (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, pp. 146-158, fig. 175). and later E gyptian representation of the fortified temple enclosure ( H erihor, Tempi~
234 . Restored perspective of a mach icolated balcony in a Syrian fort ( R. Naumann, of Lu xor) ( H olscher, Medi11et Hab11, III, figs. 34-36).
Arc/1itektur Kleinasiens (Tiibingen, 1955], fig. 366). 252. Plan of the city wall at Tell cl Retaba (W. FI. Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite Cities
235. Simple type of stronghold represented on Egyptian temples (Badawy, Dessin Archi- [London, 1906), pl. XXX).

tectural, fig. 178). 253. Stela of Mah u representing him adoring a statue of Ramses If (J.-J. Clere, "Nouveaux
236. Representation of the Syrian fortified town of Qadesh from the temple at Abu Simbel documents relatifs au culte des colosses d e Ramses II dans le D elta," Ke mi, XI [ 1 950 ],
pl. IIIb). .
(Badawy, Dessi11 A rchitectural, pp. 149-150, fig. 180).
237. Representation of a fortified simple enclosure with citadel (Badawy, Dessin Archi- Distribution of architectural statuary in the courts and on the fa~ades of temples dur-
ing the Empire.
tectural, p. 150, fig. 181).
Views of types of Osiride pillars.
238. Representation of a double enclosure in a Syrian fort (Badawy, Dessin Architectural,
p. 151, fig. 183). Mu ral representing a garden from the tomb of Puyemre' at Thebes (Badawy, Dessin
Architectural, fig. 318) .
239. Representation of a fort with double enclosure and two gateways (Badawy, Dessin
Architectural, p. 152, fig. 187). M urals representing ga rdens in the tombs of Kenamun and another, with restored
240. Represe11tation of a fort with double enclosures and towers: town of Ascalon, from the perspecti ve of the latter (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, pp. 251, 253-254, figs. 3 16,
320, 321).
Ramesseum low reliefs (Badawy, Dessin Architectural, p. 153, fig. 190) .
24r. Representation of a fort with double enclosures and citadel: town of Dapur ( Badawy, The garden of the vizier Rekhmire' from his tomb mura ls ( upper figure), and a
Dessi11 Architectural, pp. 153-154, fig. 191). sacred garden for funerary rites from a tomb mural at Memphis (Badawy, Dessin
242. Representation in plan and rabatted elevation of the frontier post at T jalu (Badawy, Architectural, pp. 249-250, fi gs. 312, 314).
Dessin Architectural, p. 156, fig. 195). Interpretation of the layout of the garden of Sennufer after its representation in his
243. Restored plan of the fort ified city of Mi'm ('An iba in Nubia), and detailed section tomb murals (Badawy, Dessin Arcl1itectural, pp. 254-255, fig. 322).
260. Layout of a funera ry garden from a Memphite tomb mural (Badawy, Dessi11 Archi-
through the harbor (G. Steindorf£, A11iba II, Blatt 6, 7).
tectural, p. 250, fig. 313).
244. Restored plan of the city of Mi'm during the New Kingdom, and perspecti ve of the
western gateway (G. Steindorf£, A11iba II, Blatt 8). Restored perspective of the funerary garden after its representation in a Memphite
tomb ( cf. fig. 260 ).
245. General plan of the fo rtifications from the New Ki ngdom at Buhen, and detail of the
 LIST OF PLATES xxxv

View looking north along the western double colonnade in the court of Amenhotep
III at Luxor.
20. Colossal group of Ramses II and his wife Nefertari at the northern end of the great
colonnade at Luxor, in the early morning.
List Of Plates 21. Colossal group of Ramses II and his wife Nefertar i at the northern end of the great
colonnade at Luxor, in the sunset light ( cf. pl. 20).
22. Air view of Karnak from the southwest (before 1945) (P. Barguet, Le Temple
d'Amon-Re cl Kamal( [Cairo, 1962 ], pl. II).
The processional alley of sphinxes and the tribune as seen from the top of P ylon I at
Karnak; beyond, the N ile and Western Thebes.
I. Right entrance to the temple palace of Ramses III, as restored by Holscher (Holscher,
The processional alley of crio-sphinxes leading fr om the tribune to Pylon I at Karnak.
Medinet Hab11, IV, pl. 5). Restored perspective of Thebes as seen from the Great Temple of Amun-Re' at
2. Painted ceiling of the pharaoh's robing room (palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata)
Karnak; in the background, Western Thebes and the peak of the Horn (drawing by
(Smith, Art of Egypt, pl. I2rn). H. Horeau, Panorama d'Egypte et de Nubie [Pa ris, 184 1]).
3· Views of the remains of the workmen's village at Deir el Medina, seen from the north
The Osiride pillars on the north side of the court in the temple of Ramses III at
(B. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh (1934-1935) [Cairo, 1939], pl. III).
Karnak (central group).
4· View of the main street at Deir el Medina (Photo, Professor V. Vikentiev ).
27. View from the aisle of the hypostyle hall at Karnak (Great Temple of Amun-Re'),
5· Layout of Central City at 'Amarna (H. W. Fairman, "Town Planning in Pharaonic
showing the clerestory windows bordering the upper part of the nave.
Egypt," To({ln Pla1111i11g Revie({I, XX [1949], fig. 15).
Top of an obelisk with scene of Amun-Re' and Thutmose III (Karnak), originally
6. Model of a mansion (T.36.11) at 'Amarna ( H . W. Fairman, "Town Planning in
standing against the eastern doorway of Pylon III.
Pharaonic Egypt," fig. 13). Upper part of the south obelisk of H atshepsut between Pylon IV and Pylon V.
7· Magazines of the Ramesseum. Thutmose III hammered out the name of the queen and substituted his own. Seti I
\ 8. Second hypostyle hall in the temple of Seti I at Abydos.
restored the name of Amun-Re' hammered out by Akhenaten, and added his own ( left
9· Seti I pouring a libation before Osiris and Horus; low relief on the west wall of the
figures).
hypostyle hall. The two granite pillars symbolizing Upper and Lower Egypt in the Hall of Records of
30.
'- JO. Seti I enthroned between Buto (left) and Nekhebet, with Homs and Thot; low relief
Thutmose III (Great Temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak).
on the west wall of the sanctuary of Pharaoh in his temple at Abydos.
31. Group of Amun and Amunet in the Hall of Records (Great Temple of Amun-Re' at
I I. The chamber in the shape of a sarcophagus in the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos; the
Karnak) (Photo, M. Shafei).
only light reflected by a mirror comes through the gap in the wall.
32. The nave with its tent-pole columns in the Festival Hall of Thutmose III at Karnak
12. The hypostyle hall in the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos. •
(K. Lange and M. Hirmer, Egypt [London, 1957], pl. 139) .
13. Fa~ade of the small temple of Thutmose III in the court of Ramses II at Luxor.
33· Colossal scarab in the north corner of the Sacred Lake at Karnak (Photo, Professor
Beyond is the west tower of the pylon and one of the obelisks that Ranked the entrance.
V. Vikentiev).
14. View of the great colonnade of Amenhotep III at Luxor, showing the bent axis of the
34· Fa~ade of the temple of Nekhebet at El Kab.
plan (Photo, Professor V. Vikentiev). Hathoric column in the temple of Nekhebet at El Kab (S. Clarke and R. Engelbach,
35·
15. The southeast corner of the court of Ramses II at Luxor (Photo, Professor V. Viken-
Ancient Egyptian Masonry [Oxford, 1930], fig. 150).
tiev). Mural representing a peripteral chapel, from the tomb of Ipuy (No. 217, Thebes,
16. The colonnade of Amenhotep III as seen from the first hypostyle hall at Lu xor.
Nineteenth Dynasty) (Smith, Art of Egypt, pl. 16w).
17. View from the south corner of the court of Amenhotep III at Luxor. The south aisle of the peripteros in the small temple of the Eighteenth Dynasty at
37·
18. View from the southwest corner of the court of Amenhotep III at Luxor at sunset.
Medinet Habu.
 XXXVl LIST OF PLATES LIST OF PLATES XXXVll

38. The Great T emple of Re'Horakhty at Abu Sim bel (Ramses II ), from the south 58. Rows of bud columns in the south aisle of the hypostyle hall (mortuary temple of
( 1957 ). Ramses II) .
39. A festival celebrated in the temple of Re'Horakhty at Abu Sim bel as restored by 59. Bird's-eye view of the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinct Habu, as seen from
Takelam ( 1945). the north. In the background, the sm all temple of the E igh teenth Dynasty and the
40. The southernmost colossus of Ramses II in the far;ade of Abu Sim bel (Great T emple, eastern gateway. (H. Schafer and W. Andrae, Die Kunst des A/ten Orients [ Berlin,
1957). 1925], p. 310).
41. North side of the entrance passageway to the Great Temple at Abu Simbel. T he scene 60. Bud columns from the mortuary temple of Ramses II at Abydos.
in sunk relief on the socle of the colossus represents a row of bound prisoners on their 61. The desert Valley of the Kings in Western Thebes.
knees ( 1957). 62. T omb of Ramses IX (H. Schafer and vV. Andrae, Die Kunst des A /ten Orients, p.
42. Hypostyle hall with colossal statues of Ramses II in the front hypostyle in the Great 316).
Temple at Abu Simbel ( 1957). 63. Rock tomb of Ay at 'A marna (H. Schafer a nd W. Andrae, Die Kun st des A /ten
43. Colossus of Ramses II in the fro nt hypostyle hall of the Great Tem ple at Abu Simbel Orients, p. 320) .
(north row, southernmost pillar; 1957). 64. Capital of a bud col umn from a rock tomb at 'Amarna; the colu mn to the rear was
44. Photogrammetric elevation of the colossus of Ramses TI (north row, southernmost left unfinished (Photo, Professor V. Vikentiev).
pillar, hypostyle hall of the Great Temple at Abu Simbel) (Made by Institut Geo- 65. Painted decoration: (upper), ceil ing of a temple; (middle), tomb of Neferhotep
graphique National, Paris, 1954). (Nineteenth Dynasty); (/011Jer), tomb at Thebes (Twenty-First Dynasty) ( H. Schafer
45. Photogrammetry of the profile of the head of Ramses II (westernmost colossus in the and VI'. Andrae, Die Kunst des A /ten Orients, p. 402) .
north row, hypostyle hall of the Great T emple at Abu Simbel) (Made by Institut 66. T he eastern fo rtified gateway of the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet H abu
Geographiq ue National, Paris, 1954). (Holscher, Medi11et H nbu, IV, pl. 15) .
46. Patching and correction of the apron and knee of the second colossus in the north row 67. Back of the eastern gateway of the mortuary temple of Ramses III (Holscher, Medine/
(hypostyle hall of the Great Temple of Re' Horakhty at Abu Simbel; 1957 ). H nbu, IV, pl. 19).
47· Far;ade of the small temple of Ha thor and Nefertari at Abu Simbel ( 1957) .
48. The two temples at Abu ·Simbel, looking south west ( 1957 ).
49· The north row of H athoric pillars in the small temple at Abu Simbel ( 1957).
50. T he mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut, as seen from the top of the northern cl iff
at Deir el Bahari.
Hathoric capital from the Hathor chapel in the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at
Deir el Bahari ( 1952).
52. The chapel of H athor at Deir el Bahari. O n the rear wati Hatshepsut is see n nursing
at the udder of the cow of Hathor.
53· Columns and recesses in the court of the third terrace at Deir el Bahari.
54· The so-called Memnon colossi: statues of Amenhotep III which fronted his mortuary
temple in Western Thebes (Photo, Professor V. Vikentiev ).
55· Bird's-eye view of the mortuary temple of Ramses II (Ramesseum) as seen from the
back (west) (K . Lange and M. Binner, Egypt, pl. 232).
56. Eastern row of Osiride pillars in the second court of the Ramesseum ( northeast
corner) .
57· Central nave in the h ypostyle hall of the mortua ry temple of Ramses II.
 LIST OF COLOR PLATES XXXlX

(seep. 470). (After U . H olscher, The Excavation of Medinet H ab11, IV [Chicago,

1957], pl. 4.)
X III. View of the Ramesseum in Western Thebes (see p. 394) . (Photograph by the
author, 1957·)
X IV. Murals in the southwest half of the broad hall in the tomb chapel of Nakht (No.
List Of Color Plates 52) in Western Thebes (see p. 409). (Photograph courtesy Mr. Arpag Mekhitarian,
Egyptian Painting [New York, 1954], 18.)
XV. Restored copy of the entrance to the north chamber from the hall of the (omb
chapel of Puyemre' (No. 39) in Western Thebes (seep. 410). (After N. de G.
Davies, Th e Tomb of Puyemre at Thebes [New York, 1922-1923 ], pl. XLIV.)
XVI. Patterns of ceiling paintings from tomb chapels in Western Thebes (seep. 410).
I. Frontispiece. Restored perspective of the Harem pavilion of King Ay at Thebes
(After N . de G. Davies, The T omb of Huy [London, 1920), pl. I ; The Tomb of
(see pp. 25-26) .
T1vo Sculptors at Th ebes [New York, 1927), pl. XXX; The To mb of Amenemhet
II. Glazed ceramic tiles from the temple palace of Ramses III at Medinet H abu (see
[London, 1915), pl. XXXII; photograph courtesy Mrs. M. Mullin.)
p. 44 ). (After U. Holscher, Th e Excavation of Medi11et H nbu [Chicago, 195 1],
IV, pl. 30.)
III. Restored perspective of the hall of the harem in the palace of Amenhotep III at
Malqata, 1400 n.c. (seep. 52, fig. 26). ( R. de P . T ytus, A Preliminary Report on
the Re-Excavation of the Palace of Amenhotep Ill [New York, 1903 ].)
IV. Restored perspecti ve of a street in the E mpire period at Thebes ( see p. 60).
V. Restored painted pavement in the central palace of Akhenaten at 'Amarna (see p.
84) . ( After W. FI. Petrie, T ell el A mam a !'London, 1894], pp. 13-14, pls. II- IV.)
VI. Restored perspective of the main hall in the villa of General Ra'mose at 'Amarna
(see p. 94). (L. Borchardt, "Das agyptische Wohnhaus im 14. Jahrhundert v.
Chr.," in Z eitsclirift fiir Ba11wese11 [Berlin] , 66 [1 916], pl. L.)
VII. Restored model of a temple to Re'Horakhty-Atum by Seti I (seep. 174). (Photo-
graph courtesy Dr. B. V. Bothmer, Brooklyn Museum, 1967.)
VIII. T ypical wall scene in low relief painted from the tem ple of Seti I at Abydos ( see p.
218). (Photograph courtesy Mrs. M. Mull in, 1964.)
IX. The Great Temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak seen aero~ the Sacred Lake at sunset
(seep. 253). ( Photograph by the author, 1957·)
X. Rock temple of Re'Horak hty by Ramses II at Abu Simbel in Lower Nubia (see
p. 308). (Photograph by the author, 1957.)
XI. View toward the valley from the north vestibule on the second terrace of the temple
of H atshepsut at Deir el Bahari (sec pp. 186, 331). (Photograph by the author,
1957.)
XIIn. Papyriform capital from the hypostyle hall of the Great Temple of Amun-Re' at
Karnak (seep. 370 ). (A fte r Prisse d' A vcnnes, Mo1111me11ts egyptiens [Paris, 1847 ],
no. 43.)
XIIb. Engaged cluster column from the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu
 I
The Influences

Egypt's civilization was never to surpass the h eights it attained in the first five
centuries of the New Kingdom, properly called the Empire on account of the
extension of her power and h er culture over many foreign countries. This
period marked a new era in architecture, which was now subjected to new
influences, although they did n ot necessarily result in a h igher level of achieve-
ment than in the past.

GEOGRAPHICAL

The victorious Egyptian armies subdued foreign lands, and the frontiers of the
Empire were advanced as far as the Euphrates to the east and the F ourth or
Fifth Cataract to the south. Tribute was flowing in and substantial riches were
accumulated, resulting in a wider scope for official programs of architecture in
Egypt, especially for temples and temple palaces, and abroad for fortresses and
fortified cities. The routes were free for trade expeditions and interielations
with other prominent cultures, such as the Mesopotamian (Eighteenth Dy-
nasty), wh ich was as old as the Egyptian if not older, the Aegean (Eighteenth
Dynasty) , and the Indo-European Hittite ( Nineteenth Dynasty) . Indirectly,
the maintenance of such relations widen ed the scope of military architecture
because numerous fortresses and trading posts had to be built abroad. Influ-
ences from foreign military architectures, mainly the Syrian, were felt in
Egypt (Medinet Habu).
New customs led to new trends in architecture, whether these were
directly borrowed, as were the "apadana" type of columned hall and the ramps
on either side of a doorway ('Amarna), or gradually evolved.
 2 I: THE INFLUENCES I: THE INFLUENCES 3

GEOLOGICAL disk Aten and governing the country from a capital he founded in the desert
in Middle Egypt. This also meant new types of temples, h ypaethral chapels,
Tribute from foreign vassals acquainted the Egyptians with new materials and and monumental altars built not only at 'Amarna, the new capital, but also in
new technical possibilities. At the same time the local quarries and those in such far-off outposts as Sesebi in the Sudan. But his successor reverted to
remote districts, such as Sinai for turquoise and copper and Nubia for gold, Amun-Re' of Thebes. This ideological movement, however, with its political
were exploited with renewed intensity. The pharaohs were directly interested incentive did have a momentary influence on culture in general and on the arts
in these resources, especially the gold mines, and some of them boasted of in particular. There is a conspicuous trend toward naturalism and lifelike
having provided for the welfare of the workmen by digging wells and even representation with perhaps some direct inspiration from Mesopotamia in
building settlements in far-off desert locations. Seti I inspected the mountain- architectural achievements. By the end of th e Twentieth Dynasty the balance
ous region east of Edfu and Redesiya and ordered a well to be dug and a of political power h ad definitel y swung back in favor of Amun-Re' at Thebes,
settlement with a temple to be built. Similarly, a well 64 meters deep was and it was a general who h appened to be also one of his high priests who
excavated by Ramses II in the mountain on the road to the gold mines east of mounted the throne and founded the Twenty-First D ynasty.
Wadi Alaki in Nubia, "furnishing water every day as in the valley of the The temples h ad an elaborate system of dependencies ranging from
Nile." 1 The civic sense that had become apparent even at the beginning of the housing settlements for priests, refectories, chapels, processional avenues, col-
Middle Kingdom proved to be a major item in the politics of the pharaohs, leges, and archives to such lesser types of buildings as farm estates with
who no doubt were alive to the propaganda value inherent in their sponsor- granaries, storehouses, stalls, stables, farmyards, and factories. An excellent
ship of various civic schemes. The ever increasing requirements of the archi- example of the power wielded by an administrator of such an estate is afforded
tectural programs of the court necessitated an intensified working of the by the career of Senmut, the Steward of Amun, who was called upon to
quarries and the mines: huge monoliths for obelisks, statues, and columns; assume such important roles as Steward of Queen H atshepsu t and h er daugh-
and gold for overlaying wooden doors, jambs, and pavements as well as for ter, Director of the Works of the King, and a few other posts. This rise in his
furniture and jewelry. influence, possibly enhanced by his personal capability, was in no way con-
nected with his priestly titles but can be ascribed indirectly to the growing
power of Amun.
RELIGIOUS In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, scenes representing the victories of
Pharaoh occurred only in restricted areas of the temple. During the Empire
The promotion of the god Amun as chief deity by Amenemhat I some four the external walls are filled with such scenes. The fi gure of the pharaoh is on a
centuries earlier had resulted in the supremacy of his cult and clergy. The heroic scale, and the various phases of whole campaigns are pictured. Ramses
priests gathered great riches through continuous endowments from the phar- II, who narrowly escaped destruction at the battle of Qadesh in Syria, caused
aohs and consequently their power increased even to compete with that of that "victory" to be commemorated on the walls of his temples at Abydos, at
Pharaoh himself. The intermarriage of Egyptian pharaohs and Mitannian Luxor, at Karnak, at Abu Simbel, and in the Ramesseum (Thebes West). The
princesses was possibly responsible for the short-lived favor that Re', the sun scenes are usually located on the exterior, on the pylons or th e outer walls, but
god, presumably equated with some similar deity in Mitanni, enjoyed at also in the hypostyle h all of the rock-cut temples (Abu Simbel, Derr[ ?]). The
the court together with Amun. Amun-Re' was still the official designation of same memorable event was celebrated in th e official records and in a poem
the deity adored by Amenhotep III. A courageous attempt to break away from copied by the scribe Pentawer. This literature as well as the scenes on the
the encroaching supremacy of Amun and the political power of his clergy was temple walls had no direct religious purport but rather was intended to
made by the idealist pharaoh Akhenaten, by promoting the cult of the sun enhance the pharaoh's power at home and in Nubia. The temple was used for
 I: THE INFLUENCES I : T H E IN FLUENCES 5
4
both royal propaganda and the search for personal popularity. Besides these SOCIA L
scenes accessible to the populace, there were, in front of the pylons, colossal
statues of the pharaoh which were thought to answer the prayers of th e With the continuous warfare of the southern names against the Hyksos the
people, for the pharaoh had becom e the mediator to the gods and the colossal Egyptians grew to be far more military-minded than they had ever been
statues were more accessible than the sacred on es h idden in the sanctuary. T he before. Besides this new trend, they acq uired during the century of Hyksos
temple h ad become a most useful instrument for internal politics at the court. rule man y features of the invaders' civilization .~ Probably the most important
N ot only were the external walls carved with extensive low reliefs and of these was the use of the horse with chariots and occasionally for riding.
painted in gaudy colors, and colossi erected in front of the p ylon or even Intimately connected with it was the use of the wheel in ligh t two-wheeled
introd uced as the main item in architectural design (as in the rock temples of ch ariots for warfare and for the pharaoh 's use, and later for private use. As a
Nubia), but other elements such as obelisks, series of pylons alternating with consequence architecture had to adapt itself to the nature of this new means of
porticoed courts, and processional alleys bordered with sphinxes were used transportation and provide ramps as in Mesopotamian palaces instead of stair-
extensively. All of these were for the benefit of the god and the ph araoh's ways in the royal palaces ('Amarna) . T he H yksos weapons were soon imitated
popularity. The architectural program of the tem ples swelled with con tinuous by the Egyptians them selves, and there is no doubt that they found the
additions through succeeding reigns, and the quarries h ad to be worked at an compound bow, built of several layers of wood, sinews, or horn glued and
unprecedented rate. W ood from the Lebanese cedars for columns, ceilings, bound, much m ore efficient than the n ative longbow. In the early Eighteenth
huge doors, flagstaffs, barges, and temple furniture was so indispensable that a Dynasty there is evidence of the use of metal arrowheads and metal armor
'
special expedition had to be dispatched in the reig n of Ramses XII. An image probably also imported by the H yksos. A m odified northern type of dagger,
of A mun, called "Amun-of-the-Way" was to protect the m essenger Unamun similar to those in Crete and the Greek islands, is inscribed with the names of
who sailed for Byblos. The predicament in which Unamun became entangled H yk sos k ings and later with those of Egyptian pharaohs. Other new weapons
as a result of the hypocritical treatment at the court of the L ebanese prince were also introd uced, such as the long saber to be wielded with both hands and
throws an unfavorable light on the foreign prestige of the latest Ram essid. a curved sword from Mesopotamia. Innovations in the weapons and metals
Copper and gold had also to be provided to overlay doors, low reliefs, pave- can also be ascribed to the H yksos influence. Bronze and perhaps iron came to
be used in helmets, scale armor, and arms.
m ents, and furniture.
A large part of the booty in riches and m anpower from wars was Of the constructive elem en ts for peacefu l pursuits possibly acquired by
awarded to the gods, and settlem ents of prisoners were established around the th e Egyptians from the H yk sos, th e watering device (Arabic, sliaduf) seems to
temples to work on architectural and maintenance projects. be the most importa nt." The earliest representation occurs in the Nineteenth
The priesthood of other local gods enjoyed fl<1llrishing p eriods, and D ynasty tomb of Ipuky, but it could h ave been known earlier. In the manufac-
temples were built in Thebes, Abydos, Mem phis, Heliopolis, and the Delta, to ture of textiles, instead of the one-spindle horizontal loom, two or more
which site Ramses II tra nsferred his capital T anis. With the extension of the spindles suspended from the ceiling increased the output. We find paired
empire, temples were built in the imperial outposts along the valley in Nubia bellows for a blacksmith being worked by a man standing with one foot on
(Buhen , Beit el W ali, Abu Simbel, Derr) and the Sudan ( Sesebi, Soleb), as each of them. Perh aps one could also count among Hyksos importations the
well as in desert areas at the quarr y settlements (Redesiya, Sinai, Silsila) an d m ethod of branding cattle, a new type of razor, and the long-necked lute. It
m ust be stressed, however, that these are n othing but surmises and it would be
even in Asia (Tjalu).
dangerous to ascribe to a warlike people such cultural factors that would be
more readily achieved by Egypt, simply because no proof of their previous
existence has been found.
 6 I : THE INFLUENCES I: THE INFLUENCES 7

The impact of the H yksos invasion and rule upon art seem s to have been manned by officials whose rank and prog ress depended upon their ability
of less impor tance, for they were not builders. The fortifications they built and the favor they enjoyed at the court. Officials no longer were buried in the
around their cities, as at T ell el Yehudiya and H eliopolis, were earthwork s vicinity of their sovereign's tomb after death, as the royal tombs were exca-
similar to those they built in Palestine, surrou nded by a deep m oat on a strictly vated secretly inside the western cliffs of Thebes, and blocked and hidden after
rectangular plan with rounded corners. Such a layout is clearly the outcom e of the funeral.
planning on a w ide stretch of level g round, such as the steppes of Asia Pharaoh was still of di vine descent, as he had always been; but whereas
afforded. he had assumed the title of "Son of Re'" in the Old Ki ngdom, he enjoyed no
Egypt emerged from the conflict w ith the H yksos as a military power parallel title, "Son of Amun," in the n ewer official titulary. In two instances
seeking to spread its political influence outside the limits of the cou ntry east when the pharaoh wanted to justify his rights to the throne, he had recourse to
and south to prevent another invasion . The ph araoh was the commander of a propagandistic device, describing his birth as the result of theogamy.
the arm y, and the high officials were appointed by him and followed h im in A mun-Re' himself is said to h ave begotten H atshepsut or Amenhotep III
his campaigns. The arm y, which was well organized and equipped with the tlu ough the queen mother, and the various phases are described and repre-
new weapons, succeeded in creating one of the largest empires in the ancien t sented on the walls of their respective tem ples at Deir el Bahari and Luxor.
7
world. The new science of military strategy was an important factor in Egyp- Akhenaten was the Son of Aten " who cam e forth from his rays." All through
tian warfare, and the experience the early nationalists at Thebes h ad acquired the official records there is constant concern by the pharaohs about the validity
during their fights against the H yksos was perh aps not t11e least important of their rights to th e throne. Many of them were really usurpers and various
fou ndation of that science. means to validate their status, besides that of theogamy, all involving some
The ph araoh was not only the commander of the army but also the only divine intercession, are staged. Pharaohs also had recourse to a direct approach
head of the state, which he governed w ith the help of two ministers (Arabic, to public opinion th rough their social welfare programs. Civic sense had
vizier):' An exceedingly interesting text from the tomb of the vizier Rekhmire' developed ever since the en d of the O ld Kingdom, and we see the pharaohs of
in the reign of Thutmose III describes the elaborate duties of the vizier and the Empire building new towns for work men ('Amarna East, D eir el Me-
stresses that the ideology to be followed should tend toward public welfare and "' . dina) and establishing wells and settlem ents in the mining districts. Urbanism
justice. A new, important post, created to take care of the coun try sout11 of had become a royal pursuit. "H ow evil is the way without water," exclaims
8
Egypt, was th at of the "Viceroy of N ubia" or "King's son of K ush." Local Seti l. "I planted the whole land with trees and verdure, and I made the
chieftains of Asia were appointed to rule w ith th e h elp of Egyptian officials. people dwell in their shade," boasts Ramses IIl.9
Loyalty to an idealistic and rather weak sovereign like Akhenaten w as i nsured There is no doubt that Egypt reach ed the apex of its power during the
through generous distributions of titles and golden assets, as represented in th e Empire and that richness was the current featu re of this prosperity. A rt
5
contemporaneous low reliefs in the tombs. flourished and showed m an y influences from abroad, together with more
The h igh priest of Amun at Thebes was perhaps the richest and most versatility and facility than genuine high refinement. The greater social free-
powerful individual after the ph araoh, and t11e endowments constantly dom that the people were allowed to enjoy during the reform by Akhenaten,
awarded to this priesthood by the pharaohs contributed to a gradual transfer when even the colloquial language was intermixed with the official classical
of power from the Court to Amun . It has been said that Egypt u nder the last language, is exemplified in an outspoken n aturalism. Architecture followed
Ramessids was governed by two parallel dynasties, that of the ph araoh and that th e general trend and m ost of its m on um ents had to be colossal, although
of the high priest, with the latter ever increasing in power w hile the former often with a corresponding debasement in the proportions and taste. H uge
decreased.G scale and optical illusion s in architecture were to impress the peoples of the
The feudal system had disappeared by this time, and the state was Em pire, especially in the newly subdued countries, with the everlasting might
 8 I: THE INFLUENC ES I: THE INFLUENC ES 9

of the pharaoh.' N ew towns were founded in the remotest districts of the

0
Ramses I, the first in a line of pharaohs who had to fight a warlike people, the
Sudan (Sesebi) as military outposts rather than for the immediate benefit of Hittites from A sia Minor, and the ever turbulent Libyans. Seti I and Ramses II
the natives. Not content with the monuments they actually built, some of the are the most famous of these conquerors. The latter insured peace by victory in
pharaohs and particularly Ramses II transferred ea rlier monuments to their battle and his m arriage with Hittite princesses. Under Merneptah a general
own names by erasing the names of their makers. invasion by Libyans and their allies, th e Peoples of the Sea-Achae ans, Sicil-
ians, Etruscans, and Sardinians, as well as Philistines- had to be crushed . A
few feeble pharaohs allowed their enemies to enter the Empire. Anarchy was
HISTORIC AL checked by Setnakht, who found ed the T wentieth D ynasty (1200-1085 n.c.).
His successor Ramses III was the most successful pharaoh of this new family,
Much of the valorous spirit of Seqnenre', who lost his life in a battle against and h is wars stopped the activity of the Libyans and their allies as well as that
the H yksos, and of his sons Kamose and Ahmose, the founder of the Eight- of the Asiatics. The large enclosure and gateways of his mortuary temple at
eenth Dynasty (1580-1314[ ?] B.c.), seems to h ave persisted in the dynasty's Medinet H abu embod y many architectura l features of Syrian origin and a
famous pharaohs. They carried their victorious arms deep into Nubia and clever use of optical illusions to enhance the impression of huge scale.
Asia. Queen H atshepsut sent an expedition to trade in Punt (Somaliland [ ?]) His successors Ram ses IV-XI ( II66-1085 n.c.) could not keep their pos-
and it brought back precious metals, rare animals, and trees for the temple of sessions in A sia, although Nubia rem ained loyal. Even a trade expedition, such
Amun-Re', her father. She had to use many a political stratagem with the able as the one headed by Unamun and accompanie d by "Amun-of-t he-Way" in
h elp of h er Steward and Architect Senmut and Hapuseneb, the high priest of the reign of Ramses XI, h ad to cope with the contemptuo us attitude of the
Amun and all the gods of Egypt, to maintain herself on the throne in spite of princelet of Byblos. The administration seems to have been deterioratin g, as is
the intrigues of h er nephew Thutmose III. This nephew was sole ruler at her shown by the corruption revealed at the inquest held at that time into the
death, and h e hastened to have all h er statues destroyed and her inscriptions robbery of the royal tombs. Corruption and insecurity, together with the
erased. He proved to be a successful general, extending the frontiers to the ever increasing power of the priests of Amun-Re', were th e decisive factors
Euphrates and the Fourth Cataract on the Upper Nile. This martial tradition that led the priests to mount the throne as pharaohs in the Twenty-First
was carried on by Amenhotep II and Thutmose IV. But Amenhotep III was Dynasty.
not an outstanding warrior, and he maintained peace by marrying a Mesopota- Egypt's greatness had waned as a result of constant struggles in military
mian princess, probably favoring h er creed and culture. No less than 317 activities, and never again could it regain the controlling power in political
fields or become the leading nation in cultural spheres. The period following,
11
Mesopotam ian ladies accompanie d the princess as retainers. The religious
reform of his son Amenhotep IV, who changed his ncrme to Akhenaten and som etimes regarded as an integral part of the New Kingdom, was actually a
founded the new capital of Akhetaten in the desert of Middle Egypt at decadent period ( 1085-]15 n.c.) .
'Amarna, was probably as much a result of his education in an Egyptian- Two internal factors can also be held responsible for the decline of the
Mesopotam ian milieu as of his own initiative and his h atred of the clergy of royal authority in the Ramesside D ynasty. Latent intrigue seems to have
Amun-Re'. H e was too busy with his idealistic and religious pursuits to take characterize d the court of Pharaoh since the earliest times of the Middle
care of his foreig n possessions; and they were lost to his weak successors, who Kingdom. In the reign of Ramses III a conspiracy against him was led by one
12
had to ack nowledge Amun-Re' at Thebes. of the queens, and like that against Amen em hat I it was not discovered in
This was the poor condition in which General Horemheb found Egypt time. The m embers of the plot were tried by a special court of fourteen
wh en he usurped the throne and founded the Nineteenth Dynasty officials, among whom were four foreigners (a Libyan, a Lycian, a Syrian, and
one, Keclen denna, of uncertain nationality) . Pharaoh had to rely on the
13
(1314[ ?]-1200 n.c.). His general Pa-Ramses succeeded him under the n ame of
 10 I: T HE INFLUEN CES

cooperation of foreigners in such an important body as that of the Court of

Justice, as well as their use as m ercenaries in his arm y and bodyguard (Ramses II
II, Ramses III). ' But even this court proved to be corrupt, as two judges and
11

two officers were convicted of conniving with the conspirators.

Reliance upon foreign mercenari es and internal corruption were the Domestic Architecture
undeniable signs of decay in an obsolete monarchy .

EGYPT AND THE OUT ER WORLD

EVIDEN CE FROM T EXTS
The pursuit of the H yksos into Asia by the earlier pharaohs of the Eighteent h
D ynasty led their successors to conquer and establish an empire. Thutmose III Only scanty informati on can be gathered from texts and this is almost exclu-
was the first and probably the m ost successful of these conqueror s. Politics sively about royal palaces or houses in temple grounds. We are allowed to
played its role in the marriage of four successive pharaohs with princesses catch a glimpse of the splendors of the royal court when a queen leaves her
from Mitanni, a state governed by lndo-Euro pean newcomers who had es- palace in a carrying chair (Queen Nitokris, Twenty-S ixth D ynasty) , or when
tablished themselves in northern Syria. The influence of these marriages upon the ph araoh and his family come to the window of appearanc e to distribute
the environment at the court of Egypt was perhaps at the basis of the reaction the gold of reward to his faithful followers (Akhenat en, Eighteent h D ynasty),
of Akhenaten against tradition in culture, extending from religion to language or on the occasion of "sitting in the audience-hall, the king's-app earance with
and art. Mitannian civilization, meanwhil e, showed distinct foreign influ- th e etef-crown, upon the great throne of electrum, in the midst of the splen-
20

ences : Mesopotam ian, Hittite, Aegean, and Egyptian. Of these influences, one dors of h is palace" (Queen Hatshepsut, Eighteent h Dynasty ) . The palace
could presumably mention the use of a central courtyard w ith a southern serves even as a term of comparison in the descriptio n of the richly adorned
15
portico in the palaces (Niqmepa at T ell Atchana) . Such a feature is similar shrine set on the sacred barge : "A great shrine was in the midst of it, of fine
gold, with inlay of every costly stone like a palace" (Ramses III) . This same
21

to the earlier one at Lahun, though reversed. Egyptian influences are to be

17
traced in sculpture ( stela of Ras Shamra) rn and in scenes carved in gold and pharaoh Ramses III describes his palace in the temple dedicated to Amun at
•
ivory.
18 Medinet H abu : "I made for thee an august royal palace within it (the tem-
The military power of Egypt was so much neglected under Akhenate n ple), like the palace of Atum which is in heaven, the columns, the door jambs
and the doors of electrum and the great window of appearanc e of fine gold." "
2

that the Mitannian ally Dushrata failed to receive any lrelp from Egypt in the
war against the Hittites. Mitanni was destroyed. The Egyptian possessions in A technical descriptio n of a palace during the various periods of Egyp-
23

Asia disintegra ted and Syria fell to the Hittites ( 1360 n.c.) . It was not until the tian histor y has not yet been found . We can find a meager substitute, how-
reigns of Seti I (1312-1298 n.c.) and his son Ramses II (1301-1235 n.c.) that ever, in the florid descrip tions of the residences that were used as literary
Egypt reconquered part of the former empire, including Lebanon. T h e Ae- models in the scriptoriu m during the New Kingdom . The castle "Great-
gean and Egypt strongly influenced the culture and the art of Palestine and of-Victories" is th e palace of Ramses II (1301-1235 n.c.) at Pi-Ra'messe, the
southern Syria. This is m ost conspicuous in the use of ivory inlays and
19 Delta Residence, and it is the subject of an enthusiastic epistolary piece of
sarcophagi with scenes featuring themes and a treatment of Egyptian inspira- literature: "His Majesty (Life-Prosperity-He alth) has built himself a castle
tion. In the Ramesside times the th emes followed Egyptian models strictly, whose name is Great-of-Victories. It lies between Djahy and To-meri, and is
although the style remained un-Egypti an. full of food and victuals. It is after the fashion of On of Upper Egypt, and its
 12 II: DOMESTIC ARC HITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 13

duration is like that of H e-Ka-Ptah . The sun arises in its horizon and sets Some impression of the extensive area occupied by such buildings can be
within it. Everyone has forsaken h is (own) town and settled in its neighbor- gained from a tex t depicting h ow the booty that was gathered after a battle
hood. Its western part is the H ouse of Amun, its southern part the house of against the Libyans was carried into the palace of Merneptah, probably at
Seth. A starte is in its Levant, and Edjo in its northern part. The castle w hich Memphis: " . . . h is possession s, his equipment, his silver, his gold, his vessels
is within it is like the horizon of heaven." "" According to this laudatory text of bronze, the furniture of his wife, h is throne, his bows, his arrows, all his
the Delta residen ce at Tanis would stretch from L ebanon (Dj ahy) to Egypt \.vorks, which he h ad brought from his land, consisting of oxen, goats, and
(To-m eri) , look like H ermonthis (On) and be as enduring as Memphis. The asses, and all were carried away to the palace, to bring th em in, together with
m ention that everyone h as left his town to settle in the vicinity is interesti ng the captives." :n
as denoting the usual reaction of the courtiers and the g randees toward a new Some mention of the construction of houses, probably for priests and on a
foundation of Pharaoh, w hether it be a palace or a tomb. A further descrip- standard regular plan, in the precinct of tem ples is m ade briefly by Ramses III,
tion of Tanis is left by another scribe under Merneptah (1234-1224 a.c.) : speaking about his pious activity in relation to the gods: "I made h ouses and
32
"Pi-Ra'm esse-Miamun ( Life-Prosperity-Health), the forefront of every foreign temples in their courts." The title of a list of the gods' income reads: "Things
land and the encl of Egypt, the (city) beau teous of balconies radiant w ith exacted, impost of the people and all the serf-laborers of the houses, temples,
31
h alls of lapis lazuli and tu rquoise. The marshalling place of thy chariotry. an d estates." : Among the various items g iven by R amses III to the gods is a
25 31
The mustering place of thy army, the mooring place of th y ship's troops." "House, equipped with timbers," · possibly some kind of garden kiosk.
Glazed faience tiles of the color of lapis lazuli and turquoise are actually u sed An interesting record related to the h istory of dom estic buildings gives
in the ornamentation of the palaces. The reside nce is eviden tly the center of information about the refectory of the priests of Amun at K arnak and the
the arm ed forces in Egypt. Elsewhere this same Delta residence is said to have dwelling nearby. The high priest's dwelling had been built by Senusert I and
"the layout of Thebes," "u as a ch aracterization of its beauty. m ust h ave been a fairly large structure. The hig h priest Roy had restored the
The capital city of Thebes has become to be considered as "Th e City" refector y in the reign of Mernepta h and inscribed a record on P ylon VIII at
(Egyptian N wt) par excellence, a denomination to be compared to the Karnak: "I fo und this house in complete ruin; its walls fall ing, the woodwork
21
Roman Urbs. Scarcely any information can be derived from the numerous wretched, the doorposts of wood perishing, the paint (faded) . I (laid it out)
poems in praise of Thebes and its god Amun which probably resulted from the with increase th roughout, heightened and widened and (established) . I made
reaction of the powerful priesthood after the disappearance of Akhenaten and its doorposts of sandstone, I mounted upon them doors of real cedar; a (place)
28
his religion at 'Amarna. for the bakers and mixers who are in it. I m ade it a better work than before
The impression one obtains of the capital of Akhenaten at 'Amarna from for the protection (of the ser vants) of Amon, lord of gods." 35 To this record'
its description in the tomb of Mai is no more objective, tboug h it leaves an idea was appended a prayer asking all bakers and mixers who daily entered to
of a sun-bathed, rich, and joyful city: " ... the mighty Akhetaton, great in remember him in a prayer to Amun. T he structure near it, perhaps a fowl
36
loveliness, mistress of pleasant ceremonies, rich in possessions, the offerings of h ouse, was fo und in a rui nous state and rebuilt by the h igh priest Amenho-
Re in h er midst; at the sight of her beauty there is rejoicing. She is lovely and tep, in the reign of Ramses IX, nearly a century later:
beautiful ; wh en one sees her, it is like a g limpse at h eaven ; her number cannot
29 T hen I built it anew with fi ne work and excellent workmanship. I made thick
be calculated. When the Aton rises in her, h e fills h er with his rays."
its walls from its rear to its front. I built thoroughly upon it, I made its columns
N ames of palaces, however, are known and are always compounds prais- and doorposts of great stones of excellent workmanship. I set up great doors of
ing som e quality, such as "Structure-of-Beauty" (Palace of Pharaoh Neferho- cedar, bound . I built thoroughly upon its g reat lintel of stone which looks (out-
30
tep, Thirteenth Dynasty), and often related to a deity (Akhenaten's palace) . ward), built . . . ( high) . . . the High Priest of Amon, who is in the house of
 14 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 15
Amon. I (mounted) its g reat door of . . . , with bolts of copper and inlay-
figures of fine gold and (silver) .... I built its great (courses) of stone, wh ich The country house of Ra'ia near Tjabu (Qaw el Kebir) must have been
opens toward the southern lake, upon the pure . . . of the house of Amon. I located on the east bank of the Nile, near the waterfront, and was supposed to
surrounded (it with a wall ) of brick. I erected its great (carvings) of stone (at contain all kinds of essentials and amenities, even a pool for breeding birds,
the doorposts) . . . . I built a treasury of brick anew in the great hall. stalls and grazing grounds for oxen and other cattle, and cool green places:

In a further reference to Amenhotep's restoration work at this site, he tells of: Ra'ia has built a goodly villa which is opposite Edjo. He built it on the verge
" ... bringing artificers in every great work, that I might build the great place (of the river), . .. as a work of eternity and planted with trees on every side
south of the (lake) . .. . I built this (double house) of the House of Amon of it. A channel is dug in front of it, and sleep is broken (only) by the splash of
the wave. One does not become tired at the sight of it : one is gay at its portal
anew; I m ade its double doors, wrought of m eru wood, the inlay-figures of fin e
and drunk in its hall s. Fine door-posts of limestone, inscribed and carved with
gold." Breasted identified the "great place" as the refectory. 37 If these descrip- a chisel; fine portals hewn anew, and walls inlaid with lapis lazuli. Its granaries
tions are accurate, the buildings must have been quite rich, with inlay figures are supplied with plenty and packed (?) with abundance. A fowl-yard and an
of gold on cedar doors and stone carvings that could have decorated royal aviary with ro-geese; byres full of oxen; a breeding-pool with geese; horses
palaces, rather than magazines (shena'), or even a refectory. in the stable . . . . You sit in their shades and eat their fruit. w· reaths are made
No mention of private houses can be found except that of the architect for you of their twigs, and you are dru nken with their wines.40
Ineny who outlived three kings and was favored by Queen Hatshepsut:
" ... she presented me with things, she magnified me, she filled my house
with silver and gold, with all beautiful stuffs of the royal house." 38 L ess REPRESENTATI ONAL EVIDENCE 41
trustworthy but still interesting are the fabulous descriptions of the villa that
the pupil promises to build for his master: The scenes on the walls of the private tombs during the N ew Kingdom
frequently give information about the appearance of the master 's house, either
his town house or his country house. These data prove invaluable for the
I will build for you a new villa upon the ground of your city, planted (with)
reconstruction of the typical house of that period. The main sources of docu-
trees on every side of it. Its stalls are within (it), and its granaries are full of bar-
ley and emmer; there is wheat therein, and b', falcon-face beans, g1111, lubyah- mentation are Thebes and 'Amarna, two capitals quite different in their
beans, lentils, corianders, peas, seed-cor of emmer (?), 'dn, flax, green stuff, ideological and physical ch aracters. In contrast to Thebes, "The City," already
reeds (? ), rushes (?), iJtp11, dung for the winter, al fa-grass, reeds and cypress- crowded with many-storied houses and mansions along the riverbank, there is
grass (?) produced by the basketful. Your stall of bulls doubles the droves and the new boom town of 'Amarna, erected in the desert w here ground could not
your breed ing-cows are pregnant. I will tend for you five <\(OUras of cucumber- have been valuable. These opposite characters are clearly reflected in the town
beds to the south of your village; and the cucumbers, carobs and i3ds-plants will
houses at Thebes arid the villas and palaces at 'Amarna.
be abundant even as ~and. Let ships come to load them up. May you take cog-
nizance of what you will present to Ptah, k indly of face, that he may fulfill
for you your desire. 39
THE TowN HousE

This "literary estate" is surely to be located in the country and seems to be well
Four Theban drawings, three of which date from the period preceding the
provided with all kinds of produce that would appeal to a farmer, even to
'Amarna times, give an interesting picture of the town house.
include dung and alfa grass as winter fuel. No fruit or artificial pond full of
lotus flowers is m entioned. HousE OF THUTNEFER (ToMB 104). This is the only known sectional draw-
ing of a house (fig. I). The royal scribe Thutnefer, who lived in the reigns of
 II: DOMESTI C ARCHITE CTURE 17

2. Representation of a two-storied house from tomb 254 at Thebes.

from the antechambe r. On the terrace, silos are set in a row along the parapet
wall, while pieces of m eat are drying on a line. Silos were already commonly
placed on the terrace in the Middle Kingdom, as is proved by the models, the
so-called soul houses, of that time.
HousE REPRESENTED I N ToMB 254. The painting gives a side view of a two-
r. Section in the town hou se of Thutnefer at Thebes.
storied house with two entrance doors rabatted (figs. 2, 3). The large front
Thutmose III and Amenhotep II, had a large three-storied house at Thebes. door opens at the top of a few steps, while the back one is at ground level. Two
The drawing is clearly divided into four vertical parts, the one farthest to the palm trees alternate with three bushes that are planted in large brick contain-
right being almost completely destroyed. The next one represents the staircase ers. (Palm trees can be planted n ear the foundations of structures since their
servicing all the stories and the terrace. The third part •hows an antechambe r roots bore vertically into the ground.) Each story is lit through a row of
with two columns in both the ground floor and th e first floor. In the last w indows, those on the ground floor being small and set high up in the wall,
section to the left are featured the reception hall on the ground floor and a while those on the first floor are large and open at mid-height. The windows
living room on the first floor. The w hole basem ent, apparently without win- are closed by a vertical grating and have a sill and a cornice molding. On the
dows, is occupied by a weaving shop and a bakery. The ground floor is almost terrace a small chamber rises at each corner and a cresting of rush es, set
twice as high as the basement and h as the most stately hall of the house, with a diagonally in the top of the wall, forms a balustrade similar to those still in use
palmiform column in its center, a two-leaved door shown rabatted at one end, today in houses at El Kharga Oasis and in villages. Horizontal stripes starting
the master's armchair on a dais at the other end, and two or four windows at with the level of the ground floor w indow sills cover the fa~ade, probably
the top of the wall. The hall on the first floor has a low ceiling on one imitating the courses of a stone wall, vaguely reminiscent of the similar stripes
papyriform column and a simple door to which a short flight of steps ascends in Minoan houses.
 II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 19
18 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

~I
lll II
3. Restored perspective of house from tomb 254.

H ousE oF Troy (ToMB 23) . This drawing represents a lateral fa\=ade of two
stories, with two low grated windows in each, an entrance stairway, and a row 4· Representation of a house from the tomb of Tjoy.
of five trees on each side of the structure. A doorway indicates an enclosure
wall (fig. 4). THE TYPICAL TOWN HOUSE AT THEBES IN THE NEw KINGDOM. It seems to
have been the rule to build many-storied houses on the valuable ground at
HousE OF SENNUFER (ToMB 96). The house is adjacent to a chapel with
Th~bes. A model of the same period as the paintings represents a town house
three shrines, in the great garden of Amun. The drawing is a queer compound
havmg a~ entrance doorway opening into a basement, indicated by low hori-
of an elevation set beneath a plan, two walls of which still appear briefly at the
zontal wmdows at ground level, a first floor with large double mullion win-
top (fig. 5). The two doors are rabatted and the house could have had one or
dows, grated in their lower part, and a terrace, half of which is occupied by a
two stories, with two double windows on the top floor.
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 21

portico with w indows and a column, such as was usual in houses during the
Middle Kingdom (according to the so-called soul houses) . A basement, a
ground floor for the reception quarters, and an upper one for the private
apartments, topped by a terrace, could be considered as forming a typical
program.
The basement of a town house must have contained workshops and
magazines and would have received light through horizontal windows. The
main entrance open s in the narrow fas:ade, usually at the top of a few steps. A
smaller service door may open in the opposite fas:ade. The refreshing green of
a garden is represented by some trees growing along the walls, sometimes in
large brick boxes. The main part of the fas:ade is decorated with horizontal
lines in red on a white or lilac background, and each story is lit by a row of
windows on all fas:ades. On the terrace a portico is occasionally erected at the
back, and silos set in a row along the wall which is itself ornamented w ith a
parapet of rushes or palm fronds. A staircase rises from the ground level to the
terrace.

S· Compound representation of a plan and an elevation of a house from the tomb of

THE CouNTRY H ousE
Sennufer.
6. Representation of the land house of the architect Ineny. Paintings represent country houses of various sizes and degrees of elaborate-
ness, differentiated into land h ouses, wh ere the master lived, and rest h ouses,
which were used on occasional visits to the estate.

Examples of Land H ouses

l NENY. T he well-known architect could afford to build such a large land house
in a beautiful estate as is shown in the paintings in h is tomb. A long wall
topped with scalloped cresting, probably in mud, encloses the whole garden
and two doorways open at both ends of the fas:ade, the larger one fronting the
h ouse. The fas:ade of the house is entirely divided into courses of large blocks
as if built of dressed ashlar stone. Two rows of a simple type of window
indicate at least two stories, but no room is left for the parapet of the terrace.
T wo huge domed silos and a magazine roofed over with a flat vault rise
nearby. The garden, with rows of sh rubs and trees and an artificial pond,
extends far behind the house (fig. 6) .
 22 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

Dependencies are erected separately and were very likely enclosed within
a separate court, as in the villas at 'Amarna.
HousE oF HATIAY (ToMB 324). The overseer of the prophets, Hatiay, had his
house near a chapel with three shrines in a formal garden. The painting shows
for once a true plan, rectangular with two doors on the long frontage (fig. 7).
The larger door opens onto a court or reception hall, communicating with a
living room backed with a bedroom. The other smaller door seems to open
onto a service court.

Examples of Rest Houses

NEBAMUN (ToMB 90). This had an almost square fa~ade with a door at one
encl, topped with a double window, grated in its lower part. Two windows at a
higher level, richly decorated with vertical rows of circles, light the interior.
This seems to indicate that there could have been two stories (fig. 8). Above
the ceiling two mulqafs (ventilators) are set back to back, possibly actually
side by side, as shown in the models of the Middle Kingdom houses and in
other paintings. The artist seems to have pleased himself with an elegant
composition of two windows, two mulqafs, and two gracefully bending cloum
palms set about a vertical axis of symmetry.
7. Representation of the estate of Hatiay, the Overseer of the prophets.
NAKHT (PAPYRUS OF NAKHT). The small house is erected upon a platform
with a stairway ascending to an entrance door, shown rabattecl. A row of
simple windows opens just below the terrace, and two mulqafs, directed
toward the front fa~ade, probably north, ensure adequate ventilation (figs. 9,
10). lfllll
HousE OF NAKHT. This other small house, similar to those of Nebamun and
Nakht, stands in the middle of the fields, a setting that provides a natural
frame for this type of rest house.

THE TYPICAL COUNTRY HOUSE IN THE NEw KINGDOM. From this rapid perusal of
representations it is possible to give the description of a typical contem pora-
/ neous country house. It stands behind an enclosure wall, is two or three stories
high, and is built of dressed stone or rather of brick painted to imitate it. The
dependencies consist of the silos and magazines and are set nearby in a separate 8. Representation of the house 9. The house of Nakht from a drawing in his papyrus.
of Nebamun.
 24 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
..
II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 25
THE HAREM OF KING AY (TOMB OF NEFERHOTEP 40) . In a corner of a huge
garden stands a pavilion identified as the H arem of A y. The p ainting is a
compound of front elevation and side elevation, framed by two colum ns
supporting the porch, but represented at either farther end to enclose the
whole (fig. II). The house is two-storied, with an entrance door at one corner
and a second one at th e back. It is characterized by the window of appearance,

~~~~
a feature often found in 'Amarna palaces, stretching along the whole front

tD.·'·[J1.~I;_,.
1
,- -
.rnm rrffi1·
. " · ~i. 11111
" . in11 1u
l!ill ~
====-===-===-
===
)' "• =======

10. Restored perspective of the house of Nakht.

. r r. Representation of the building for the Harem of K ing Ay from the tomb of Neferhotep .
court. A large garden with an artificial pond and a kiosk or chapel extends
behind the buildings. fa<;:ade. The four palmiform columns above the top of the walls are probably
Compared to this, the rest house is but a small structure of one or two those of the hypostyle hall on the first floor, and are not to be seen on the
stories, with one door to the north, an upper row of windows, and a pair of fa~ade. The graphic device by which the interior of an item is shown more
ventilators on the terrace. The structure is erected in the field s or orchards of explicitly above its exterior is much favored in Egyptian drawing (fig. 12).
the rich landowner who uses it during inspections of his property. The porch upon the four wooden papyriform columns is m ost elaborate
and ornate and was to shade the window of appearance. Several restorations
THE THEBAN TOWN HOUSE AFTER THE RESTORATION OF AMuN. Various elements could be proposed, but it seems probable that tl1e porch rose the whole height
introduced from the architecture of 'Amarna can be noticed in the houses of the fa~ade and its ceiling abutted on the front of the window of appearance,
represented after that period. or continued over the whole structure ( color plate I).
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 27

13. T he mansion of Meryre' II at 'Amarna.

THE ROYAL DOMAIN (TOMB OF MERYRE' II). The scene showing the pri vate
house of Meryre' is adjacent to that of the royal domain. T h is large com posi-
tion consists of the house of Meryre' with its stables, dependencies, m agazines,
12. Restored perspective of the Harem of King Ay.
and a large garden.
HousE OF MERYRE' II. The drawing gives in profile certain elements of a The drawing is a plan with doorways, columns, and altars represented in
mansion. A first gateway, rabatted, opens onto a garden set formally, with a rabatted elevation (fig. 14). The house, shown at the top of the drawing,
T-shaped pond shown in low relief in plan, bordered by two rows of trees. A stands at the back of a garden. A courtyard bordered by two porticoes of eight
second gateway leads onto a court, at the back of which stands the house itself columns each seems to form the center of the plan, and is flanked on either
(fig. 13). A porch on two (or four[?]) bundle columns shades the entrance. side by one of the public apartments. The four th part of th e plan is to the
Beyond this, nothing but an open space enclosed within walls topped with a extrem e right and features the bedrooms. The section to the right of the
cavetto cornice is indicated. Behind it a doorway leads. into what could have courtyard is grouped around a small court featuring a sun altar and bordered
been a harem. On the top is a large hall with one or more palmiform columns. by two columned porticoes. A large doorway, opening in the wall opposite
The entrance doorway with broken lintel and the corniced walls, seen in that of the entrance to the sun altar, leads into a h all with a central row of
profile, are characteristic for the 'Amarna style. columns around which are the separate bedroom s, some with built-in m asta-
bas, or brick sofas, to be used as beds.
The dependencies, in the right lower corner, are on a rectangular plan, in
The 'Amama Period front of which is a pond. Two identical portals, one behind the other, lead into
a large court bordered on three sides by a row of con tiguou s rooms. Beh ind
Drawings in the tombs at 'Amarna provide a rich collection of representations these three rows of rooms runs a corridor with a central row of columns wh ich
of the royal domain, the palace, its landing quay, and windows of appearance is accessible from both ends. The corridor is in turn bordered by an inner row
of a most characteristic style. of rooms.
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE 29
The magazines, in the left lower corner of the drawing, are also fronted
by a pond transverse to the axis of the main gateway. A court, bordered on
either lateral side by a row of rooms, surrounds a central square block. In each
of the farthermost rooms a staircase ascends in two flights to the terrace. The
square block in the center of the composition seemingly features a high pylon
with two towers fronted by a portico with eight columns, at both the front and
the rear fac;ade. A row of rooms surrounds the precincts of the courtyard. In
-- the latter a large central podium with an altar in its middle is flanked by two
double stairways on opposite sides and by two windows of appearance on the
two other sides.
.......
0 The garden beyond has a central square pond with sloping sides, a
.0
E stairway in one corner, and a shaduf irrigating sweep along the edge of the
B innermost and deeper basin. Around the pond are rows of trees and a sm all
0
-5 chapel, a feature common to all garden layouts at 'Amarna.
E
0
..t: THE PALACE. This is a favorite item in the repertoire of the tomb decoration at
'Amarna. No fewer than eight tombs of courtiers contain one or more (Mery~
re') scenes representing the royal palace. They are of two types, according
~
c.s
to the two groups of tombs. The southern tombs show representations with
c::
·;;;
elements piled up vertically one above the other, while the northern ones adopt
E a horizontal composition. A comparison of the various drawings with the
0
-c
-;;; plan restored from the actual remains is disappointing, since no concordance
>-
0
.... can be established. Certain elements that recur in all the drawings, however,
-5
0
point to their having been copied from nature. Such are the porch on two or
.......
0 four columns shading the window of appearance, the loggia with four
c::
.g columns similar to that found in the Harem of A y, the stately hall used as dining
c"'
0
room, and the private apartments separated from the former ones by an empty
V)
0
.... passage running transversely the whole width of the building. Among the
0..
~
0 various rooms that are invariably crowded with women dancing to joyful
music, a large one set in the farthermost angle is undoubtedly the pharaoh's
bedroom, recognizable from the slanting roof of its ventilator as shown in
section and the bed beneath it. The program is related to that of the mansion
at 'Amarna.
TYPICAL REPRESENTATIO NS OF THE PALACE FROM THE SOUTHERN TOMBS.
Meryre'. The two scenes of the p alace from this tomb differ mainly in
their mode of projection, one being a front view and the other a lateral one. A
 30 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 31

principal gateway and two smaller ones open onto a transverse courtyard, the
rear wall of which is faced with a window of appearance. Behind the latter is a
loggia with four palmiform columns flanked by two porticoes ( ?) with two col-
umns each. Only in the lateral view does a porch shade the window. Beyond
there is a hall with four columns separated by the empty transverse corridor
from the rear part of the structure. The rear part contains several storerooms
and the royal bedroom, accessible through an antechamber and roofed over with
a slanting ventilator (fig. 15).

I rnn nm ro I
15. Two representations of the palace from the tomb of Meryre' at 'Amarna.

Tutu. Another type of composition is illustrated in the tomb of Tutu.

The scene has been designed to frame the jamb an'1 half the lintel of a
doorway, and the elements are set in vertical bands. A portico on palmiform
columns seems to form the front of the court. The window of appearance,
shaded by a porch on two high palmiform columns, shown in side view,
precedes a loggia with four columns. Farther behind is a hypostyle hall. The
main hypostyle hall, to which two storerooms are annexed, is seen at the lower
end of the second section. Among the rooms depending from the third section
of the palace is one identified as the bathroom, featuring a central basin
bordered with decorative water plants (fig. 16) , adjacent to the living room.
The royal bedroom is at the tear, behind a transverse corridor running in front
of the suites for the ladies of the court and guarded by two eunuchs. 16. Representation of the palace from the tomb of Tutu at 'Amarna .
 'I '
,,---r.- -11 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 33
•::I
11

•1••it.._
I.
•: :: ~,-- -··
..·:··..
,• '
The landing quay of the palace. The royal ships landed at a special quay
•''
::~_.. ....
connected to the palace. A window of appearance shaded by a columned porch
•' :c ········ similar to that of the palace is shown above a portico, probably symmetrical,
' with two aisles of seven papyriform columns and a low intercolumniation
screen wall topped with a frieze of uraei. From the doorway a ramp leads
down the sloping riverbank to the kiosk on the landing platform. A second
ramp of a lesser gradient descends to a similar edicule at some d istance. This
.,~ representation of two ramps of various gradients can be considered as one of
.;; the numerous "notations of perspective" in Egyptian drawings (fig. 17) .
.,....
"O
Th e window of appearance. This seemingly new feature is encountered
8
.,"'.... for the first time in the 'Amarna Period. T h e pharaoh "appears" to his subjects
and courtiers assembled in the court from a window or balcony which opens
on the external fa~ade of the palace.
All representations in the tombs at 'Amarna agree in showing a vertical
opening, screened in its lower half by a wall topped with the sill of the
window and framed by two jambs with a broken lintel and shut by a door
with two leaves. Above are the upper parts of the four papyriform columns
supporting the ceiling of the loggia. Sometimes a porch on two to four
columns is drawn rabatted in side view. A podium with two lateral stairs
stretches along the base of the structure, at either side of which a door opens
(fig. 18).
When compared with the drawing as restored from the actual remains of
a window of appearance, this scene agrees in the basic elements. Such an
element is still prominent in the program of later palaces ( Ramses III at
Medinet Habu).
'· } .
\
18. Representation of a window o f
\
' appearance at 'Amarna.
'
...,..--...,, r;:· -~~,..c.__ I t=::!_L

1 l. , 1\1

__ :~ _rr~~i
1

.,, r-=-=.:::i~
"(~ i
~,r I
'

- · ~-~-~--,~~--~
I

Jk~~~.:~.:
 34 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 35

Th e kiosks. Certain edicules sheltering the royal family are in the shape the lad stood afar off and watched, and the face of the daughter of the Prince
44
of elegant kiosks erected on a p latform to which ascends a stairway with a of Nah arina was upon h im."
central ramp, or even three stairways (fig. 19) . Four papyriform columns Drawings seem to corroborate this assumption concerning the large win-
appear on every side, topped with an architrave with a cavetto cornice crested dows in the upper stories, some of which h ave closely grated sh utters in their
with uraei. An intercolumnar screen wall, also crested with uraei, runs be- lower par t. The upper part seems to consist of variegated mats hanging behind
tween the lower parts of the columns. N earby are two altars and a hypaethral a widely open grating (Nebamun, model) or with a colon nette as mullion
temple or chapel, each accessible through its stairway. (Thutnefer, Neferhotep, Sennufer, N ebamun) . Thus a person could look at
leisure from behind the windows of the upper stories through the grated lower
part without being seen from the outside. This system was later used in the
Islamic wooden m nshrabiyn. The Egyptian name of the window, "rolled-
up-band," corroborates the interpretation of decorated windows (Nebam un,
Neferhotep) as colored mats, as suggested by the drawings.
The small windows of simple design that open in the walls of the ground
floor are closed with a vertical grating (Ineny, tomb N o. 254, Neferhotep ),
sometimes cut at mid-heigh t by a transverse bar (Tjoy, Nakht). T hey could
have been worked in wood or stone, as those found at 'Amarna. Such sand-
stone mullioned windows with figures of divine hawks and hieroglyphs were
used in the palace of Ramses III at Medinet H abu .4 5
Doors. Architectural representations sh ow various types of doors, from
the simplest lintel set on jambs to the elaborate door with grilled arched
transom (Neferhotep, Meryre') or the peculiar portal with broken lintel in
'Amarna. The usual type h as vertical jambs and a deep lintel decorated with a
torus molding and cavetto.

19. Drawing from a tomb at 'Amarna showing a k iosk, a hypaethral chapel, and altars.
THE PALACES
SOME STRUCT URAL ELEMENTS.
Windows. ~ Although windows are usually sh own in the upper part of
4 T wo types of palace must be differentiated : the one attached to a temple and
walls, it seems possible to surmise that they often opened at eye level, especially used occasionally by the pharaoh when taking part in festivals, and the oth er
in the upper stories. Such, at least, is the impression conveyed by two texts de- built as his residence in his capital. No example of a temple palace dating from
scribing contem poraneous Syrian palaces. The Egyptian messenger Unamun before the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty h as been found. It is to be inferred
reports on his visit to the Syrian prince at Byblos : "I found him sitting in his th at the appearance of the palace adjoining the mortuary temples in western
upper chamber, with his back leaning against a window, while the waves of the Thebes would then correspond to the transfer of the royal residence to Lower
13
great Syrian sea beat upon his neck." ' In the "Tale of the Foredoomed Prince" Egypt in the Nineteenth D ynasty. Several pharaohs are known to have built
this hero watch es the unsuccessful attempts of the youths who try to scale a such palaces : Ay at Medinet H abu, Ramses II in the so-called Ramesseum and
tower and reach the window of the daughter of the Prince of N aharina : "And at the temple of H athor at Deir el Medina, Merneptah at Thebes, and Ramses
 36 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 37
III at Medinet Habu. Parallel to the front of the palace and on both sides of the central avenue
Only a few residential palaces are known: those of Amenhotep III at of the temple there were two rows of wooden posts, probably forming a
Malqata south of Medinet Habu, Merneptah at Thebes, and Ram ses III at portico whose span across the avenue was equal to its distance from the palace
Medinet Habu. fa~ade ( 7.6 m.). The rows of holes still exist ( r.2 m . deep) .
11
PALACE OF RAMSES II (RAMESSEUM): To the south of th e first court of th e
mortuary temp le of Ramses II in W estern T hebes stood the temple palace,
THE TYPICAL TEMPLE PALACE
built in brick ( 42 x 2 0 x 10 cm.). Along the inner side of the court adjoining
the palace runs a portico of two rows of ten columns each (fig. 21) . The four
The program of such a palace is reduced to the reception apartment set on a
middle ones in each row were papyriform, and the others palm iform. T he
strictly symmetrical plan. A columned portico shelters the central part of the
window of royal appearance that opens in the axis of the fa~ade is quite similar
fa~ade and a vestibule leads into a wide reception hall which precedes a square
to that of the first palace of Ramses III at Medinet Habu. A r ectangular
throne room and some subsidiary rooms on the sides. Both principal halls have
w indow, crowned with a cavetto cornice probably crested with uraei, h as a sill
varying numbers of columns. The second smaller hall is always square in plan
resting upon a row of h eads of enemies, sculptured in the round and jutti ng
and is used as a throne room. The throne is set on a dais in front of a double
out of the wall as brackets.
false-door in stone. A window of royal appearance opens in the fa~ade. No
building adjoins this type of palace, except a few small attached houses on a 2r. Plan of the temple palace of Ramses II in the Ramesseum.
uniform plan for officials.
16
PALACE oF AY (MEDINET HABU) .' This small building stood between P ylons
III and IV in front of the mortuary temple of Ay at Medinet Habu and
transversely to its longitudinal axis. Its plan is square (21.6 x 2 2 m.), n early ©©
symmetrical, and features a broad reception hall, followed by a square throne @@
room, both flanked by lateral chambers (fig. 20) . A transverse corridor at the
rear runs along the whole w idth of the build ing, a common precaution again st @@
robbers. The palace was of brick, plastered and whitewashed on the exterior.
c=-Jt_ @@
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 38 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 39

The plan could be studied as an example of the h armonic use of geo-

TlMPLt- PALACE Of RAMSU II
metrical proportions: the outline is square and both h alls are also square, and D!IR fl M[DJNA
the columnar arrangement is based on a square schem e. The whole project
was imitated in the first palace at Med inet H abu, or both were related to a
common prototype. The great hall has sixteen columns and is accessible
through two side vestibules. A stairway between the two middle columns
nearest to the fa\=ade ascends to the window of appearance. Two other rooms
also open on the sides of the large hall.
The second hall h as four columns, and a small stairway leads up to the
dais upon which the throne was set in front of a double false-door with stone
facing. On either side is a suite of an antech amber with two rooms (E.) or
three rooms (W.), accessible through a doorway from the front side of the
throne room. The absence of an alcove for the bed, such as exists in the first
palace of Medinet Habu, goes against the surmise that any living accommoda-
tion h ad been planned.
The palace is enclosed within an outer wall and is surrounded on three
sides by an ambulatory. At the back is a row of four contiguous, uniformly 22. Temple palace of Ramses II at Deir el Medina in plan and restored perspective.
planned, attached h ouses, probably for royal relatives or officials. The plan
follows the typical tripartite arrangement of a dwelling: a wide vestibule vine. A platform runs along the east wall. A central doorway open s onto a
accessible through a doorway at one end with a small side room connected transverse hall, whose n orth wall was originally a row of pillars on a platform
with a square living room having a central column. Beyond the living room (a pronaos) . A side chamber (W.) contains a platform with a series of altars
are three rear chambers, one of which is the bedroom. represented on its face in painted high relief. The original pronaos communi-
PALACE OF MERNEPTAH (THEBEs).48 The plan of this palace is a simplified cates by a doorway in its rear wall with a transverse court. Beyond the latter is
example of the n earby palace of Ram ses II (Ramesseum), featuring the basic a large square room with three doors on its fa\=ade, a central sandstone column,
elements: two vestibules, a reception hall, and a throne room, with dependen- a dais for the throne abu tting on the west wall, and a naos and a platform
cies. along its north wall. This well-built room, with carved and painted door-
frames, was added by Ramses II to transform the chapel of the Eigh tee nth
PALACE OF RAMSES II (DEIR EL MEDINA).49 Abutting against the southwest Dynasty into a small temple palace connected to his temple of H ath or. There
corner of the temple of H athor at Deir el Medina is an Eighteenth D ynasty were two excavations under this room, the deeper being a shaft in which were
chapel (Horemheb[ ?] ), rebuilt by the vizier Pesiur and the scribe Ra'mose as a found statues and stelae of the royal scribe Ra'mose. The dimensions of the
royal palace. It is called Khenw ("The Interior"), according to its inscriptions column (0.15 m. base, I.60 m . shaft, 0.35 m. capital and abacus) would give ea.
and could have been a temple palace for Ramses II, either when he came to 2.15 meters as height to the ceiling.
visit H athor in the adjacent temple which h e rebuilt for her, or perhaps for his All the floors were paved. Plastic decoration con sisted of mud plaster
statue. modeled in relief and painted to represent altar stands along the front of the
The plan is symmetrical, with rooms projecting on the western side (fig. built-in offering-tables. Walls were painted with fi gures on a yellow ground,
22). A court precedes a transverse hall whose vaulted roof was painted with a yellow figures on a white ground . A white dado surmounted by a broad band

....
 40 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 41

in black ran along the bottom of the walls. The vault of the second room from
the entrance was decorated with a trellis of vine and grapes on a yellow
ground, a motif occurring also on the vaulted roof of the tomb of Sennufer at
Deir el Medina.
50
THE FIRST TEMPLE PALACE OF RAMSES III (MEDI NE'!' H Anu ). Ram ses III built a
palace whose fa~ade formed the south side of the first court of his temple at
Medinet H abu. Later he razed it completely except for this fa~ade, and rebuilt
it on a different plan. Both palaces, although about two centuries later than
51
'Amarna, are of the type of the 'Amarna m ansion .
The plan shows a strong resemblance to that of the p alace of Ram ses II
(Ramesseum). It is also on a square general p lan with the two square h alls in
the axis of the window of appearance and several side chambers ( fig. 23) . The
whole structure is of brick (42 x 2 0 x 12 cm.), with stone doorways and
columns. The fa~ade on the first court of the temple, behind a portico on eight
papyriform columns, consists of a protruding central w indow of appearance, 2
flanked by two symmetrical entrances to the vestibules and two side doorways
to the court surrounding th e palace. The window opens at a m an's height and
has a row of h eads carved in the round as consoles beneath the sill and on both
sides, representing prisoners lying prone under the feet of the pharaoh. The
jambs and lintel of the window were gilded and crowned w ith a cavetto
cornice crested with uraei. A wooden railing w as fixed between the doorj ambs.
On both sides low reliefs represent the pharaoh h olding groups of prisoners,
and a frieze of pairs of wrestlers-an Egyptian and a foreigner-shows the final
victory of the Egyptian, who greets the pharaoh w ith both arms raised .
A ccess to the reception room is through two side vestibules. It is notewor-
thy that the intercolumnar space between the rows of cofomns in the hall, both
in front of the two side entrances and along the main axis, is larger than that
between the others to ensure easier traffic between these rows. The twelve
columns are set in three transverse rows, each of four papyriform colum ns
w
with large bases, built on mud-brick foundations ( 1.5 m. square) . T hey carry
architraves parallel to the longitudinal axis, and between two central columns
at the front a stairway ascends to the dais of the window of app earance that
opens in the thick wall of the fa~ade. A small side room is set behind either 4
vestibule. 23. First temple palace of Ramses III at Med inet H abu: 1, restored elevation of the window

The second h all is the throne room and h as four columns in two rows, a of appearance; 2, restored plan; 3, double false-door from the throne room; 4, restored
dais in the center of the rear wall accessible from a small stairway, and a cross section.
 II: DOME STIC ARCH ITECT URE 43
42 II : DOME STIC ARCH ITECT URE
ed
double false-door set in the wall behind the throne. The false-door is decorat
he
with fine low reliefs, beautifully painted, represe nting the pharaoh as if
were coming forth from the private apartm ent behind the throne room. The
the
transom above the cornice is elaborately decorated with panels showing
pharaoh and deities. Accord ing to the restoration the columns carried archi-
traves parallel to the longitu din al axis and from which sprang the usual high
vaults.
On either side of the throne a doorway opens onto a lobby connected to
two chambers. In the north suite one of the ch ambers is a large bedroom with
the typical alcove.
Along the rear wall of the court runs a series of six contiguous and
to
uniform !y planned suites of pairs of rooms (JO x 5 = 50 sq. m.), possibly
accommodate courtier s or officials. A paveme nt of square mud-br ick slabs
52

(43 x 43 x 6 cm.) covered the court and rearmost rooms. Some stone ele-
ments were carved in low relief.
53
of
THE SECOND TEMPLE PALACE OF RAMSES III (MEDINET HAsu). In the plan
the later palace the throne room was enlarge d and the reception room reduced
in
to a room for the balcony of appearance. The symme try was n ot so strict as
the first buildin g (fig. 24).
For the earlier window of appearance there is substituted a balcony on a
dais protrud ing under the fa~ade portico and covered with a wooden canopy
s
on wooden column s and gilt screens rising to half the h eight. Two stairway
ascend symme trically along the back wall of the fa~ade to the platform . The
reception h all is nothing more than a transverse narrow vestibul e with two
column s accessib le from two entrance lobbies and leading into the large throne
rm
room, which is now an imposing h all with two rows of three palmifo
nicates on the one
column s each. At the back of this h all a vestibule commu
side with a small hall with two column s and an alabaster dais for the throne,
an
and on the other with a room and a bathroo m. F arther on is a bedroom with
the
alcove for the bed. From the large throne room a corrido r leads to
nts of the
transverse passage between the palace and the private apartme
a
h arem. These are three attached suites on a uniform tripartit e plan. Each has
a
vestibule and a living room, to th e rear of which are a small room and
bathroo m. Here, p robably, dwelt three royal concubines. The public harem
Plate I. Right entrance to the temple palace of Ramses III, as restored by Holscher.
apartm ents were accessib le from the main throne room and from the trans-
 44 II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE II: D OMESTIC ARCHITECT URE 45

verse passage, and consist of a court with a portico on two columns at the rear,
a window of appearance opening in the reception h all which contains a
throne, a bathroom, and two lobbies. There seem to h ave been two stairways
rising to th e roof. A side vestibule opened from the throne room to the exterior
of the First P ylon.
Some characteristic fea tures of this rem arkable building are noteworth y.
In the bathroom s an ingenious arrangem ent of a screen wall insures privacy,
even when the door rem ains open. The floor is of one single stone slab
provided w ith a ledge and a g ulley which pours into a deep basin. Walls are
lined with stone slabs (i.7 m. high ) . Symmetry is obvious in the arrangement
of niches opposite doorways in the throne room, the sm aller throne room , the
harem portico, the reception h all, and the lateral vestibule.
The seclusion of the harem inmates could be secured by n um erous doors
closing n arrow passages, wh ile the wh ole harem building was surrounded, as a
measure of precaution, by an ambulatory running along all sides. At every
en trance a small room served p robably as guardroom.
Ornamentation m ade a constant use of pigment applied thick ly on reliefs
or on plastered brick walls or even stone, covered with gesso ( 1 mm. thick ).
T he technique of inlay, k nown since Thutmose III, was extensively used here
by Ramses III on doorframes. This remarkable feature is best exemplified in
the entrance doorway to the palace in a symmetrical composition beneath the
w inged sun disk of the cavetto (pl. 1). A square panel just above each
doorjamb depicts a goddess protecting with both winged arms the royal
sphinx treading on a prisoner lying pron e. The same subject, but without the
goddess, is repeated in the lower square panel which is separated by several
ornam ental bands from a bottom dado consisting of four plaques, each repre-
senting a standing foreign prisoner. Despite the small ~ize and the technical
difficu lties inherent in fa'ience work, all the ethnic characteristics and the
typical variegated costumes are rendered w ith the astounding accuracy of
excellent artistry ( color plate II) .

THE T YPICAL RESIDENTIAL PALACE. F rom their rather scan ty rem ains, only an
inadequate idea of residential palaces can be derived. It appears that the main
division into public and private apa rtments governs th e layout. Symmetry is
also important. The reception apartments are directly connected to th e resi-
dence of the pharaoh and consist of several columned h alls and a throne room, 24. Second temple palace of Ramses III in his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu: r, axono-
metric view of plan ; 2, royal bathroom ; 3, throne dais in great hall.
similar to the program of the tem ple palace. The dwellings for the h arem are
 46 II: DOMESTIC ARC HITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE 47

set symmetrically in the sh ape of contiguous, uniformly planned suites about a

central h all conn ected to a throne room .
51
THE TWO PALACES AT DEIR EL BALLAS ([16 KM.] SOUTH oF D ENDERA) . ' T he two
palaces, which probably d ate from the early Eighteenth Dynasty, are about 800
m eters from each other. Both are rectangular structures with a central higher
building fronted with columned h alls at a lower level (fig. 25) .
The north palace h as a rectangular enclosure abou t 303 meters x 156
DEIQ EL B~LlM meters. The layout of the building features a central many-storied nucleus
NOUTH PALA ( E ·:
1, with thick walls and long compartments about which abut several halls with
XVlll DYNAlTY ,,It
•' many rows of columns supporti ng a timber ceiling. The latter type of hall
lb.====:!!====== -:..---------:----------.:: :------:;: :_:-'J resembles that of the coronation hall at 'Amarna, or the Persian apadana. It
would be safe enough to picture the central high structure as a fortified k eep
or dungeon, surrounded by h ypostyle h alls forming the reception qua rters.
Fragm ents of p aintings representing a guard were recovered in th e entrance.
The south palace is much sm aller (ea. 100 x 44 m .). In the eastern lower
part a hall with wooden columns on stone bases was laid out on a foundation
of brick caissons. To the west an unusually broad staircase with a secondary
lateral flight lead up to the residential quarters, probably a many-storied

o~
oC]orinpnr-i- 1noo complex.

\ 0 ~cc::J"--- L T HE PALACES OF AMENHOTEP III IN WESTERN THEBES (MALQATA).55 It is quite in

accordance with the luxury-loving ch aracter of Amenhotep III th at such a
0 . .
c:::J ,_:_.
[ huge complex of four palaces, ki tchens, d ependencies, and pleasure lake would
CJ§.' be carried out. Egypt was at the peak of its power, and riches were pouring in
[:=Jc=

[:=J
=
= from the remotest vassalages of the Empire.
r=:- The choice of a location in the desert plain of Western T hebes, southwest
c:::=...
c::::::
of the m ortuar y temple of the pharaoh, could perhaps be related to the favor
shown by the royal couple, an d especially by Queen Tiy, to the sun and
probably the oth er aspects of nature. This ideology was only a foreru nner of
the cult of N ature and the sun disk by their son Amenhotep IV- Akh enaten at
50UT H PALACE 'Amarna.
The main structure, the palace "H ouse of Rejoicing" of the pharaoh (fig.
~ECTION 26) , was begun in the eighth year of h is reign, and the lake (about 2 m iles [3.2
km .] in perip hery) for Queen T iy, in the eleventh. Although an account of
the digging of the lake in the short time of 15 days occurs on several heart
25. Plans of the two palaces at Deir el Ballas scarabs, the dimensions given do not correspond to those of the T-sh aped
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 49
PALAC[ or AMENMOHP Ill
MALOATA-rnrno wm
depression still recognizable in Birket H abu (Arabic, "Lake of Habu") with
its channel running east which once connected it to the Nile. The lake has
been lately identified as the landing quay and harbor to the royal palace. The
palace of Amenhotep III was accessible from the middle palace through a
lOlUI (\•/OOO>
wide corridor. The general layout features a rectangular enclosure entirely
surrounded by a passage for patrols of guards. The plan is of the tripartite
type: reception quarters to the north, living quarters in the middle, and private
apartments at the rear.
The reception quarters consist of a large squarish hall (I) 50 with many
rows of columns in wood and a throne dais set along the axis of the entrance
corridor, a second smaller hypostyle hall with a throne dais n ear it (2), a
throne room (3), and a bedroom (4) .
The living quarters form a rectangular complex between two transverse
walls running the whole width of the palace. They are accessible from the
reception halls through a vestibule (I) and from a separate corridor and
stairway leading down to the exterior. Here the plan is strictly symmetrical.
The vestibule (I) with rows of columns leads onto a central hall (II) with two
rows of columns, flanked on either side by a series of four attached suites,
probably for the women of the harem, and ending south in a throne room
itCtPTION OUARHRI
I GIU.1 AUDlrNU HAll (III). Amenhotep III seated in state on his throne was depicted on either side
l AUPllllCf ttlll
J IMIOHI IOOM of the doorway to the throne room as he would have appeared in reality
1 a moo~

through this doorway. Behind are the private apartments: a royal robing room
and bedroom (IV) and a bathroom (V) connected to the throne room and
other chambers. Each of the suites bordering the harem hall and opening onto
it was an independent dwelling (22 x 8 m.),57 also on the tripartite plan
current in the New Kingdom. The transverse entrance vestibule h ad two
columns and a water slab for jars. The central living room with two or four
columns probably carrying a higher ceiling featured a throne dais at the back
and was connected to a small cubicle, probably a latrine, and on the other side
to a bedroom and its robing room. Along the walls of the robing room ran a
low wooden shelf for clothes, set on transverse walls painted with animals,
I ttllUM HAil such as a lively calf galloping in a meadow.
U IMIOHI ROOM
IV KING'S BIDQOOI\ Construction was of brickwork, plastered and painted with ornamental
Y IAIHR01»1
plinths and genre scenes above, such as court ladies, desert animals (2), the
KING'l & mum DALACU pharaoh on his throne (III). Ceilings were of timber rafters covered beneath
with lath, and plaster, and painted with a series of protecting Nekhebet
2 6. General layout and detailed plan of the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata, and details
of the decoration.
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 51

27. Restored perspective of the bedroom of

Amenhotep III in his palace at Malqata.

vultures in the official halls ( r, II) and in the bedroom of the pharaoh (IV)
(fig. 27), or with vines within a frame of rosettes and checkered pattern,
spirals, and bulls' heads (pl. 2), similar to Aegean ornament. Floors were
decorated in the same technique to represent a pool with papyrus, lotus, and
fowl (II). Large scenes appear on the wall of the second audience hall (2),
such as a large figure (min. 4.6 m . high) of a lady wearing an elaborate
headdress of flowers. On the wall behind the dais are depicted wild animals in
the desert while on the floor of the dais itself and on the treads of its steps are
painted bound captives and the nine-bow pattern represepting the traditional
Plate 2. Painted ceiling of the pharaoh's robing room ( palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata).
enemies of Egypt. In the smaller audience hall (3) the floor resembles a water
basin filled with fish, aquatic plants, swimming ducks, geese, and land birds
bordered by papyrus and plants shown in rabattement. The throne, built of a
brick core sheathed with sandstone painted a brilliant yellow, is approached by
alternate rows of captive Asiatics and Negroes and bows. The walls, however,
are not painted perhaps because they were lined with hanging mats or rugs.
The dadoes consist (from the bottom) of a band with an undulating depicting dancing Bes figures (vestibule to hall 3) or in pairs of confronted
white line, a band of rosettes or a recessed panel alternating with the hiero- profiles (bedroom of Amenhotep III). In other dadoes flowering plants form a
glyphs for "life" ('ankh) and "protection" (sa) surmounted by a mural vertical pattern. Rosettes appear as narrow bands between decorations, or in
 I,

52 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

contiguous rows bordering a central design, or in the interstices of a spiral

pattern, or around the vultures of the ceiling. There is planned increase in the
color intensity from the dull Roars (usually gray-blue and white), to the black
and red dadoes, then to bright and strong color contrast in the frieze, to its
highest note in the dazzling ceiling. The eye is thus led upward by the design
and colors.
The technique of painting is similar to that of the fresco for the back-
ground, painted with general masses on wet plaster, and to that of the tempera
for the details added later. This was applied to a thick layer of plaster coated
with stucco. Mud moldings in the shape of a cavetto, or wood carved into
grapes or ducks' heads holding bunches of grapes would be set just below the
frieze at the top of the walls. Wooden gratings carved in openwork as two
papyrus-stems or a sphinx would be set in the clerestory windows in the main
halls ( 1, II). Glazed blue tiles and hieroglyphs were also used in ornamenta-
tion. Wooden lotus buds and open Rowers formed part of the capitals of the
columns, probably to be restored . ( color plate III) as the usual composite types
of staged lotus, iris, and papyrus frequently shown in contemporaneous paint-
ings or even modeled in plaster on the sides of pillars (Medinet Habu).
Although they are in a fragmentary state, the elements of ornamentation give
an impressive idea of the magnificent style and refined craftsmanship of the
royal palace of one of the richest Egyptian pharaohs.
The south palace of Queen Tiy (fig. 28) consists of an apartment with an
entrance hall, a throne room with two doorways, one (east) leading onto a
lobby fronting a bathroom and bedroom suite with the characteristic alcove,
and the other (west) to two large columned halls with benches or shelves
around the walls. Two parallel long galleries border the south side of this
residence and across these there seems to have been provision for individual
housing units. These units were laid out symmetrically in pairs about either CoLOR PLATE 11. Glazed ceramic tiles from the temple palace of Ramses Ill at Medine! H abu (see
side of transverse corridors of access, opening onto one of the two galleries. p. 24) . Three of the sixteen glazed tiles that formed the lowest border of the ornamental com-
position on the two en trance doorways to the temple palace (cf. p. 45, pl. 1). They were set on
One curious feature, perhaps unique~ was the blind corridor or cul-de-sac either doorjamb in groups of four facing the axis of the door. T hese three represent bound captives:
running along the side and the back of the units, so that each of these was (a) a Libyan tatooed, ( b) a Negro, and (c) a Hittite clad in their exotic garb. In spite of their
small size ( 25 cm. high) the figures and the features show all the typical characteristics of the
thoroughly isolated, without any common walls whatever. A similar device for races in accurate detailed modeling. Glazed tile had been used to line walls since the T hird
control is found about eight centuries later in the harem suites at Persepolis.58 Dynasty, but it appears extensively in the New Kingdom temples and palaces, with a developed
The unit is of the usual tripartite type, with a winding entrance, a columned palette and technique of molding. It is even exemplified in the wall decoration of the villas at
'Amarna, and perhaps the floors of the palaces.
living room, and two unequal rooms at the back.59 The inmates of these
apartments, possibly harem women, were certainly guard~d securely in com-
plete isolation.
 CoLOR PLATE III. Restored perspective of the hall of the harem in the palace of Amenhotep III at
Malqata, 1400 B.C. (seep. 52 and fig. 26). Enough evidence was retrieved by Tytus to allow for
this restoration. The hall of the harem (fig. 26:4) was 30 meters long, nearly half the area of the
main aud ience hall (fig. 26:1). Its wooden columns on limestone bases in two rows imitate the
slender lotus stalks with capitals in the shape of styli zed h alf-blown flowers each flanked by two
buds. They seem to grow out of a blue pond with black ripples, lotus, fish, and ducks with a bor-
der of thickets of greenery and birds rabatted on its sides. A dado surmounted by scenes with
large figures similar to those in the second audience hall (fig. 26:2) form the mura ls interrupted
by the eight doorframes with vertical decorative molding leading on ei ther side to the four suites
of the h arem ladies. Flanking the large doorway to the throne room of Amen hotep III at the rear
(fig. 26:3) are two murals portraying the pharaoh seated in state on his throne as an illusionistic
replica of the scene appearing through the door opening. The large vultures of Nekhebet fly with
wings ou tstretched (5 m. span) over the nave brightly li t with the morning sun from the clerestory
windows. Over the darker aisles an elaborate pattern of linked spirals and rosettes shows attractive
hues of blue and red on yellow. The colors increase in intensity from the dull greeni~h blue of the
pavement, to the vertical scheme of red and black of the dado and the large figures, reaching the
most gorgeous palette in the ceiling vultures. It is planned to carry the eye upward. It has been
noticed that the wavy lines and the general masses of the greenery were applied by the ordinary
painters on the wet plaster of the pavement, and that details such as lotus, birds, and fish were
added by the master painters after the plaster had dried. The walls and ceilings were covered with
mud plaster to which a thin layer of whitewash was applied as a background to the paint. The style
shows freedom in brushwork, especially in the naturalistic representation of plants around the
more carefully detailed pond. A similar stylistic duality occurs some twenty years later in the pal-
aces at 'Amarna, perhaps the work of the same school of painters.

CoLOR PLATE IV. Restored perspective of a street in the Empire period at Thebes (see p. 60).
The street is far from straight and not of a consistent width, narrow enough to afford cool shade
most of the day. It is crossed by secondary lanes. Occasionally a few tamarisks growing in brick
containers and palms mark with their dusty green a more sophisticated fa~ade. Dust is kept down
by sprinkling, as was done in the courts of public buildings. There is no water supply and toward
dusk water is brought from the Ni le in jugs carried on asses or by slender maidens. Shops are
grouped accord ing to trades in the secondary we ll-shaded streets in the vicin ity. The houses that
line this street running north-south resemble those that the grandees liked to have depicted on
the wa lls of their tomb chapels in Western Thebes (see pp. 408-411). They are usually two-storied
and accessible from a doorway painted red to wh ich a small stairway of a few steps rises from
the street. The brick wa lls are plastered white, lilac, or gray, enlivened above the level of the
ground-floor windows with red lin es running horizontally at regular intervals up to the terrace
parapet. These lines imitate the joints of pin kish mortar in stone masonry. The windows of the
ground floor are small, set high, just beneath the ceiling, with vertical gratings of wood. Con-
trasting with these are the large windows of the main first floor, the piano nobile, with their
mu llions shaped like papyriform colonnettes flanked in the lower part by traceried screens
painted with brilliant colors, backed by their shutters. Most of the larger houses have basements,
some of which are lit through low slots at street level. On the terrace an awning on columns or
posts provides a welcome shaded working area in daytime and a sleeping alcove during the hot
nights. Conical bins, posts carrying lines hung with meat and fish to dry in the sun, and the
arched apertures of the venti lators appear behind the parapets of interlaced palm fronds. In the
distance the N ile flows past the green banks and mirrors the morning sunrays playing on the
golden sand. On the horizon g leam the many pylons and obelisks of Karnak.

I
!

tl
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 53

/ MLAC( OF AMEN~OHP 11/<TMrnrn

, IU51DEN([ Of TIV & UNIFOP.M MOUH5

28. Rows of suites on a uniform plan in the palace of Amenhotep III

at Malqata: plan and restored axonometric projection.

29. Plan of the palace of Merneptah at Memphis.

I I
 54 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 55

The villas of the high officials, the quarters for artisans and administra- built over the north aisle of the court portico. The columns of this aisle are
tive offices spread south around the four palaces into a large town. West of the smaller in diameter than those of the three other aisles of the portico. The
town a graded road ran northeast to southwest, turning north to the mortuary bedroom to the west of the corridor of the private apartment is a long room
temple of Amenhotep III marked by the so-called colossi of Memnon, and with a stone-paved alcove accessible through a ramp. Both bathroom and
south toward cultivation in the vicinity of a small sun temple. latrine are paved with stone.

THE PALACE oF MERNEPTAH. 50 The building seems to have formed part of a

large group of palaces. The plan is a long rectangle (N.-S.) and consists of a THE CITIES: PLANNING AND HOUSING
north transverse vestibule with four columns, leading into a deep court sur-
rounded by a columned portico (fig. 29). The plan of the residential apart- Our evidence about towns from excavation would have been somewhat frus-
ments is of the 'Amarna type : a front broad hall with two rows of six columns trating were it not for the Eastern Village at 'Amarna which, though small,
each, and a deep throne room with two rows of three columns and a dais for yielded well-preserved elements that permit postulating fairly approximate
the throne between the last two columns. Doorways on each side of the throne population figures and its coefficient of density of population. The data about
room lead to rooms and to the staircase to the terrace. The third and rearmost other towns of the Empire are fragmentary but what does remain shows an
part is accessible through doors on both sides of the throne: a transverse interesting variety in the types of urban settlement:
corridor, a typical feature of the 'Amarna palace, serves to connect the bed- r. Preplanned settlements such as the independent towns for artisans
room, characterized by a bed-alcove (S.W .), with the master's private apart- ('Amarna East, see fig. 71; Abydos, see fig. 31), or settlements of prisoners
ment, consisting of a living room with two columns, a bathroom, and two around the temples (Medinet Habu, see fig. 42).
lateral rooms. 2. Attached houses of a semiuniform plan within a preplanned quarter

The harem could have extended to the west of the buildings and have for Egyptian officials in a fortified trade outpost in Nubia (Uronarti) or in the
been connected with them through a lateral doorway. Sudan (Sesebi, see fig. 32).
A typical feature of the building is the richness of its decoration, both in 3. Densely populated urban settlements with multistoried town houses on
materials and in style. Walls and pavements are stuccoed and painted with valuable land (Thebes). Because of the lack of pertinent data this category is
scenes above a dado of panels with symbolical plants of Upper and Lower probably the most frustrating, especially since it obviously included the most
Egypt (throne room). The dais of the throne is a rectangular platform entirely important centers. These cities on the Nile have probably completely disinte-
covered with low relief and brilliantly colored, representing panels with four grated in cultivated land.
figures of captives and four bows within a frame of syml4olical patterns. It is 4. The city of Akhetaten built in the desert on the east bank of the Nile
approached from the front by a ramp and on the sides by two flights of steps. (see fig. 45), probably a unique experiment in Egyptian town planning, with
The throne room was lit through slot windows with vertical grating and its Central City grouping of official buildings (temples, palaces, administrative
openwork ( 6 x 8 ft. high [ r.82 x 2.43 m.]), set high up in the walls. Colored units) and its other quarters consisting of huge mansions on individual plots
low relief also covered doorjambs and lintels, sometimes enhanced with fa- forming blocks arranged -according to a loose scheme along the streets (fig.
i:ence inlays. The columns of the open papyriform type were similarly deco- 30) . The excavators have succeeded in restoring the plan of the town and its
rated in colored patterns with a br0ad band of gold on the lower course of the houses to the most minute detail.
shaft. 5. Suburban areas dotted with large mansions of estate owners sur-
A remarkable element is the balcony of appearance over the doorway rounded by gardens within prohibitively high enclosure walls, or by smaller
between the entrance vestibule and the court, to which a staircase led, probably country houses u'sed only during the harvest season, fieldwork, or feasts. Here
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 57

lOUIM CllY

3L Contiguous mansions in the town of Ahmose at Abydos .

(fig. 31) . The suite consists of a second central hall flanked by a bedroom and a
30. Plan of the eastern edge of South City at 'Amarna, corridor leading to a living room. Another long corridor opening from the
giving an idea of the loose layout of the streets. living room leads to small dependencies. Connected with the shallow hall is a
lobby with two doors, one of which leads to a series of four rooms, dependent
our only source of information is the graphic evidence derived from the from one another and which could have served for the harem, and the other
murals representing houses which many of the Theban grandees liked to have leads via a long passage to magazines at the rear of the house and to the
on the walls of their rock tombs in Western Thebes (see figs. 1-13). entrance vestibule and servant quarters on the street side.
The identification of these various parts can only be surmised on the
grounds of their various characteristic features, after comparing them with the
Town of Ahmose (Abydos) 61
type of mansion at Lahun.

A town to house the staff employed in the building of the t~mb complex of the
pharaoh was erected according to a preplanned project; it was occupied for The City of Sesebi (Sudan) 62

only ten years, however (1580-1570 B.c.). The plots are large squares
(26.3 x 27 m. = 7rn sq. m.) and the houses are contiguous on a uniform plan, In the fortified city of Sesebi, between the Second and Third Cataracts ( 180
one pair being laid out symmetrically about a party wall. miles [269 km.] south of Wadi Halfa) there was, in the southwest corner, a
The plan of the mansion is unsymmetrical, with thick, well-built walls. It quarter with small houses, and larger ones to the north. Temples and maga-
features long corridors and rooms, and is not easily defined. A division into zines of the usual type stand in the northwest area of the city. The chronology
three sections could perhaps be recognizedi in the center are the reception of the site seems to extend at least from Amenhotep II ( 1450-1425 B.c.) 1
rooms and the master's suites, the harem, the magazines, and dependencies. A perhaps even from Thutmose III or Hatshepsut, until the Nineteenth Dynasty
shallow hall leads to the master's suite which forms the nucleus of the mansion (Ramses II, 1301-1235 B.c.).
 58 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 59

TowN PLANNING. The layout of the residential district follows a regular orthog- Type II. The large houses set to the north are nearer to the 'Amarna type,
onal pattern of streets directed E.- W. meeting other ones running N .- S. It though they have no yard. A northern lobby leads into a front hall which
could have been divided into four square sections, each consisting of two communicates with the living room (one column, a dais, and a brazier) and is
rectangular blocks of houses along three or four E.- W . streets. A street runs as flanked by two rooms on either side. To the south are the master's suite : a
a pomerium along the inner face of the town wall for defense purposes, as in bathroom, a dressing room, and a bedroom, characterized by the alcove for the
all Egyptian fortresses of the Middle Kingdom in Nubia. Houses are attached bed in the southwest corner. Upper stories were erected, with columns in some
side to side and even back to back. Space seems to have been carefully saved of the houses.
(fig. 32). The southernmost block features two rows of houses attached side by Most of the houses have cellars, intended probably to replace the granar-
side, all with their entrance doorway facing north. An alley runs in the middle ies and cornbins which were usually erected in the courtyards. They are small,
of the block to afford access to the southern row, an arrangement quite similar beehive-shaped structures with square apertures of dressed stone, or large
to that at Olynthos (fifth century B.c.). The block to the north, although of irregular pits of later date. The walls are in brick, plastered with mud and
the same width, has no alley. It seems that it was a rule to avoid having any whitewashed, the thresholds in stone, the floors of rammed earth, and the roofs
entrance along the pomerium, which would have been exclusively reserved for of logs and beams covered with palm ribs and mud.
the free circulation of the defenders in the event of an attack.
HousEs. Two types of houses can be differentiated:
Thebes
Type I. A small house which consists of a large hall with four or more
inner rooms, or sometimes an anteroom, a hall or an inner living room, and The earliest bastioned girdle wall that surrounded the temples at Karnak
rooms around it. The transverse walls in contiguous houses are often on the
under Thutmose III may also have extended south to enclose the city itself,
same alignment, a fact suggesting that some uniform plan was followed.
called "The One in Front of Its Master" (Khefet her nebes),63 written within
There are kitchens but no bathrooms.
the hieroglyphic sign of a bastioned wall. Thebes was named after Waset, the
32. Plans of the fortified town of Sesebi in the Sudan. nome itself, but also, from the beginning of the Nineteenth Dynasty, after
N wt, "The City" par excellence, the No-Amoun of the Bible so described by
FORTIFIED TOWN OF 5ESEBI O UD~ N l
.-- --- - - - - - - ..., XVlll - XIX DYNAHI ES <1450-11l1B.O the prophet Nahum (III:8- rn) addressing Nineveh : "Art thou better than
I ~ ------,

it .~!
L. - - - - - - - - - - - '
No-Amoun, which was set in the midst of the rivers, surrounded by waters?"
This was interpreted as proof that the Nile flowed east of the town,64 though it
would be safer to assume that "the rivers" was a large canal. The city extended
onto the site of the actual Luxor and onto the western bank, comprising the
large complex of palaces of Amenhotep III and later the mortuary temple of
Ramses III at Medinet Habu. It was the capital from the Eighteenth Dynasty
-- -------·---___ J ( 1580 B.c.) until Ramses II ( 1298 B.c.) who founded his residence at Pi-Ra'messe
- -~_A~_A3_!f!~_I_ ___
---- -, (modern Qantir) in the northeast Delta. The name Thebes given by the Greeks
' -- --- --------- --, J to the city may have derived from !pet Iswt, the name of the temple of
Amun-Re' at Karnak preceded by the feminine article ta.
The capital must have been a bustling city crowded with multistoried
town houses such as that depicted by the scribe Thutnefer in the murals of his
- - --- -- -1
_Jj~ _
_J _ _I H ~I!..!_ ~--~
, --11 ----
- - - -= --===cl
_ _j
r-_-::_-_-_-:_-_-_-: _-:: : : :: ---' ""'o,.__~~-s~o-~-~100~-~~-~~
 60 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 61

tomb (see p. 15, fig. l) along a few main arteries running parallel to the Nile artisans' town in the eastern village for the comparative study of town planning
crossing numerous subsidiary lanes ( color plate IV) . Karnak itself had its and the evaluation of urban populations in ancient Egypt. As its geometric lay-
out is completely cleared through excavation it ensures a factor of accuracy non-
t> town for priests and craftsmen, for Thutmose III mentions a "town quarter"
existent in other workmen's towns. Consequently it is safe to calculate from its
when he inspects the temples. The expensive cost of housing may even have
induced some squatters from the poorest classes to settle within the precincts of data the probable population of the town and to derive a tentative coefficient of
the great temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak, from which they were evicted by the density of population. Borrowing the figure 4.18 which represents the average
high priest Menkheperre', son of Pinedjem (Twenty-First Dynasty) .65 It can number of members for the rural family in modern Egypt, we find for the 75
be surmised that the city extended south of Luxor and more sparsely north houses in the eastern village (the larger mansion of the overseer in the
along the processional avenue 2 kilometers long lined with sphinxes and way southeast corner being counted as 2 housing units [see fig. 33]) a total popula-
stations which connected the temple of Luxor to those of Khonsu and Mut at tion of 313. This would correspond to a coefficient of density of population of
Karnak, forming a long expanse much in the same way as at Akhetaten. 15.65 square meters per person.
Farther east two-storied country houses surrounded by their outbuildings such The coefficient of density of population can be used in the evaluation of
as that of the architect Ineny (see p. 21, fig. 6) dotted a suburban landscape. the population of other workmen's towns. Assuming that the town "Senusert is
The affiuence of foreign goods brought in by trade and tribute to Satisfied" (Hetep-Senusert) of Senusert II at Lahun was 370 meters square its
Amun-Re' "The Ruler of Thebes" and to the other gods "Lords of Thebes" population would have numbered 8,747 inhabitants. This figure is close to the
made it the capital of the Empire and of the ancient world, as acknowledged ideal urban unit of 10,000 for new towns propounded by Pharaoh W ahkare'
by Nahum and Homer. To judge alone by the huge crowds of people in the Khety III in his instruction to his son Merykare'.
service of Amun-Re' in his various temples as mentioned in the official records
under Ramses III (Papyrus Harris I) - 81,322 persons, 421,000 cattle, and 2,393
kilometers square of fields for Amun-Re' ; 62,226 persons for the mortuary Deir el Medina "The Place of Truth" 66
temple of Ramses III- the population of Thebes must have been very high
indeed. Shops for every luxury craft must have lined whole streets, proliferat- On the western bank of Thebes in a desert valley behind the modern Qurnet
ing in special quarters. The pageantry displayed in the sacred processions of Mar'i a village named "The Place of Truth" for "The Servants in the Place of
Amun of Luxor visiting his repository at Medinet Habu every ten days and Truth" was started under Thutmose I ( 1530- 1520 B.c.) to accommodate the
especially those of Amun-Re' of Karnak visiting the ones at Luxor and Medi- workmen of the royal necropolis, quarrymen, draftsmen, sculptors, and pain-
net Habu on the Beautiful Feast of the Valley must have attracted crowds of ters. It was inhabited during four centuries and enlarged thrice during the
pilgrims. No wonder that the Ramesside Egyptians woukl praise : "Waset is Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasties.
the pattern for every city," that it would be chanted by Homer as "the The life of this small community is well known from the considerable
hundred-gated Thebes" (Iliad IX.383) and exalted by later classical authors number of ostraca found in the school of scribes in the town. The workmen
long after its destruction. were divided into two gangs, "right" and "left," each under a supervisor, his
assistant, and a scribe of accounts. They worked in alternate shifts of 10 days,
living in the mountain probably for safer control against thefts and the
The Eastern Village at 'Amarna diffusion of information about the specifications of the royal tombs, such as
their location. They were paid in kind in rations of emmer wheat and barley,
Since both the capital of 'Amarna (see pp. 76--81) and its eastern village (see besides being provisioned with daily food, water, clothing, oil for lamps, and
pp. uo- u5) are described in detail later, I turn now to the significance of the tools. They built their own temples, one of which was dedicated to Amenho-
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 63

tep I who, with his mother Ahmose Nefertari, was their patron god. Small
shrines with stelae dedicated to "The Peak," the natural pyramid south of
Deir el Bahari, and to the serpent goddess Meryt Seger "The One Loving
Silence" were built on the mountainside. They formed an aspect of the popu-
lar religion as practiced by such working communities.

TowN PLANNING. The plan, although not so strictly regular as those of the
workmen's towns at Lahun and 'Amarna, is nevertheless analogous to them in
many respects. The first stage in the early Eighteenth Dynasty shows a series
of rn houses, on a contiguous uniform plan set on either side of a north-south
central street. A stout wall on a trapezoidal plan surrounds the hamlet. To-
ward the end of the dynasty some 12 houses were added on the western side of
the village and a few others to the north, and a street crossing the main one at
its southern end served to connect this new quarter to the earlier one. The
enclosure wall was extended to surround the newly built-up area (pl. 3).
In the latest stage, during the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties, the
Plate 3. Views of the remains o( the workmen's village at Deir el Medina, seen from the
village expanded considerably to the south, numbering then no fewer than 70
north.
houses within its enclosure ( l3i.65 x 47.5- 50 m.). The central street was not
· Plate 4. View of the main street at Deir el Medina. extended but bent at right angles before it resumed its southward direction
(fig. 33). About 50 houses of a larger type for priests abutted on the outside of
this enclosure on the northeast side. If we apply the coefficient of density of
population as found for the eastern village at 'Amarna we obtain 412 inhabit-
ants for the walled-in town, and ea. 250 more for the 50 houses of the priests,
both figures being minimal, however, because the expected density should be
higher than at 'Amarna since here there was no square nor were there as many
streets as at the other.
No deliberate town-planning scheme was followed, but the simple device
of a central street flanked on either side by a row of contiguous uniformly
planned houses was employed. In spite of the long occupation of the village,
the level of its streets and houses did not rise with layers of detritus, as
happened in the Orient, ancient and modern (pl. 4). This fact seems to imply
the existence of a regular cleaning process, either by some municipal authority
or by the inhabitants. Police posts were established at the ends of the valley
where the village was located and some votive chapels dedicated to popular
cults were erected just to the north, parallel to the enclosure. The earliest
tombs of the Eighteenth Dynasty which abutted on the enclosure were leveled
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 65

HFIEET OUTER NALL

- I
I ,.. •
SttRJNt

I
...
• •
o...,-===---===-...sc:::==========:::::1~om
33. Plan of the second (left) and third stages of the workmen's city at Deir el Medina. 34- Section and plan of a typical house at Deir el Medina.

to make room for the expanding settlement, and a necropolis grew up on the The housing unit is one story high, on a deep rectangular plan
cliff to the west of the village. (5 x 15 = 75 sq. m.), extremely efficient in its economy of space, without
There was no water in the village and a special tank outside the main corridor (fig. 34) . All rooms are set one beyond the other and communicate by
gate was filled and guarded to provide for a public supply of drinking water, doorways opening at one corner of the transverse walls. The plan of the house
another aspect of the existence of some municipal organization. Documents offers many aspects of similarity to that of the workmen's village at 'Amarna.
show that water carriers were kept on the public payroll. Women could fetch The outer hall is slightly lower than the street level, is accessible from it, and is
water from the public tank and store it in the large jars set-at the entrance of connected through a doorway in the opposite wall with the main hall. A
their houses. brickwork platform ( r.7 x o.8 x 0.75 m. high) with three to five steps front-
ing its long side stands in a corner of the outer hall and is bordered-by a low
HousEs. The plan of the house may have answered a special program, since the parapet or a screen wall reaching to the ceiling (fig. 35). This is a shrine to the
workman spent nine days and nights in the mountain and returned home only popular dwarf Bes, the household genius and protector of women and love
on the tenth day. The village population was accordingly mainly composed of (fig. 36), or to the god Horns or the goddess Isis, who are sometimes painted
women and children. The names of the inhabitants hint at Syrian, Cypriote, on its outside. This recalls that an altar to the sun was also erected in the
Nubian, and Hittite origins and it is a fair assumption that some kind of 'Amarna house.
compulsory work was exacted by a public authority, either by the government In the main hall a central wooden column supports the ceiling and it
or by the clergy of the necropolis. contains a low dais ( 0.2 m. high), similar to that at 'Amarna, and a stela or
 66 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 67

false-door for the domestic cult, as at 'Amarna. The floor is higher than that of
the outer hall and a trap door opens in it near the dais to disclose a stairway
leading down to a cellar. As at 'Amarna, newborn children were occasionally
buried under the floor of this main hall.
Two doorways open in the rear wall of this hall, one leading to the
bedroom and the other, through a short passage, to the kitchen. Here the same
built-in equipment as at 'Amarna is provided : a clay oven ( o.8 m. diam., 0.75
m. high), a stone basin, a kneading vessel, a silo, and a staircase ascending to
the terrace. Sometimes a few steps in the back wall lead down to a cellarette
cut in the bedrock. It appears that the ceiling, if any, was in brushwood used as
f~el for the oven. The typical oven in the Twentieth Dynasty features an inner
truncated clay cylinder (6r cm. high, 6r/36 cm. diam., 3- 4 cm. thickness),
open at the top and at the bottom and plastered with a thick layer of mud (fig.
37) . A small stokehole (8.5 cm.) is provided near the bottom. Tradition kept
i--~~~~~61cm
this type practically unchanged, as we find it earlier at 'Amarna and Medinet
35. View of the remains of a house showing the 37. Typical clay oven from the Twen-
Habu; and it is still used today in Upper Egyptian villages.67
altar in the vestibule. tieth Dynasty.
The structure was in brickwork, with ceilings of palm trunks and stalks.
36. Painted frieze from the altar representing the household genius Bes. Rammed earth, perhaps whitewashed, formed the floor (see pl. 4) . Windows
with wooden or stone gratings opened high under the ceiling. The altar
consisted of a brick caisson with a transverse screen wall enclosing a filling.
The dais in the main hall was of brick bordered with limestone blocks and
sometimes provided with elbow rests at the sides. The wooden column of the
main hall was a palm trunk, plastered and painted, as at 'Amarna. Although
the occupants were hard-working artisans, they nonetheless afforded enough
time and dynamism to decorate the walls of their houses with paintings of
good taste. Paintings on all the walls but mainly on those of the shrine
represent the popular and benevolent deities Bes, Taurt, Isis, and Hathor in
white line on a gray background. Panels also show a woman at her toilet, a
man rowing a boat, or a nude and gracile dancing girl (fig. 38). A white-
washed dado ( 0.9- r.3 m. high) bordered with a gray stripe runs along the
lower part of the walls. Niches at floor level contained stelae, and others above
the dado accommodated the oil lamps. The whole scheme of decoration is not
the outcome of an official program but the personal achievement of an art-
loving caste of highly skilled craftsmen.
An insight into the aesthetic feeling of the working classes is gained
from these paintings. The rate of literacy was relatively high, and families can
 68 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 69

38, Fresco from Deir el Medina repre-

senting a dancing flute player.

be traced for many generations from the records. These workers are certainly
worthy of praise, and the more so if we remember the rather precarious 3 4
conditions under which they had to live. We are informed of this in a most
spectacular way through a papyrus about a strike among the workers in the - --:..---_,..--.:;r.:::::.::-P
-- \I 0
necropolis. The government had delayed the delivery of their payment in
"'·
grain around rr70 B.c. The workmen sat day after day in the shade of the great
temples of Western Thebes, shouting "we are hungry" through the heat of
summer and the cold of winter. 68

Medinet Habu (before Ay) 69

Modest houses of the rural type, dating from the reign of Amenhotep III and 39. Plans of three houses ( r- 3) and grooves in the bedrock for reed huts at Medinet Habu.
later, were found beneath the temple of Ay. A thin enclosure wall (rn- 15 cm.
thick), reinforced at intervals of 3- 4 meters by pilasters, or on a sinusoidal
plan, surrounds every house. The plan is of the same type as that of the After the reign of Ramses III workmen erected houses of reed fences and
workmen's village at Deir el Medina or at 'Amarna: a square living room partition walls fixed in grooves cut in the bedrock ( rn- 25 cm. wide x 10-20
(about 4 x 4 m.), with a massive brick bench and a small altar (less than l m. cm. deep) (fig. 39 :4). The plan is rectangular and could be interpreted as
wide) to which ascend a few steps, sometimes abutted by two small rooms and featuring an entrance room and a yard surrounded by rooms. Some earlier
a rear chamber (fig. 39:2), or by two groups of two rooms each (fig. 39:3). houses (before Ay) were built of wooden poles set in holes cut in the bedrock.

r
J
 70 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE TANI5
Both methods of construction were known since the Eneolithic times 70 and
they represent immutable local techniques, still used today.

'
The Delta Residence Pi-Ra' messe
:,
::
The site of the later city of Tanis 71 seems to have assumed an importance even Ii

before the Fourth Dynasty. It had military and trade advantages, being located lOUTt1tRN
GAHWAV
on the Tanitic Branch of the Nile at no great distance from the sea and well
protected against Asiatic invasions by the Pelusiac Branch and by the stretches
of marshy land. Cheops and Chephren built a granite temple of which nothing
but dismantled elements remain, mixed with those of other buildings from the
Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom.
After the Twelfth Dynasty this city, Avaris, became the nucleus of a tiny
kingdom, with Seth as its chief deity accompanied by the Asiatic goddess
An ta. It was natural that the H yksos should establish their residence at A varis.
All the earlier elements were reused by Ramses II. The great builder seems to
have Red from the excessive heat of the Theban summers as well as from the
even more exacting priesthood of Amun and to have founded his residence at
Pi-Ra'messe in the Delta, on the site of the earlier Avaris, later identified with
the Tanis of the Bible and Greek historians. It should be remembered that the
Nineteenth Dynasty actually originated from this Delta site.
40. General layout of Tanis.
From Pi-Ra'messe the great girdle wall as well as the girdle wall of
Anta and the magazines to the north of the latter still remain. Toward
the end of the reign of Ramses II this residence was called "The- the western side on the axis of the temple. It seems that it became ruined, for
Abode-of-Ramses-Beloved-of-Amun, the-Great-Ka-of-Re'Horakhty." 12 The te- Sheshonq built another monumental portal about 10 meters east, using mate-
menos of Pi-Ra'messe 73 was a large enclosure wall of brick ol't a nearly trapezoi- rials from Ramses' buildings and statues. Under all these gateways, foundation
dal plan (ea. 300 x 400 m.). It is of the type featuring battered walls ( 17 m. sacrifices had been celebrated, as is proved by the burials in earthenware jars,
thick), with projecting sections with concave beds alternating with recessed after the Semitic custom. A vaulted brick drain ( 0.9 x 0.65 m.) crossed the
sections with convex beds of brickwork. This girdle wall was clearly planned eastern wall. 74
in relation to the great temple, both having the same longitudinal axis E.-W. No exact data about the internal layout could be retrieved. The main
It seems to have had three gateways (fig. 40). The one in the north side opens building was the Great Temple which formed the nucleus of the plan, possibly
in the middle of its length and was flanked by two colossi of Ramses II and connected at right angles with the northern temple as early as the reign of
two statues of lions with crossed forelegs. A doorway of secondary importance Ramses VI.7 5 It seems even that the portico bordering the forecourt of the
opens in the south side ( 400 m.) and its axis is perpendicular to the longitudi- latter temple had been built by Ramses Il. 76 Other temples were built around
nal axis of the Great Temple. The main gateway must have been the one in the Great Temple, such as the northern temple and a temple to Homs to the

-
 72 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 73

south ( ?) . On the evidence of the town plan from the Late Period one can A brick wall on a square plan (210 m.), oriented by its corners, surrounds
surmise that ovens for ceramics and bronze-smelting were already in existence, the built-up area (fig. 41). A temple is set in the western corner, perhaps of
to the northwest and to the north of the great temple, respectively. The brickwork with inner limestone walls. It was dedicated to the god Tum, or
excavations have not led to the location of the royal palace itself, but a Atum. To the north a large structure abutted against the northwest side of the
sandstone block decorated with a representation in high relief of five prisoners city wall. On account of its row of deep rooms without doors or windows it
similar to those found under the window of appearance at Medinet Habu was thought to be a storehouse, similar to those at Naukratis. 81 This structure
proves the existence of a building with similar elements. 77 There was, undoubt- is of excellent brickwork. Beams seem to have been fixed inside the rooms (2
edly, a large avenue leading from the western monumental portal to the
temple, bordered by statues and colossi of Ramses II, a secondary one perpendi-
cular to it from the south gateway, and a third one from the north gateway. It
has been suggested that the plan of the Great Temple, with its lateral way of
access from the north gateway through a porticoed forecourt, offered some
similarity, under Ramses II, to the general layout of the temple of Amun at
Karnak.78
Outside the girdle wall, near its southwest corner, there extended a
temple dedicated to Anta, surrounded by a rectangular wall with magazines
annexed to it, all built by Ramses II.79

The City of Pithom "House-of-Atum" (Per-Atum) 80

Ramses II founded Pithom to be the easternmost city on the southern route to 42. Plan and cross section of contiguous houses between the two enclosure walls at Medinet
Ha bu .
Asia, marked by the Wadi Tumilat and an ancient canal issuing from the
Tanitic Branch.
yards [ i.8 m.] high), and about I yard ( 0.9 in.) higher there was a recess in
4r. Layout of the city of Pithom.
the wall, in all the rooms. Above this the wall was plastered.

nrnooPou 1
Houses Around the Temple at Medinet Habu 82

Between the wall of the temple and the enclosure wall two rows of contiguous
houses, uniformly planned on either side of a central alley, stretch N.W.-S.E.
The thickness of the brick walls is so great that vaults seem to have formed the
roof and they carried an upper story.
Each row is independent and contains houses of one type (fig. 42) .
In the row nearest the temple the plan of one unit is long and rectangular

~-A-l~O-f~T-Hf~-PH_A_AA_o_HJ~~~~~
 74 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
I
.__ -----~.:=:.===--:..==
,_r_ ---- ==== =::.: == =---- -..!•
-i- - -- - - - -,- - - -- ..r.;
:---- - -- I - ------ I --------1
I ~ I
I I
I I
I
I
'
I
I
I
____ _ _ JI

43. Detailed restored elevation of screen wall in one of the

contiguous houses.

44 . Plan and suggested restoration of the south administration building in the temple at
Medinet H abu .
(16.5 x 6.2 = 102.3 sq. m.), consisting of rooms set side by side, flanking a
central entrance court (A), with a porch (A') on two octagonal sandstone
columns ( 2.25 x 0.28 m.), and with parapet walls ( 1.03 m. high) at the rear Administration Buildings in the Temple at Medinet Habu 83
(fig. 43) . The southern part of the plan is on the pattern of the 'Amarna type :
a broad hall (B), a living room (C), and two small rooms (D, D') . To the A large building, symmetrical with the temple, has a square, strictly symmetri-
north of the entrance court a large room (E) has a lateral storeroom and is cal plan ( 16 x 16 m. = 256 sq. m .), divided into three sections communicating
connected to a staircase ascending to the roof. with one another by a central doorway. The outer and middle sections are
The row that abuts against the enclosure wall has a compact plan of similar : a broad and shallow central hall with a room at both ends (fig. 44) .
small rooms set along an inner alley ( 1.6 m .) running at the back of the inner The rear section consists of a central square room with two side rooms on
row of houses. An entrance vestibule (M) with a rear room is flanked on the either side. The roof was vaulted. This type of symmetrical plan was already
south side by two contiguous rooms (N3 , N 4 ), one of which has an internal known in the mansion of the Middle Kingdom at Lahun and still used in the
side chamber (02 ), and on the north by a similar set of thtee rooms (Ni, N 2 , palaces of the New Kingdom and adjoining houses of Ramses III at Medinet
0 1 ), itself having a rear set of three contiguous and communicating small Ha bu.
chambers (P, Q, R) . A staircase rises to the upper story. The roof seems to
have been of vaults running in the direction of the row of houses, and with flat
roofs in the upper stories. THE 'AMARNA PERIOD
No sanitary accommodation is apparent. The type of plan resembles that
of the granaries and storerooms in the mansion at Lahun. Could these be Although badly destroyed, the remains at 'Amarna allow of a successful
barracks for soldiers or slaves? It is notable that Ramses III is said to have restoration of the capital, its palaces, temples, and dwellings. This is possible
established thousands of prisoners of war and their families in the temple because the plans can be traced from the foundation-trenches and the concrete
precincts (Papyrus Harris, I.IV, 5). beds left in the sand.
 76 II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 77
The earliest date encountered on any monument at 'Amarna is Year 6 of Akhenaten in the choice of the site. It accounts also for the absence of any
Akhenaten (1366 B.c.). No evidence of an earlier occupation of the site has girdle wall to the city. Tombs were cut in the cliffs to the north and south.
been found, though Thutmose IV seems to have had some interest in the Along the narrow strip of arable land grew the city, about 9 kilometers in
place. 84 Perhaps Horemheb ( 1314 B.c.) was the pharaoh responsible for the length, but seldom more than 1 kilometer in width. This general growth
thorough destruction of the capital. He probably ordered a chapel of Amun to parallel to the river stems from the difficulty of obtaining a water supply
be erected on the site of the Great Temple as a final gesture symbolizing the except in the vicinity of the Nile. Though it is a characteristic of all cities in
uprooting of the Aten. 85 The Court had already been transferred to Thebes by ancient Egypt, it is more strongly felt in a desert stretch such as 'Amarna.
Tut'ankhamun, the son-in-law of Akhenaten, so that the capital would have There is no town planning project, but merely a certain framework
had a brief life of about 15 years (1366- 1350 B.c.). inside which the city grew. 89 This is mainly formed by three streets running
N.- S. parallel to the river and meeting secondary transverse streets, occasion-
ally at right angles (fig. 45). The excavators named the three main streets
THE CAPITAL, AKHETATEN ('AMARNA) Royal Road (nearest to the Nile), West Road (known as High Priest Road in
its southern stretch), and East Road. Two shallow depressions or valleys
Akhenaten chose for his new capital 86 a site on both banks of the Nile in the
Hermopolitan nome, about 300 miles ( 483 km.) north of Thebes, the modern 45. Map of 'Amarna.
Tell el 'Amarna. Fourteen stelae were carved with scenes of the pharaoh
adoring the Aten or sun disk in the bedrock of the cliffs as boundary stones to
the new sacred area, consisting of the capital proper and the fields on the
western bank that were to provide food supplies. These stelae are still in situ at
such places as Hawata, north and south groups of tombs Sheikh Said on the
east bank, and at Tuna el Gebel, Dirwa, and Gilda on the west bank. The
capital "Akhet-Aten," or "Luminous Mountain-Horizon-of-Aten," was located
on the east bank on a highway along the Nile, the modern Sikket el Sultan,
which probably had been in use for a long time before Akhenaten. 81 The site is
to the south of Hermupolis, on the opposite riverbank. Some of the stelae
mention the pharaoh's oath never to leave Akhetaten, probably to be inter-
preted in the sense of seeking another capital. The pharaob also gives a vivid
account of his selection and of the dedication of the site following the instruc-
tions of his father Aten when he illuminated a certain spot on the desert at
sunnse.
The sacred site on the eastern bank is nearly rectangular in shape,
enclosed within a cirque of mountains forming the inland limits of the desert
plateau to the east and curving to the riverbank at both north and south
ends. 88 The relative facility with which such a desert plain could have been
closed at its north and south narrow entrances in the event of attack might have
been one of the essential strategic advantages taken into consideration by
 78 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 79

(Arabic wadi) running E.-W . divide the city transversely into three parts : the
South City, the Central City, and the North Suburb. Each has its own
individuality and consists of buildings belonging to a certain class. One could
even speak of "zoning."
Except for the Central City no town planning rules were followed. It
seems that the most important people settled first on large plots along the
main streets, and were followed by others of more modest means who built
near them, while the poorer ones squeezed their houses into the remaining
areas. Streets are net paved but consist of a stretch of desert ground cleared
from pebbles and sand. The cheap desert land allowed for an expansion quite
different from the congestion of Thebes and the other large towns in the
valley. (In these valley sites, where every new building had to encroach upon
valuable cultivated land, the emphasis was on vertical development, and even
granaries were set on the terraces) . Akhetaten is also unique because its
buildings were not altered during the short time of occupation.
In a forlorn valley to the east, quite hidden from the city, lies the
workmen's village, built on an orthogonal pattern within a square enclosure.
There is no provision for drainage, and bathrooms drained into the
subsoil outside the houses. Drinking water was fetched from the river or from
wells sunk to the subsoil water strata. Rubbish was burned outside the built-up
area. Police headquarters were located behind the public buildings in the
Central City and there were guardhouses along the desert tracks about the
site.90

THE SouTH CITY.91 This is the part of the city to be built just after the Central
City was laid out. It was occupied by the most important people. The vizier
Nakht had his immense mansion near the cultivation. Tae high priest Pa-
nehsy, the priest Pawah, General Ra'mose, the architect Ma'nekhtawitf, the
sculptor Thutmose, and others, as well as more modest people such as the 46. Restored perspective of the main part of Central City at 'Amarna.
sculptors, built in this quarter. It seems that the wealthy officials who laid out
their villas at the very beginning did not occupy the whole area they intended THE CENTRAL CITY.92 This seems to have been carefully laid out as a complete
to, and this was subsequently turned over to the smaller settlers. The streets are unit, "The Island," and consists of palaces, temples, government offices, and
accordingly by no means straight (see fig. 30). magazines. To the south is a glass manufactory (fig. 46).
Probably connected to this quarter was a river temple, still in use under The chronology of the buildings can be fairly well determined. The
Ramses III and even later (Twenty-Sixth Dynasty). Chapel in the Great Temple and the royal estate were built first, followed
Far to the south was the precinct of the "Marn-Aten," probably a temple closely, between Year 6 and Year 9, by the temenos wall of the Great Temple
dedicated to the Aten as the Creator. and its sanctuary, replacing the earlier chapel, while the palace was begun but
 80 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

never completed. About Year 15 the large pillared hall, identified as a corona-
tion hall for the ceremony of the crowning of Smenkhkare' as co-regent of
Akhenaten, was begun. This quarter was deserted in the third year of Tut'ankh-
aten; doors of houses and official buildings were blocked up and archives ~.
were left in the records office, which seems to have implied a certain optimism
regarding the future of the "Horizon-of-the-At en" (pl. 5).
The main artery is the Royal Road, so-called after the modern Arabic
name Sikket el Sultan (Road of the Monarch). It comes from the Maru-Aten,
south, passes through the old South City, and proceeds to the Central City,
between the official palace and the royal estate, where it is spanned by a bridge
and broadens into a square in front of the entrance fac;:ade of the Great
Temple. The huge enclosure (Soo x 250 yards [731 x 229 m.]) of the Temple
forms the north boundary of the Central City. The royal estate consists of the
royal house and a temple with magazines.
To the east of the royal estate runs the West Road, continuing the High
Priest Street of the South City, passing by the Records Office and stopping at
the temple magazines. Two transverse streets running E.-W. meet this West
Road. The southern one stretches between the king's house and its temple, the
records office and the clerks' houses to the south, and reaches the army
headquarters. The second street passes to the north of the royal estate along the
. southern side of the magazines.

THE NoRTH SuBURB.93 Two E.-W. depressions divide the North Suburb, the
south one separating it from the Central City. The North Suburb was inhab-
Plate 5. Layout of Central City at 'Amarna.
ited by the middle class and had business areas and slums. It was not begun
until the middle of the reign and was in the course of construction when it was
suddenly abandoned by the original inhabitants. A pictur~ of the haste with
which the city was left is given by various buildings lacking minor elements to
be completed, such as the enclosure walls with gateways in the eastern quarter, were built first, and subsequently middle-class houses and slums (two areas)
north of the depression, and even a house complete except for the lintel above intruded in between or encroached upon the streets, even blocking them.
the entrance doorway. It seems that people who could not afford to travel back To the south of the depression and along the Royal Road lies the North
to Thebes settled in the houses after these had been finally left by the guards Palace. Farther north is the palace of Queen Nefertiti, where she possibly
appointed by the owners to keep them and after the valuable wooden elements retired after leaving her husband. The large houses that form the North City
such as doors and columns had been sent to Thebes. probably date from the last half of the reign. The large terraced building at the
The large estates bordering the two arteries, West Road and East Road, mouth of the area could have been a customs house or a guard post.
 82 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

THE PALACES '

'"....u
0
"' Q.)

The Official Palace 94 -0

c;
:s:
This formal residence of Akhenaten lies between the Royal Road and the rr,
cultivation along the river, and was probably called "House-of-Rejoicing-of-the- -0
Q.)
....
Aten." The plan is directed N.-S. and consists of the state apartments built in 8
...."'
Q.)

stone and bordered along the eastern side by the servants' quarters (north),
8~
the harem (middle), and the magazines (south), all in brickwork. A bridge Q.)
....
of three spans crossed over the Royal Road from the king's house on the east :r:'"
to the state apartments, passing between the harem and the magazines. -5....
0
~
THE SERVANTS' QUARTERS (fig. 47). Three pylons with central doorways lead to Q.)

-5
the three groups forming these quarters, the northernmost of which consists of ......0
houses, while the two others are magazines. The typical house is of the :s:
Q.)

uniformly planned contiguous pattern, similar but somewhat better than the ·;;:
-~
house in the workmen's village. 95 The plan is rectangular, divided into three bQ.)
elements: an entrance hall with two columns, a stone lustration slab, and a 80
-~
brickwork dais; a central hall with one or two columns on a stone base; and cf
two rooms with shelves at the back. All houses had a staircase to a loggia with e:r
a column on the terrace, and brick floors, sometimes with white plaster. '"
0..
H~
...;
THE HAREM (fig. 48). The harem buildings stretch between the eastern side of ~
'"....
~
~
the state apartments and the Royal Road. An entrance from the road leads into 0..
8'" ~
~ 0

~ bJJ

47. Plan of the servants' houses in the Great Palace at 'Amarna. Q.)
.s
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u ~
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0..

........... &ft
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µ
L-R /ivin9-room .,
B bedroom ·'" ·- ·- ·- ·-·
 84 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE 85

two courts, the inner one seemingly provided with a window of appearance,
and divides the buildings into two groups, that to the north being the more
L n a c
important. An ambulatory surrounds the northern block, probably as a pas- c
Cl

sage for guards- a disposition similar to the ambulatory of the palace of

Ramses III at Medinet Habu. No direct entry to the inner rooms was provided 0 0
from the road or even from the maih entrance. tP
=
c
c
0
The plan is not entirely symmetrical. Along the N.-S. axis of the north- l>
Cl

ern group are the following elements. Cl

1. A sunken garden with a tank at its northern end, bordered on either "'c
c
long side by a narrow hall with a central colonnade and a row of small t:>

adjacent rooms (magazines?).

2. At the south end of the garden a columned portico stretches along the
front of a broad hall which has two rows of columns. On the main axis down
the gangway the painted pavement depicts a row of Asiatic and African
m 1
prisoners flanked by two pools with fish and flowers ( color plate V).
3. The main hall is square in plan and communicates to the southeast
with a large room having twelve columns inlaid with fa'ience. The treatment
m
of the pavement with motifs of captives and birds in the marshes, similar to 100 ~
COURT
the ones in the broad hall, is found in both the main hall and the columned .,
room. Adjacent units on a uniform plan, three to the west and two to the east, ,,.,
11·

flank the main hall. Each consists of a square room with a central column and
two small adjacent rooms to the south. These units probably were the suites
::=:!
t
It
• D . :·
ii
:
II

••
11
__ I '- - - - - - -
for the ladies of the harem. In the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata similar --·----------' '-- -- -----r- -- ----------
i - - - - - - 11- - - - - - - - - - - - .:..--':

larger units flank the hall of the harem, and in the second palace of Ramses III
at Medinet Habu three dwellings on a uniform plan provide accommodation
for three concubines. Two such rooms are represented in the tomb of Ay
together with the ambulatory surrounding them. •
The southern group of harem buildings, entered from the north, consists
of a long garden flanked on one side by a court with two symmetrical suites
featuring a hall and four rear chambers each, and on the other by an ensemble
similar to that forming the northern harem. A broad hall leads axially to a
square hall communicating with a columned room. All pavements are painted. 49· T~e Great Palace at 'Amarna: 1, plan; 2, restored perspective of the Broad Hall; 3,
pamted pavement in the Broad Hall.
THE STATE APARTMENTS (fig. 49). The layout of this huge complex is strictly
symmetrical about a N.-S. axis, parallel to the Royal Road. It is the only palace
built in stone.
An extensive north court fronts the buildings (fig. 49: r, left edge) : it was
called "broad hall" and it was bordered by statues in quartzite and granite of
 86 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 87

the pharaoh and in quartzite of the queen, representing standing figures on verse axis (E.-W.) of the state apartments and spanning the Royal Road (see
the south side and sitting ones along the two wings (fig. 49 :2). It seems that fig. 46). This was a very solid structure in brickwork reinforced with large
the original project of a gigantic columned south portico, over 150 meters in balks of cedar. There were three unequal spans (3.5 m. for the sides and 5 m.
length, was never carried out. On the west are remains of a mysterious stone for the center), probably covered by Bat roofs. Rooms decorated with paintings
building. In the center of the south side an imposing porch on three rows of were built over the bridge. It has been surmised that a window of appearance
four columns each (sandstone, palmiform) shades the entrance to a transverse opened above the central span of the bridge, since all the representations of the
columned hall with two rows of fourteen columns each, communicating with palace in the tombs at 'Amarna feature such a window as its main element.
the central court of the same breadth and with two side courts. The columns of The design of the bridge would be similar to that of the gateway of the North
the transverse hall are characterized by the representation of swags of ducks Suburb. It will be found that a window of appearance later formed the
hanging on the shafts and free foliage on the capitals. The paving was of principal element in the middle of the front fa~ade of every temple palace at
alabaster. This group of three courts is laid out axially with the bridge leading Thebes (Ramesseum, both palaces of Ramses III at Medinet Habu) . It is
to the king's house. Each entrance to the court has a system of ascending and noteworthy that in Assyria the temple was often connected directly to a royal
descending ramps bordered by granite balustrades intended to allow for the building by a bridge. Thus the ziqurrat in the temple of Assur (Tukulti-
circulation of horse chariots, a curious feature indicating perhaps a Mesopota- Ninurta I, 1250-1210 B.c.) was reached from the gatehouse by a bridge, and
mian influence. A portico was erected in two wings Banking each of the later at Khorsabad the palace of Sargon II was made accessible from the
entrances from the side courts to the broad hall or to the bridge (from east neighboring temple of Nabu by a stone viaduct. 96
court) . There seems to have been two series of three rows of four alabaster
THE CORONATION HALL (fig. 50). This later addition to the palace is not set in
stelae each, engraved on both sides with scenes of the royal family worship-
the axis of the official palace, but is to the southeast and is connected to the
ing the sun disk, Banking the central axis in the central court.
entrance frbm the bridge. The plan is square and is characterized by a multi-
The next transverse group of elements in the plan consists of a central t
hall, of the same breadth and depth as the central court, Banked by two I
I 50. Plan of the Coronation Hall in the
ensembles, each consisting of a square court surrounded by a colonnaded portico
Great Palace at 'Amarna.
and Banked to the south by two adjacent square columned rooms, and to the
north by two columned rooms, one of which has subsidiary chambers (?) . The coaoaoaaoooooo
aoo ao co oo ooo ao
o o a c oo o oo o a o o o
oooooao o ooaooc

center of each square court is sunk and a central concrete platform might have D ODO ODODDO

o oo a o o a a o o o o o o
DOOD COCI

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carried a statue. The limestone columns of the central hall, in four rows of o oo o oo oao o o a o a a o o o a o o o o oao o oo o oo

twelve each, had shafts in the shape of bundles of reeds.and inverted bell CJ

O
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capitals, reminiscent of the "tent-pole" columns in the Festival Hall of Thut-

DD D O DDOOOO O OOODO D O ODODD DDDOOO OO O

CDDDODDDOOODOOOD O DOD OOOOOODDCIDO O

0 0 D a D D 0 a 0 a a _D a D D a 0 D a D D 0 D D a D 0 a D D a 0

mose III at Karnak. The Banking colonnades were of smaller size, which D D O D O D DDD DDCIOOOD ODDDOO DDODOOOOOO

DO OCIO D OOO O OOOOD D DDD OOOO DO O O O D OO D

allowed for clerestory lighting in the central hall. The main feature of the side QDCICI O DOOOODDDQDD DDDDODDQ ODDO OOO O c
oo c o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o a o o o o ooo aa oo ao
courts was a pair of pavilions, of which, however, only one was ever built. a a a o a o a. o o o a a a o o o
aaoaaa o aaaoooocc
o a a a o o o o oa a o a a a o
aaa a o o o o o a o o o o o o

Ramps led up to the south side of the central hall, probably to some part o a o a a a o o o a o a o a o o
CICIDDCIODOOOODDOO CI
a c a a a a a o o o o ·D o o a o
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of the plan which was never completed. o o o o a o o o oo o o o c o o

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THE BRIDGE. The series of courts forming the first section of the plan is
connected with the king's house by a bridge running along the central trans-
 88 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE

tude of piers covering the whole area, an arrangement strikingly similar to

that of the later Persian apadana (throne hall of Xerxes at Persepolis, 518 B.c.) .
The square is divided into three transverse elements. A court surrounded on
three sides by a portico on pillars is flanked on either east and west side by two
deep halls with pillars. A roll decorates every vertical edge of the pillar. A
sunken pathway bordered by a yellow brick curb runs down the central aisle
of both eastern halls.
-o ~I
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The second division of the plan consists of a huge hall entered through -' i I I> AZ Z

a central doorway and which features 32 rows of 17 square pillars each D D D

supporting a ceiling painted to represent a vine on a yellow background. The

~

walls seem to have been inlaid with fa'ience tiles decorated with plant patterns. ( 0 u RT
The third division is very shallow and is entered from a central doorway.
It consists of a court with an area sunk to receive some heavy item, flanked by GAO D! N .
!fNURltJ\1

COURT~
two deep halls with pillars. The presence of the name of Smenkhkare' would QO

allow for the surmise that this hall was built hastily about the fifteenth year of CQOO QQQ
~QQ 0 G 0 Q () 0 G G ~ G
the reign of Akhenaten to serve for the ceremonies of the association of
(;;->
MAIN
HALL
Smenkhkare' as co-regent to the throne. GQ Q g Q 8 ~ 000000G
0 0 Q Q8.Q!;; 9
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The King's House 97

,.,
\
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The royal estate laid out to the east of the Royal Road and opposite the official 'WELL

RAMP
palace consists of an enclosure surrounding a garden, the king's house, the
magazines and the royal temple, with the priests' quarters and magazines. The
direct connection of this complex with the official palace through the bridge,
and its decoration with scenes representing the private life of the pharaoh
j
corroborate the assumption that it was his habitual residence.
A large area in front of the king's house was laid out as a garden, fronted •
by a pylon on its northern approach and featuring a central alley (N.-S.)
•
r
RAMP
bordered with trees in a stepped arrangement. This peculiar arrangement is
also to be noted in the rows of offering-tables in the temples at 'Amarna. Two

e-
''
other entrances connect the premises to the bridge and to the Royal Road
t ) 10 . 0
through a gateway and a ramp. Two lower terraces, the outer one featuring an
BRIDGE I
ft OYA L I
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arbor with a roof on brick piers, border the western side. Two doorways at
both ends of the south wall connect the garden to the king's residence (fig.
5L Plan of the King's House and magazines, and detail of painted plinth in main hall.
51).
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 91
90
The plan of the residence is a rectangle directed east-west, clearly divided The north and south buildings bordering the first court would presuma-
into two sections: the private apartments accessible from the garden, and the bly have been dedicated to the ritual of the sun-disk worship, with a sun
servants' quarters accessible from the front courtyard near the entrance gate- chapel flanked by two altars and two series of contiguous cells (N.) , and by a
way. The latter section is on an L-shaped plan set on the southwest corner, complex of two symmetrical peristyle buildings (S.).
consisting of two sets of rooms on both sides of a long N.-S. court and a large The second transverse section of the plan consists of the large water
house with a private entrance corridor from the garden. This house is of the court, surrounded by a terrace with trees and bordered to the north by three
usual 'Amarna type: a broad hall and a deep hall out of which various contiguous identical elements of the zoological garden, and to the south by a
chambers open. To the east of this house is a section identified as the nursery: complex of buildings, possibly for guards and officials. Each of the three
its buildings are bordered on the north by a court and on the south by a elements is on a tripartite plan, fronted with a common portico on pillars, a
corridor, and consist of two sets of three bedrooms each, probably for the six central court bordered laterally by a portico and having a small accommoda-
princesses, and a few other rooms. tion for guards, and at the rear a pillared hall containing painted mangers.
The private apartments are located at the north of the complex. The The rear transverse section features in its middle the royal apartment
main element is a large hall with wooden columns, in seven rows of six each, with a terrace as an approach from the water court to a h ypostyle hall, a
with a transverse columned hall at the rear. The main hall is flanked to the shallow transverse hall connected to two lateral corridors ending with an
west by a court with storerooms and bathroom, and on the east by a large observation window, and a throne room with lateral groups of rooms, among
room with an altar and the pharaoh's suite of bedroom, bathroom, and latrine. which can be recognized a bathroom and a bedroom (S.), with an alcove at
Screen walls on an L-shaped plan with a curtain on the doorway insured the south end (fig. 52). To the north of this royal apartment is a sunken
privacy. The walls of all the rooms in this section were decorated with a garden surrounded on three sides by a portico and contiguous cells, presuma-
painted dado representing the symbolic plants of the North and the South
alternating with recessed paneling. In the pharaoh's suite marvelous frescoes 52. Plan of the N orth Palace at 'Amarna.

show the little princesses, the queen, and other scenes.

The North Palace 98

This building, which is much smaller than the official palace in the Central
City, does not seem to have been a residential palace, but c~mld have been used D D

as a kind of rest house in a huge garden. The arrangement of series of courts D D a a a

and pillared halls with mangers for antelopes, ibexes, and gazelles and small D D
D a
ANIMAU WAHR -1 COURT
contiguous cells around a central garden for birds seems to have formed the D D
D a
basic inc-:ntive in the creation of this unique complex.
D D
The plan is a rectangle (112 x 142 m ., E.-W.), with thick outer walls,
divided transversely as well as longitudinally into three sections. In the center
of the west wall a gateway opens toward the Nile. In the longitudinal axis,
which is oriented E.-W. and passes through the entrance, are a large court
separated by a window of appearance from a water court and at the rear a
royal apartment, with two hypostyle halls and a throne room. c;:::n:::-
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 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 93
92

bly for birds, as the walls are decorated with paintings of birds and also have house. This is essentially a country house on large grounds, surrounded by a
small niches cut into them. To the south stretches a complex of a court courtyard comprising a garden, a kitchen, servants' quarters, and stables or
bordered by a lateral portico fronting five deep rooms and at the rear a huge silos, enclosed within a wall.
pillared hall.
The elements of this plan resemble various parts of the other palaces in
the Central or the South City. The layout is a beautiful example of an General Description 101
elaborate and symmetrical arrangement to answer the unique program of a
zoological garden combined with a royal rest house. When set against the The house at 'Amarna was more of a mansion than of a town house. The plan
religious background of the period and when compared to such a temple as
i is squarish (ea. 20 m.), oriented parallel to the river, and it consists of two
I well-defined sections: the public apartments and the private ones, set accord-
the Maru-At~n to the south of the city this complex possibly assumes the aspect
of a reserve where various specimens of animal life were kept as a symbol of ing to a tripartite grouping of elements. The public section, derived from the
I living room of the basic plan, develops here into a broad hall, sometimes called
the potentiality of the Creator. 99 This religious implication is corroborated to a
a loggia, and a deep hall or central square hall, to which an entrance vestibule
certain degree by the extensive religious establishments in the N.W. courtyard. I. is added occasionally or which can be duplicated as two broad halls. Houses
The decoration of the whole building shows a uniform scheme: above a
black or blue dado are alternate bands of blue and red, separated by a narrow differ for the rich, middle-class, or poor owners in that they have two broad
stripe of white, surmounted by a kheker frieze. These bands, turning vertically halls, one, or none.
at the corners of the rooms and again horizontally at the top, form a frame to a A ramp or stairway ascends to a northern lobby, which has been de-
yellow background painted with figures of men and animals, mostly birds and scribed, on no substantial grounds, as a porter's lodge. 102 Adjoining the ramp
fishes.The ceiling is treated as a trellis of vine ( cf. tomb of Sennufer; ceiling of or stairway is a broad hall or reception room, sometimes called a loggia on the
the coronation hall). Grapes modeled in glazed mud seem to have formed part assumption that it had large windows opening above the steps and facing
of a frieze running as a molded cornice at the top of the walls in the halls ( cf. north. We know from the ancient texts, as well as from climatic conditions
palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata). In one of the cells, the so-called "Green prevailing in later times and the present, that the cool breeze blew from the
Room," was a masterpiece of painting representing birds in a papyrus thicket, north or west, and the ~rrangement of a reception room opened on the north
and in another cell, a lively goose- works that provide striking testimony to and west fa<;:ades was to take advantage of this characteristic. Many houses
have two such loggias with painted walls, one to the north and the second to
the skill and taste of the artist.
It has been said that certain elements of the layout are reminiscent of the west, toward the Nile. Although this opinion has not been proved by
Creto-Mycenaean art (second millennium s.c.) or Asiati@> palaces (Lachish, actual finds, there is strong presumption in favor of its validity from the actual
design of the plan. Nowhere are the presumed locations of these large win-
Bogazki::iy, XV- XIV centuries B.c.).
dows blocked by outbuildings, as it has been stated. 103
The central hall is square and opens from the loggia. It forms the nucleus
THE HOUSES
of the plan and could have been used as the living room. Its walls are higher
than those of the other rooms, allowing for clerestory lighting just below a
The 'Amarna type of house is remarkably uniform, and this is to be noticed in ceiling carried on wooden columns painted reddish-brown. Enclosing the
large houses or middle-class ones 100 in various quarters of the city. The infor- central hall with rooms would have helped in insulating it against heat in
mation derived from the excavation of hundreds of houses enables one to summer and cold in winter. 104 The permanent furniture of the hall features a
arrive at typical examples embodying all the characteristics of the 'Amarna raised dais as a divan along the middle of the rear wall, a brazier container
 94 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE PH,2

sunk into the plastered floor, and a lustration slab, all of which enhance its
description as a living room. On the dais were set the cushions and chairs for
the owners, who probably had their meals there ( color plate VI). Numerous
~
doorways open from the central hall according to a strict pattern of symmetry,
and niches in the shape of doorways are set opposite or symmetrical with the
actual openings. The larger niches, which contain a stela representing the
royal family and one inscribed with a prayer to the Aten disk, have a ritual
significance and form a domestic shrine. At the top of the walls a frieze of
plants such as water lilies or of festoons of fruit, pendent ducks, flowers, and BA TH ROOM ClOHT BATN~OOM

ribbons sometimes supporting a small shrine forms an original item of decora-

tion. Doorjambs could be painted with horizontal stripes of various colors,
while the ceiling could be a rich blue (house of Nakht). On the sides of the
central hall are rooms in one of which a staircase in two or more flights rises to
the terrace. In large mansions a columned loggia is built above the broad hall
and perhaps also above some other rooms.
The private apartments of the house consist of a square hall, the master's
bedroom, smaller rooms, a bathroom, and a latrine. The square hall is similar
to the central hall but smaller, fitted, however, with the same type of furniture.
It is lit through windows opening high in the south wall. This hall probably
forms the women's quarters. The master's bedroom, the most private of all the
rooms, usually set in the S.W. corner, is accessible from the hall or from a
lobby. It is recognizable from the alcove for the bed, somewhat narrower than
the room and set in its rear part on a raised floor. Small stone blocks in the
shape of a truncated pyramid were placed under the feet of the bed. This
alcove was not only an aesthetic creation: the greater thickness of its walls
allows for the surmise that it was roofed over with a vault carried high above
the ceiling and opening on the terrace as a ventilator. All .the representations
of the palace clearly show that the royal bedroom was provided with such a
device to let in the cool north ~reeze. Near the bedroom are grouped a bath-
room, latrine, and robing room[ The bathroom is fitted with a slightly inclined
stone-slab floor and the walls · are lined to a certain height ( 0.5 m.) with
battered stone slabs (fig. 53) to insulate against dampness from splashing. The
drainage of waste water is provided for by setting a basin beneath the spout of
the floor lab in the bathroom, or by drainage channels running through the
outer wall into a vessel or into the desert sand. Often only a party wall ( 1.25 m.
53. Details of bathroom and latrine with isometric view, restored, of bathroom ('Amarna)
and two wooden closet seats (Thebes).
 96 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 97

high) separates bathroom from latrine. The latrine is a simple earth-closet The well is an essential element in such a mansion: that of Ra'nder (N.
with removable oblong vessel placed under the slit in a brick or wooden seat 49.18) 10" has a circular shaft in which a stairway (3.4 m . diam.) descends in
(see fig. 53). In the side rooms transverse low walls abutting against the main two flights to a ring platform ( 1.8 m. deep) around the well itself ( 1.5 m .),
walls carry wooden frames used as shelves for the storage of linen, as in the reaching down to the subsoil water level. There was no pond in the desert soil
Theban palaces and temples. In the absence of any water pipes the bathroom of these gardens and what was first thought to be such a pond turned out to be
can be pictured as a primitive shower system whereby water was poured on the cluttered remains of damp soil around the wells.
the bather by an attendant from behind the party wall. This picture of a typical mansion or villa at 'Amarna is based on the plan
Brick is the usual material for the walls, supplemented by stone for the and whichever elements such as columns, bases, and doorjambs that have with-
bases of columns and even for doorways. Columns, roofs, and staircase sup- stood plundering and weathering after the city was abandoned. Usually the
ports are of wood. Floors are of mud or of brick, whitewashed and painted. remains of lesser houses are better preserved.
The outbuildings are set according to a certain layout. The main entrance
doorway at an end of the enclosure wall opens onto a pathway bordered with
trees growing in puddles of Nile mud which leads to a small chapel. This is Typical Examples
raised on a rectangular socle fronted by a stairway and it consists of a minute
pillared porch and a roofless shrine with an altar for the Aten. From the HousE 0.49.23 (SouTH C1TY). 106 A rectangular enclosure (3.33 m. high) sur-
chapel the pathway turns at right angles toward the house, which is sur- rounds the grounds which are entered through a central doorway from the
rounded at its rear by the outbuildings: granaries, storerooms, chariot room street. Near the entrance is a chapel facing east (fig. 54). The house stands at
and stables, servants' quarters, and kitchens. This monumental approach em- the back of the court and is on a typical modest plan. The entrance opposite
phasizes the religious ideology through the layout of the chapel in the axis of the street gate leads to a loggia along the west side. The central hall has a
the doorway; and the right-angled pathway to the house as its second element divan on its south wall, a door to the staircase (N.), and is surrounded by
certainly denotes a refined skill in design. small rooms and an inner reception room with an L-shaped divan. The
The granaries are in the shape of truncated silos on a circular plan, bedroom near it has the usual rear alcove. Various outbuildings abut on the
covered with cupolas. Two contiguous silos are paired, with a stairway wind- residence.
ing up to the aperture through which grain was poured. A square doorway
opens at the bottom to empty the silo. Magazines or storerooms are deep I
rectangular contiguous rooms. Stalls and stables for horses sometimes show an
extremely ingenious device: a stone-paved standing place for the horses with a
built-up manger and tethering-stones is bordered by a feeding-passage running
behind the manger and accessible from the outside.
The servants' quarters feature a large room with pillars. The kitchens, to
which sometimes the living quarters for the cook are appended, contain a
0.49.23
range of simple pottery ovens. The latter consist of cylindrical jars, about 1
meter high, open at both top and bottom and thickly coated with mud or
brick. A small stokehole was at the bottom while the flat loaves were intro-

~Li
duced from above. Built-in racks for drying and storing loaves, and a 54. Plan of villa 0.49.23 in
cement-coated slab for mixing dough are provided in an adjacent room. South City at 'Amarna.

I !~ ~H I
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 99

THE OFFICIAL RESIDENCE OF PANEHSY (CENTRAL CITY) .101 Near the southeast
• 1,II ,.
I corner of the temenos wall of the Great Temple is the state building, charac-
: :1I ,,11 terized by the absence of women's quarters and by the extensive kitchens laid
1
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1 II II private mansion in the main city. This building is his official residence. An
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entrance lobby leads into the north loggia, connected to the central hall
containing a divan and a miniature shrine approached by three steps rising to
~ § \ \ ... the sculptured gateway with broken lintel. A staircase ascends to the terrace.
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56. House R-43.r at 'Amarna (S. E.): plan, isometric view of pavilion, and detail of cornice.
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HousE R.43.r.108 This is one of the few houses on the southeast boundary of the There was an upper story whose column bases were found fallen on the
Central City. It is adjacent to a pavilion. The house is of the large type with an ground floor. This upper floor covered an area around the central halls '
entrance porch, lobby, north loggia with three columns, central hall with four probably north over the reception room. All the floors were paved with large
columns, women's quarters, and a first story (fig. 56). Along the west and mud slabs, whitewashed and occasionally painted.
south sides of the house runs a passage out of which open storerooms. HousE V.37.1 (NoRTH SUBURB, S.E.).110 Among the special features of this
The painted pavilion perhaps connected to the house stands at the rear of mansion, of rather modest size, are the importance of the public section
a large garden. A large hall stretches behind the west fa<;ade and is surrounded relative to the private one and the adjunction of the kitchen and servants' hall
by a passage bordered by lotiform columns with a low screen wall painted within the plan of the main structure. A sinusoidal wall surrounds the barounds '
blue. To the south a columned hall has a shrine along the rear wall and is which are divided by two subsidiary walls between the house and the enclo-
roofed over with a ceiling painted with ducks and butterflies. To the east of sure.
the main halls are four deep storerooms with brick supports for shelves. It is to
be noticed that the antae at the end of a row of columns take the shape of 57· Plan of the ho~se of the vizier Nakht and restored perspective of the central hall.
engaged columns, a rare feature in Egyptian architecture.

THE HOUSE OF THE VIZIER NAKHT (SouTH CITY, K.50.1). This is an excellent
109

example of a large house (35 x 26 m. = 880 sq. m.). A stairway along the north
wall ascends to a lobby with two columns, beyond which are an anteroom
with one column and the north broad hall or loggia (fig. 57). This is the
largest room of the plan, facing north and having eight wooden columns
supportin g the blue ceiling. Its walls are decorated with friezes of flowers. A
similar, though smaller, loggia with six columns stretches along the west side.
Three doors lead from the north loggia to the central hall, which is on a
square plan (8 m. side) with four columns and a brick divan (E.) in front of
which is a portable hearth. On the opposite wall a lustration slab for water jars
is set on a high platform ( 2.0 x r.33 m.). On either side of the lustration slab a
11 1 1 \ I !

door opens onto the western loggia. A staircase off the central hall leads to the
upper story. In its south wall a large doorway and a lateral one open onto the
private apartments. A niche set symmetrically with this side doorway is
painted red with yellow hieroglyphs and a scene representing Akhenate n
worshiping the cartouche of Aten.
The central room of the private apartments is a square hall with one
column, probably the women's quarters, surrounded on three sides by small
rooms, the chief ones being the bedrooms of the vizier and his wife. Near each
are a bathroom and a latrine with cemented floor. Two robing rooms about
the private sitting room are recognizable from the broad shelves set on brick
supports.
 102 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 103

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Plate 6. Model of a man.sion (T.36.II ) at 'Amarna.

The plan consists of an entrance lobby, a north loggia with two columns
and a western one also with two columns, and a central hall with one central
column off which a staircase ascends to the first story (figs. 58, 59). The private
apartments have a columned hall, a bedroom, and dependencies. Many painted
plaster fragments have been found, the most original of which is part of a
frieze representing upper window-gratings from the north loggia or front
reception hall, probably modeled and painted for symmetry or to embody the
actual windows.
HousE T.36.11 (NoRTH SuBURB, S.W.).111 The grounds are surrounded by a
rectangular wall and bordered by two streets (pl. 6). In the axis of the main
59. Plan of house V.37.r. entrance doorway an alley lined with trees leads to the hypaethral chapel in
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 105

the garden, then turns at a right angle to lead to the entrance to the fa;ade of
the house itself. This one is of the rich type: porch, vestibule, two loggias,
central hall, women's quarters, and master's bedroom suite (anointing room,
bathroom, closet). All the rooms, even the private apartments, are decorated.
In the large rooms the ceiling consists of a deep main beam supported on
I columns painted with a rectangular block pattern, crossing smaller beams

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painted pink. Adequate information could be gathered relating to the elabo-
rate sanitary equipment. In the anointing room a monolithic block into which
are cut three depressions, one still retaining salt crystals, was used when
anointing the master who sat on a stone chair. The next chamber is a shower
bath in limestone, where water was poured by a servant standing behind a
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\0 two pylons stands on the left side of the entrance alley which leads directly to
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magazines adjoin it on the other. A long passage connects the court of the
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crowded with buildings and leave no atea for a garden. A stairway leads from
the depression south up to the entrance of House T.35.3. This is of the
medium-sized type, with a front north hall with two columns and a central
hall with one column (figs. 62, 63).
House T.35.9 adjoins the former one and is entered from the south. A
chapel is set at the turn of the pathway to the entrance porch. The location of
the chapel is here also skillfully emphasized in the layout (cf. T.36.i 1). The
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plan of the house is similar to that of T.35.3. Numerous silos are erected m HousE V.36.7, 12, 13 (NoRTH SUBURB, E.) .115 It has been assumed from the
front of the north fa\ade. unusual feat~res of the sanitary equipment attached to the portico fronting the
deep magazines that the latter were to receive the taxes paid in kind under the
THE HOUSE OF THE ARCHITECT HATIAY (NoRTH SUBURB, T .34.1; 34-4) .114 This
supervision of the houseowner, probably the official in charge of the tax
nearly square estate (54 m. side) was surrounded by a wall 3.05 meters high, collection. The house proper features two exceptional characteristics : the re-
entered from the west. The original western porch was soon replaced by a
northern one and the pathway ran along the axis of the fine chapel with three
65. Plan of the tax collector's complex of buildings at 'Amarna.
altars, an unusual feature. The house is of the common type, with much
stonework (doorways 1.88 m. x 0.7 m., threshold painted red). The second
Bight of stairs was supported on sloping beams. The upper story extended over
the women's quarters. A small building had been added to the south. The
dependencies abut two sides of the house. The entrance doorway is Banked by
two lateral walls projecting into the street and near it, on the inside, is the
e-
small lodge of the gatekeeper (fig. 64) . On the outer side of the enclosure wall,
near the gate, is the chariot house.

64. House of Hatiay, T.34 .1; 34+

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COURTYARD FOR B[AITJ

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 110 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE iaLJ::ur··r·"'J"iucJ·..··1wbl_cCt:ru:s=t:JuGr····1···11-
. ception hall and the central hall are connected by one door only which opens ~~~~~~~==~==~==~==:=:;;:~~~70m
at the farthermost end of the wall between both, and the central hall is directly
accessible through a short corridor from the back court, thus providing a short-
cut to the complex of the magazines (fig. 65) .

1
Town Planning in the Eastern Village 116

This village resembles in many respects that at Lahun which had been built five
centuries earlier for the workmen and priests on the pyramid of Senusert II.
This one, located in a lonely spot to the east of 'Amarna, was intended for the
artisans on the rock-cut tombs. It features a wall 70 x 70 meters square,
oriented to the cardinal points enclosing a uniformly planned settlement, and
uses a typical housing unit attached side by side in single rows along N.-S.
streets. It is also divided into two unequal sections by a wall running N.-S.
through the whole width. The area of the section to the west is, as at Lahun,
two-fifths of that to the east. In the eastern section four rows of uniformly
planned houses facing west are set side by side along four streets running N.-S.
A north passage and a south place run along the ends of the streets. A larger
_JJ
-·-v- --··...

house, probably that of the superintendent, occupies the southeast corner of

the settlement. The western section was built later and consists of two rows of
houses, quite similar to the others, but opening east and west on one single
street N.-S. It is noteworthy that the doorways of opposite houses never open
in the same axis, thus exhibiting a refined device to insure privacy.
The layout of the streets running N.-S. is similar to that at Lahun,
although at the latter site the houses are of various types grouped in zones
according to the different classes of the inhabitants, where~s those at 'Amarna
village are on a uniform pattern. The architect chose a square of l8o/7 cubits
(ea. rn m.) side as the area for two contiguous houses and used it as the
module for the layout. The westernmost row has fourteen such houses (fig. 66. Plan of the workmen's village in 'Amarna East.
66). They were built after the enclosure wall, beginning from the south end of
the streets. The architects contrived to build walls on an L-shaped plan for the Water was carried from the Nile and stored in large jars set on stone
houses abutting on the enclosure wall (E. and W. rows). bowls in the streets against the fapdes of the houses. Brick mangers were also
The single street of the smaller section communicates with the south built against the wall or pegs for spinning were fixed to it. The village is of
place. Originally it had a special gateway in the south enclosure wall, but this outstanding importance regarding the study of town planning in Egypt for it
was soon bricked up. The only gateway is in the axis of the larger area of the provides clear data for an estimation of its population at ea. 313, and hence the
village, to the east. Near it, on the inner face of the enclosure, is a shrine. coefficient of density of population as 15.65 square meters per person (see p. 6I ).

,J
112 II: DOMES TIC ARCHI TECTU RE II: DOMES TIC ARCHI TECTU RE 113
GENERAL DESCRIPT ION OF A HOUSE (figs. 67, 68). The house grounds
measure 9%
cubits (9 cubits 2 palms [nearly 5 m.]) as frontage and double that
measure as depth. The flimsy construction of the walls (2.r m. high, 0.35 m.
thick, o. r 3 m. for the internal partitions) would not allow for the erection of
an upper story. The tripartite plan is divided into three unequal parts by two

J transverse walls; the front room is the largest. The rear section is again divided
into two small rooms. The plan features four rooms: an entrance hall or
courtyard, a living room, a bedroom, and a kitchen with a staircase rising to
the terrace, perhaps to some awning erected there. In some houses the staircase
or the kitchen had to be placed in the entrance hall. It is noteworthy that the
constant orientation with the longitudinal axis of the house E.-W. allowed for
the early rays of the sun to light the bedroom and the kitchen, while the low
sunset rays would penetrate into the front hall and even into the living room
11 hall K kitchen through the clerestory. The entrance or front hall (5 x 2.0---2.5 m.) opens onto
L-R Iivin9-room
o
O btdrooJn
101» -r- the street through a doorway at one end of the fa;ade. A brick manger and
brick tethers prove that animals were kept in this room. Sometimes a work-
67. Detail of some of the houses in the workmen 's
shop, looms, hearths, and ovens indicate the various activities of the inmates in
village.
this front hall.
The living room is squarish in shape, with a central post or column to
68. Restored sketches of a street and the main hall of a
workman 's house ' in the workmen 's village.
support the roof, and was the place of gatherin g at meals or after sunset. A
brick dais ( o. r-0.2 m. high) abuts on one or two sides of the room and was used
,~:;1';1~.~)' ·11~ >'"'f,"/1
--....1._
/~.&.JCf 1
as a divan, covered with mats or rugs. In the chilly days of winter a fire was kept
,. \
burning in a hearth consisting of an earthenware bowl set in a ring of mud.

111~~~~;':·i·~;~~~
' ·"

t Jars stand on the Boor or are sunk under it and are used for storage. Water is
=:~\, ' lh ,.\\ - - kept in other vessels set on a limestone base, sometimes connected by a drain to
,~ J.r(I\ - ::__
11~- 1~ _;:; -~
1~1.-1- :i ~
a pot buried under the Boor. Stone disks (5- 10 cm. thick) are used as tables or
• seats. Saucers of oil with a wick served as lamps and were fixed on two pegs
~-
J
~~K~ plastered into the wall or were set in niches about r meter above the Boor.
=-- ~~ Walls are occasionally painted with frescoes and tempera.
-===:.--~ ~. . -·
The identification of one of the two rear rooms as a bedroom is contro-
versial, though some data could point to such a use. There were sometimes low
walls to carry a wooden shelf, possibly a simple frame with rush mattresses for
the storage of robes and linen. Lamp niches are also cut in the walls of these
rear rooms.
The kitchen is as large as the bedroom and adjacent to it. It often has two
or three storage bins, an open hearth, and a cylindrical oven for bread. Such an
 114 II : DOMESTI C ARCHITE CTURE II : DOMESTI C ARCHITE CTURE 115
rear rooms .the kitchen is removed to one end of the front entrance hall,
behind a low screen of brick. Otherwise the staircase is built in the kitchen
itself, even though this small room is already quite crowded.
Brick walls are mere partitions ( o. l 3 m. thick) and carry roofs of poles
and sticks set crosswise, covered with twigs and plastered with earth and mud
(0.1- 0.25 m. thick, fig. 69). Sometimes matting or brushwood is used instead.
Where the span of the roof over the living room is too large, a wooden post on
a stone block serves as support. In one house such a support assumes the shape
69 . Cross section of roof in house No. 11 m East of a palm trunk (2.1 m. high), plastered with mud and cut at the top to receive
Street at 'Amarna. a beam. Staircases in brick rise in straight flights (rise 20 cm., tread 30 cm.) in
the entrance hall or around a brick pillar in the rear rooms. They are built in
brickwork for the bottom part and above this with steps set on poles fixed at
either end in the side walls. A cupboard is often set beneath the steps (fig. 70) .
Doorsills are in stone or wood as at Lahun, or more often in brick. The door
leaf hung on pivot hinges turned on wooden sockets, and its sliding latch could
be opened from the street by means of string. The door was secured at night by
a heavy bar. Windows could have been set high in the walls of the front hall
and bedroom, and as clerestory windows in the living room.
In the original phase of the construction, walls had been decorated with
colored panels about 0.2 meters above the floor. Most of these have disap-
peared, however. Later walls were whitewashed and simple monochrome
sketchesf ere painted, especially in the living room. Such fragments as remain
show a polychrome scene with a human figure, friezes of lotus, chevrons, a
figure of Bes, the popular household genius, or a pilaster painted with a
70. Detail of a stairway upon beams.
stylized flower stem between chessboard borders (fig. 71) .

oven is similar to those in the main city at 'Amarna (and al~o to modern ones) H ousEs AT HAGG QANDIL. 117 This is apparently the poorest agglomeration at
and consists of a large pot thickly plastered with mud, with a draught hole at 'Amarna, southwest of the Central City. The plan of the uniform type of
ctne bottom and a large aperture at the top, to be closed with a lid. Dough on a . contiguous houses must have been carried out by the government as was the
platter of clay was left to rise and then set in the oven. Baked loaves were workmen's village. It is also based on a square unit (5.5 x 5.5 m.) for two
stored in a deep basket so that they would remain hot as long as possible. A contiguous houses. Each house has only two sections: a living room and two
stone mortar sunk in the floor was used for bruising wheat and grinding grain contiguous rooms at the rear. It is clear that the method of construction used
by means of a big pestle of hard wood ( 0.95 m. long). The kitchen appliances L-shaped thin walls ( 0.17 m.) which abutted on the rear thick wall, leaving a
consisted of a cooking pot of thin earthenware, amphorae, bowls, baskets, and doorway at the end of the fa;:ade. Other houses are somewhat larger (4.7 x
trays. 8.2 = 38.5 sq. m.) and are on a tripartite plan, with the addition of a courtyard
The location of the staircase is the only element that leads to some in front of the house (fig. 72) .
variation in this general scheme. When the staircase monopolizes one of the
 II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 117

u
II
- II

~Ill
43 II
--HI •

o~5!:=:cs====~'o====~'sll2
74. Plan of clerks' houses.
72. Plan of contiguous houses in the
suburb of Hagg Qandil at 'Amarna,
THREE PRIESTS' HOUSES IN THE SANCTUARY OF THE GREAT TEMPLE. 118 To the
0.49.6.
south of the court of the sanctuary are three adjacent houses on a uniform plan
of the tripartite primary type: front hall, living room, and two rear rooms.
The area (+5 x 7.5 m.) is slightly less than that of the similar house in the
Eastern Village. It is noteworthy that an ingenious device of a screen wall in
front of the entrance doorway aims at securing privacy (fig. 73).

THE OFFICIALS' QUARTERS. 119 To the south of the records office and the
"House-of-Life" stretches a quarter consisting of eight rows of contiguous
houses on a uniform plan, some set back-to-back, along six E.-W. narrow
streets. The plan of the unit is tripartite, but larger and showing more individ-
o_............s..___ _-iom
ual features than that in the workmen's village. The area is larger (8.75 x 6 m.
or 8 x 8 m.). It has been surmised that these were the quarters of the clerks of
73. Plans of three houses of "priests on the Records Office (fig. 74).
duty" in the south corner of the
7r. Painted pilaster from the workmen's vil- court of the Sanctuary of the Great
lage, No. 9, Main Street. Temple.
 118 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 119
A lobby leads onto a court or front hall, connected to the living room. A to the southeast of the Records Office. One building is surrounded by a passage
closet with lavatory and latrine is occasionally set at one end of the entrance containing a brick trough. Two houses of the official type known in the North
court. The living room is square, usually contains the staircase, and is flanked Suburb abut against the northern side of the structure.
on one or both sides by one or more narrow rooms. It can also contain two
false-doors, a column, and a brick-lined cellarette; it is paved in brick. To the THE CENTRAL BLOCK. A group of buildings containing a large house with two
rear are two adjacent rooms. The architect succeeded in introducing certain halls (Q.42.2) and a small one (Q42.6) cover the western area of the block.
elements of comfort without disregarding the basic factor of economy. The eastern group also contains a house and other buildings showing a central
hall with one column surrounded by rooms.
THE RECORDS OFFICE.120 The buildings are more or less aligned along three
streets running N.-S. and situated to the east of the King's House. Most of the THE EASTERN BLOCK. Among some buildings of the ordinary house type are two
buildings open West. (42.33; 42.8) featuring a special plan: a hall with one central row of square
pillars, set longitudinally or transversely, has two or three rooms at its rear. On
THE FOREIGN OFFICE. This is the westernmost block, consisting of five contig-
both sides of each room is a series of boxes, probably to store papyri. This type
uous buildings of the same depth, but varying in width. They have been
of building reminds one of the Chancery of the time of Ramses II as repre-
identified as the Foreign Office, from the famous 'Amarna Letters or cunei-
sented by a contemporaneous Egyptian drawing.1 21 Other scattered houses are
form tablets (which were sent to Egypt from northern Syria as diplomatic
built to the east of these blocks. It seems from the occurrence of a number of
correspondence) found therein.
small gypsum coins inscribed with a typical text such as "Month X of season Y
The second block from the north is the best preserved and is entered
day Z: gypsum of Akhetaten" that they were specimens submitted for inspec-
from the front west fas:ade through a doorway behind a screen wall. This
tion in these offices, which could have been some kind of Office of Works.
winding entrance device is intended to insure privacy and to help guard the
doorway. A waiting hall with two columns and two small rooms at the rear
are first encountered from the lobby/ Around the next large hall are three long
THE MAGAZINES
rooms and a set of chambers, perhaps the quarters of some permanent official
in charge. Connected to the large hall is a long court flanked with two series of
The magazines attached to the state or royal buildings, such as the Royal
five rooms. The eastern ones are divided into two by transverse walls and the
Palace, the King's House, the Temple, and the Sanctuary, were mostly located
northernmost has a dais around it. An interesting feature is the provision
behind these buildings and in the neighborhood of the Royal Road. Those of
against f~eft and for guarding the building by means of a double enc~os~re
the Great Temple were the most extensive and were built, as were those of the
embodying an ambulatory along the back of the western rooms. A s1m1lar
Sanctuary, to the south of the temple enclosure and parallel to its axis. The
provision is featured in the next building where the baCk wall of two of the
magazines of the later mortuary temples at Thebes (Ramses II, Ramses III),
rooms was thickened.
although quite similar to the 'Amarna ones, differ in that they surround the
The Records Office (Egyptian "House-of-Correspondence-of-Pharaoh")
temple within the rectangular enclosure, a feature probably due to their
occurs as a separate unit to the south of the series and is bordered by a isolation in the desert.
transverse alley. It is divided into two parts by a N.-S. wall. The east group of
The general type of magazine reminds one of that represented in the
rooms, entered from the east, has a central room with a staircase and a room
'Amarna tombs or at Thebes. A long court is flanked by two rows of contig-
with two ovens. The western four rooms are entered from a western doorway.
uous deep chambers, the whole being enclosed within a rectangular wall.
THE "HousE-oF-LIFE." This seems to have been a combination of school and
scriptorium where sacred books were copied by the scribes. The buildings are
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 121

T HE G REAT T EMPLE MAGAZINES "THE- K A-OF-R E'-LIVES. " 122 Ab out 30 meters
south of the temenos wall of the Great Temple and parallel to its axis stretch
the 250-meter long magazines (fig. 75). The main body assumes the shape of
three rows of attached rooms opening north into three long courts E.-W. A
large court N .-S., bordered to the west by some domestic buildings, gave access
from the Royal Road to the three magazine courts .

L
.;
0.. STOREHOUSES "RICH-IN-PROVISIONS" BETWEEN THE TEMPLE MAGAZINES AND THE
s
Q)
ROYAL ESTATE. 123 There are three blocks separated by transverse walls N.-S.
E-<
...,
ell Nothing of the fas:ade on the Royal Road remains .
...
Q)

)III () The western block features a large central court bordered on the eastern

•
Q)

-B side by a row of very deep contiguous storage rooms. Others, heavily built
"O
c:: (S.), seem to have been underground cellars (fig. 75) .
ell
Q)
The central block, accessible through an elaborate gateway from the
"'0
::l
north, consists also of a large court with magazines (N.E.), ovens, paddocks
:r:
"'
" bf)
for animals, and a little house on no regular layout.
c:: The eastern block is separated from the central one by a passage and seems
i:2
Q) to have had two pathways (N.-S. in the S.E. corner) along which stood a row
1 -B
c::Q) of buildings and several others on no definite plan. The type of building con-

I::=
Q)
sists of a square court sometimes surrounded by a row of piers and deep rooms
~Q)
,..0 (bakery, stalls).
"'Q)
c::
.N
ell
bf)
THE MAGAZINES IN THE OFFICIAL PALACE. 124 Along the Royal Road south of the
ell

0
0
E
s
Q)
bridge stretch the three blocks forming the magazines of the palace. The
-B northern one has a plan symmetrical about a N.-S. axis : a passage flanked by
'"'0"" two square rooms with four columns each and smaller chambers, and a court
~
0
;>..
with a row of five magazines on each side (fig. 76: r).
ell
....:i The central block seems to have been originally planned symmetrically .
~
tA
('"-. A large court is flanked by a row of six magazines to the east and five
=-
::2':
shortened ones to the west. A central hall with columns seems to be part of the
transverse hall of the southern block. On either side a group of four storerooms
0 ~

<I
~ is laid south of a court with two rows of piers.
=
"-"
The southern block comprises a transverse hall with two rows of wooden
columns, connected to a hall (N.-S.) having brick piers. This southern hall is
D._ bordered by a group of two eastern series of magazines on both sides of a
central corridor and on the west by one row of magazines along a corridor.
 122 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 123

THE MAGAZINES OF THE SANCTUARY.126 The buildings to the south of the sanc-
tuary are entered directly from the Royal Road and consist of a court con-
nected with an E.-W. passage bordered by storerooms, each with an oven in
the rear. To the south a series of contiguous houses of the workmen's village
type open on an alley and probably formed the priests' quarters (.fig. 76 :2) .
Another separate block to the east has a central court bordered with
storerooms. Houses for the priests adjoin it to the east. These magazines were
"The (-Storehouse )-of-the-Service-of-the-Aten."
~ l------1:....!r------i ..------ THE MAGAZINES OF THE MILITARY AND POLICE QUARTERS. 127 An independent -
L..--~---L~~-'-~~-'-~~'--~---'-~~-'-~~-'-~-B~O m block surrounded by an irregular enclosure stands to the west of the military
quarters. A central square courtyard is connected to the west with a large
court. On the north of the smaller one a hall with pillars is flanked by
storerooms of the usual type. To the south a large pillared room, probably a
barn, is bordered on its rear by magazines.
PAIRED SILOS (souTH OF THE CITY). 128 Two large silos on a circular plan (26 ft.
6 in. [8.07 m.] and 29 ft. I I in. [9.I8 m.J diam.) were found to the south of the
city (.fig. 77). They are paired and a long ramp approaches them from the
north, rising approximately to 25 feet (7.62 m .) on a length of rno feet (30.48
76. Magazines of ( 1) the Great Palace and of ( 2) the sanctuary and priests' quarters. m.). Petrie calculated that they could have stored an amount of grain (about 20
ft. [6.1 m.] high) sufficient for 3,000 to 4,000 people, equivalent to the whole
city's requirement for one year.
Shelves are .fixed in the central axis and along the sides of the magazines.
A passage runs between the central block, the southern block, and the
77. Plan of paired silos at 'Amarna.
enclosure wall to the east and the Coronation Hall to the south.
THE MAGAZINES oF THE ROYAL ESTATE. 125 These extend to the east of the King's
House and its garden. A central alley (E.-W.) between IJVO walls separates the
buildings into two groups, quite similar and on the same plan, although the
northern one stretches farther. A central court is flanked to the east and the D
west by a row of very deep storerooms, some with brick supports for shelves D
(E.) and others with a screen wall behind the doorway (W.) . The last D
compartment to the south contains a staircase ascending to the roof. An
ambulatory runs along the west side of the north group. Trees were planted in
the northern court and there seems to have been a pond ( ?) or a well.
The comparison of this building with the drawing from the tomb of
Mery re' (see .fig. 14) reveals a strong general similarity.
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE 125

Ovens

In two of the houses (0 49, 9; P 47, 20) 129 remains of ovens set in series in the
court were found (fig. 78) . The basic element is a cylinder partly sunk in the
ground and open at the top. A brushwood fire was lit at the bottom from a
relatively small round opening and the loaves to be baked were set on a clay
disk fixed at some height above. Care was taken to insulate the cylinder. In
one oven the insulation consists of brickwork rings ( i.05 m. diam.), half a
brick thick with four bricks protruding on the inside as brackets to support
,"~' ¥.I~/: ,.~ :·· .- ' . ,s·: ~· ~
' • • , " ' ,; 11 ., , I

the disk. In the other oven there is an inner cylinder of clay (0.65 m. diam.),
W7////fl///,f;W13}'$/z)dfxfit#/
slightly curved inward at the top, coated on the front side with a thick layer of
OVtN} <iMARNA MOUHJ> mud, and surrounded to the rear by a filling and a brick wall. The inner
cylinder was formed in situ from clay and was partly baked through usage.
78. Plans and sections of ovens in houses at 'Amarna.
This type of clay oven is still used today in Upper Egypt where women build
and work it.
79. Plans of the ground floor and upper floor in house No. 1 in the fortress at Kuban, and
details of springing of arches and fire pan .

UPPrR :------ The Military and Police Quarters 130

~ flO OR::

~d r-,---;F-'T"= To the southeast of the Central City are two large blocks on a rectangular plan,

W !:::::1Wt~ -~_
laid out at right angles to each other. These are presumably the military and
police quarters, to which a third block of magazines is appended (seep. 123).
The military quarters (N.-S.) consist of four units set side by side and

O c::=J D
1• 1,
jj
•:!,-----,,.--------,,
separated by transverse passages. It seems that each unit features basically a
I
I
II
II
11
; I
1
: I
l1 t I court, a large pillared hall, and a series of contiguous deep rooms, probably
p I I
JPRIN(IN(OfARlnrl I II ,, ,,
(\\\
II
: l- -:~:::.:~:: :::~'.:":::·_-'_L_:-_::::::::J
,,
magazines. The southernmost unit is planned symmetrically and features a
~ --- o tom small lobby connected to an ambulatory running around the whole building,
presumably for guards. An open court flanked by two others, paved with brick,
BI
precedes the large hall, with two rows of columns bordering the central aisle
and three rows of five piers each on either side. The plan suggests that of a

DDBD D basilica. The rear part of this building is a sunken court bordered with a
portico on pillars and flanked on both sides by a row of contiguous deep rooms.

§~gQ
The police barracks, identified as such on account of the extensive ac-
commodation for horses, is on a rectangular plan (E.-W.) . The entrance leads
into a large central court, surrounded by mangers and tethering stones with a
GROUND
r\Rt"P~N f l DO R row of deep contiguous stables on the east and a secondary court with two
 126 II: DOMEST IC ARCHIT ECTURE II: DOMEST IC ARCHIT ECTURE 127

series of deep paved rooms, "the dormitories." A small house of the usual villa
type and stores occupy a corner of the section.

HousE IN THE FORTRESS oF KuBAN (NuB1A).131 The outer walls of a building

from the Middle Kingdom in the northeast corner of the fortress were used for
this house (No. I), but the interior was altered, transforming the ground floor
into granaries (fig. 79) . A corridor runs along the north side and ends in a stair-
way leading up to the first floor. A small room near the entrance doorway on the n
west side was perhaps used as a guardroom. No doorways, except one in the
latter room, are to be seen in the ground floor. The rooms, in two series along
the longitudinal axis, are covered with brick vaults and were probably used as
granaries and entered from trap doors in the ceiling. Bin compartments coated
with white plaster were built in some of the granaries. The first floor had a
....
•
_ ____.I _l- - - -
~-------------------------....,..._
passage from which opened five contiguous rooms, each divided by transverse
walls into two or more. The stairs are blocks of stone set on a brick foundation.
There is an instance of a small lobby that separates the two sections of one
room and which is accompanied by an adjacent bin, an ingenious planning
device still in favor in modern design.

HousE IN THE FORTIFIED TOWN OF M1'M ('ANIBA IN NuBIA). Certain data

132

allow for the surmise that an area of the town of Mi'm was built up with small
houses (ea. 50- 100 sq. m.) similar to those in the North Suburb of 'Amarna.
Remains of larger houses, quite similar to those at 'Amarna, were also found.
One complete plan could be restored. It resembles villa Q-46.1 at 'Amarna, is
rectangular (25 x 17 = 425 sq. m.), and oriented N .W.-S.E. It presents the
familiar features of a north porch, a north broad hall with three columns, and
a central hall with two columns flanked by lateral chambers. The rear part
of the plan consists of a square hall with one column• and adjacent rooms
(fig. 80, upper plan).
A few stone doorjambs are inscribed with various interesting greetings
Bo. Plans of a large mansion (upper figure) in the town
and wishes for the welfare of the inhabitants and their visitors, similar to those
of Mi'm and magazines outside the town.
on 'Amarna houses: "May Amun-Re', Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands,
give life, prosperity, health, joy, favor and love .. ."; "Mayest thou enter into
this house, being healthy. May he live the one who remains...." deep rooms (I 3·7 x 3 m.), directed E.-W ., with thick brick walls ( 1.95- 1. 1 m.)
and entered through a central doorway ( 0.7 m. wide) with an inscribed
MAGAZINES.132 Outside the town of Mi'm stretches a group of contiguous doorframe in stone. The structure was probably roofed over with vaults and
buildings, probably magazines from the time of Thutmose III. They consist of paved with mud, sandstone slabs, or brick.
 128 II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 129

THE GRANARIES AND MAGAZINES

7 ----~~-- --,?"

No practical information can be derived from the texts, which mention em-
phatically that the granaries, magazines, and storehouses are well supplied.
I~",.: '\ ., //
..
Ramses III says to Min, the god of cosmic fertility: "I bring to thee the tribute
: . ______ ,I
- - - - - - -- - -
v
' '1 f- ::::::~:-1:
v

~ \T~
of every land, in order to flood thy treasury and thy storehouse .. . . I multiply
for thee wheat in heaps, thy granary approaches heaven." 134 The same phar-
aoh is said to be busy," ... making for him [Amun] a very great granary,
. h eaps approac h h eaven. " 1 35
w h ose gram-
It is happy that this inchoate information is complemented by that
derived from the paintings in the tombs, the more so since few traces of such
82. Ad jacent silos surmounted by a platform.
;tructures built in brick or even in mud or stalks have withstood erosion
during scores of centuries.
1. The independent silo probably in mud or brickwork, is commonly
used and occurs in groups of two to five, arranged in a square courtyard with
REPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE scalloped cresting. Such is the aspect of the court in Pehsukher's tomb (Thut-
mose III; fig. Sr), where two servants at the top of two ladders are pouring
The Granaries 136 grain through the upper aperture of two huge silos. A smaller silo is repre-
sented in the tomb of Nebamun, and servants walk up a few steps in rammed
The two types kn9wn to have existed in the Middle Kingdom are still used in earth or brickwork to fill in grain through a squared door at mid-height. A
the New Kingdom : the silo as an independent unit and the series of silos. wooden frame usually surrounds the aperture. From the size of the figures,
although this is by no means a precise unit of comparison in Egyptian draw-
ings, it can be deduced that the silos could reach r.5- 2.5 meters in diameter and
81. Representation of a court with silos fr om the
tomb of Pehsukher. 3- 5 meters in height. At 'Amarna the diameters of the silos range from 2.5 to 8
meters (8.9 m. at Medinet Habu) . The two silos in the land house of Ineny
could well have been of such a large size.
2 . Series of adjacent silos, covered with a terrace, a type known from the

Middle Kingdom, are still in use. A stairway, probably on a wooden frame,

ascends from one end and the square apertures open at mid-height (fig. 82).
In such large estates as those that depended from the treasury, grain was
piled up on threshing floors of mud bordered by a rim and set in the court-
yards. Such is the case in the granaries at 'Amarna, where two courts enclosed
within walls and accessible through corniced doorways contain no fewer than
eight such heaps (fig. 83).
130 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE

J
85. Plan of three adjacent magazines from the tomb
of Amenmose.

. 137
Th e M agazznes

83. Heaps of grain on a circular platform within copings. In the large estates, royal, private, or depending from the temples, the valuable
goods are stored in magazines. Those of the pharaohs and the temples are said
84. Typical fa<;:ades of storerooms in the temple of Amun from the to be well provided with prisoners of war.
tomb of Rekhmire'.
THE MAGAZINES OF THE TEMPLE OF AMUN (FROM THE TOMB OF REKHMIRE').
Series of separate fac;ades of two types, with corniced top and torus molding or
with flat vault and a central doorway, are set side by side. The inscription
above the door of each gives the name "Double-House-of-Silver" or "Maga-
•
zines-of-the-Temple." They must have represented the narrow fac;ades, per-
haps in stone, of deep rectangular storage rooms (fig. 84).

MAGAZINES OF AMENMOSE. This interesting drawing gives the plan of three

rectangular adjacent rooms, each with its door rabatted in one corner and its
flat vault represented in section at the other end (fig. 85).
MAGAZINES AND POULTRY YARD (STELA 5412, FLORENCE MusEuM). Although less
than half the scene from this stela of the reign of Amenhotep IV remains,
there is still sufficient evidence for a fairly sure restoration. On either side of a
---- -------- -- ---------
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE ------ 133

86. Plan of magazines and poultry yard represented on Stela 5412 (Florence Museum) .

87 . Restored bird's-eye view of the magazines and poultry yard .

{'~
_., _ . +
~ ,_..;f . ~--------~
--~ r·>i-;.~ -~. '\.-~---:--/~ ~:~ -~ - - 88. Sectional view of two gabled sheds from the tomb,,.. of Horemheb.
·~ ·

central court, with an entrance doorway at one end and a stela flanked by two
statues of Renenut, the serpent goddess of harvest, at the other end, are four
doors that open onto contiguous magazines, probably vaulted (figs. 86, 87) . In
the court next to it a central basin with stepped sides shown in plan is
surrounded by a portico on columns, shown rabatted. This court is a form
evolved from the simple poultry yard already represented in the tombs of the
Old Kingdom (Ti at Saqqara). 138

SHED (HoREMHEB). Two sheds roofed over with a gable upon a central row
of columns and accessible through a side door contain pottery and pieces of
furniture (fig. 88). The structural principle of the gable, here possibly treated
as a wooden truss, was well known from archaic architecture and was exten-
sively used in the stone pent roof of the inner apartments in the pyramids and
tombs of the Old and Middle kingdoms.
 134 II: DOMES TIC ARCHI TECTU RE
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89. Suggested plan of the magazine s of the temple of the Aten at 'Amarna, from the
sentations.

MAGAZINES OF THE TEMPLE OF ATEN ('AMARNA) . A large squarish enclosure,

accessible on one side through three doorways, contains a group of six long,
narrow, contiguous rooms set in each of the four corners. Along the two
central axes are four courtyar ds. Just behind the entrance is a kiosk, and in
each of the side courts two porticoes on bundle columns front the fac;ades of the
two magazines. The drawing is a plan showing rabatted doors, fac;ades of
kiosks, trees, and stored goods (fig. 89) .
MAGAZINES OF THE TEMPLE AT KARNAK (TOMB oF NEFERHOTEP). The plan
represents a court with officials, scribes, and caskets for papyri and a second
court with the magazin es. A transverse corridor separates both sections and
achieves the same security purpose as the ambulato ry running along the front
of the harem building s or at the back of temples. A peculiari ty of the draftsma n-
ship is the represen tation of partition walls between the adjacent rooms and
the roof in section by means of two parallel lines. Could these be interpret ed as
represen ting double walls enclosing a filling as a precautio n against robbers
(fig. 90)?
 II : DOME STIC ARCH ITECT URE 137

D
CJ

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9r. Plan of the chancery office under Ramses II, from

the tomb of Tjoy and its interpre tation.

represents
THE CHANCERY OFFICE UNDER RAMSES II (TOMB OF TJoY) . This scene
ely rare
the column s in section for the shaft and in plan for the base, an extrem
is a long rectang le
instance quite similar to moder n projection. The plan
t. The
divided transversely into three sections, the rear one being the smalles
portico under
first one is a courtyard border ed on either side by a column ed
ablutions is
which are set the desks and seats of ten officials . A water basin for
is a large
shown to the left of the entranc e door (fig. 91). The second part
back. Three
hypostyle hall with sixteen columns and a raised portico at the
to the ape
contiguous rooms open off the hall, the central one being a shrine
caskets for
god Thot, patron of learnin g, while the two lateral ones contain the
the archives.

Wine Presses

usually
In vintage scenes from tombs a represe ntation of the wine press is
ve garden
included. In Parenn efer's estate vines grow on a pergola, an attracti
ed and
feature with slender open papyri form columns. The grapes are gather
press itself, press and vine.
stored in a large L-shaped trough (fig. 92). Nearby is the wine 92. Murals represen ting Nakht's wine press and Parenne fer's wine
 138 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 139

consisting of a basin on a quadrangular plan under a baldachino with four

open papyriform columns. The top of each side of the basin seems to be curved
and to rise at both ends, although this peculiarity has been tentatively inter-
preted as an attempt at showing in perspective the circular shape of the pile of
grapes.139 The grapes are trodden under foot by two groups of workmen facing
each other and keeping their equilibrium by holding fast to the ropes hanging
from the roof. In the middle a singer, holding his left hand on his ear, chants
some merry vintage song. A collecting basin abuts on one side of the structure
and is represented on a square plan. Juice pouring from a vent in it is collected
and stored in large earthenware vessels, while the trodden mass is submitted at
another end of the vineyard to a second pressing in a bag twisted by hand
spikes.

EXAMPLES OF MAGAZINES, SILOS, AND OVENS

Every temple had its own dependencies, which consisted of extensive maga-
zines and storehouses as well as granaries, laid out within areas surrounded by
enclosure walls. Such remains have been excavated in practically every temple
and they corroborate the information derived from the study of contempora-
neous representations. The type of granary in such public dependencies is on a
rectangular plan, usually set on either side of a courtyard and probably roofed
over with vaults.
In private estates remains of granaries and other dependencies are also
found and the evidence from 'Amarna and Medinet Habu proves that the type
H
of granary in favor was the silo, built either as an independent unit or set in pairs
with winding stairways rising between both structures. •
The material commonly used is brick, probably plastered and white-
washed.

MAGAZINES IN THE TEMPLE OF AY-HOREMHEB (MEDINET HABU).140 Adjoining

0 - 350 - AY
HORcMHEB

the temple of Horemheb are magazines that contained jars. The plan is of the -----i I1 - 4.50

L--~~--.__~____: IL-~~r-~~----J
regular type: a central pathway (8.7 m. wide) runs parallel to the temple and
is flanked by two rows of deep, narrow rooms (3.15 m. [ 6 cubits] wide), built -4.80

in brick and probably vaulted (fig. 93).

93· Plan of the temple and the temple palace of Ay, with additions by Horemheb at
Medinet Habu.
 140 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE 141

passages instead of one. Against the middle of the rear wall of the court there
is a limestone dais (3.28 m. broad, I.63 m. deep, 0.41 m. high) accessible from
two steps with lateral walls topped with a cavetto cornice. A recess in the middle
~
- of the rear wall may have contained a false-door, an arrangement typical for a
shrine or a throne dais. The column (ea. 5 m. high) is a 24-sided shaft built in
four drums on a base topped with an abacus. Four of the faces at right angles
are double the width of the others and are inscribed with propitiatory epithets
of Seti I. The abacus (98 x 98 x 45 cm.) was inscribed with the cartouches. As
llooo the span between the columns on either side of the axis is 3 meters instead of
' "o o
ago~
the regular intercolumniation of I.9 meters, it may have been that the portico
was interrupted to clear the entrance doorway and the dais, a solution typical
L
D
for the larger peristyle courts in the temples ( cf. Luxor). The brick walls were
plastered and painted with brilliant colors, as were the inscribed doorways of
D limestone and the transom windows above their lintels and cornices. The
window was a monolithic block of limestone cut as an openwork grating (bar
43.5 cm. high, 7 cm. wide, 18 cm. deep).
The passages were painted with elaborate geometric patterns in color
framed within vertical inscriptions above a dado of djed signs in whitewash.
94. Plan of some magazines of the temple of Seti I at Abydos and restored perspective of The walls were of the same brickwork as the girdle wall, but the laminated
the court. vaults were of a special curved type ( 60 x 22 x 7.5 cm.).
The remaining area within the girdle wall behind the temple and on its
MAGAZINES IN THE TEMPLE OF SETI I AT ABYDOS.141 Recent excavation of the area north side must have featured other magazines as was the case in the mortuary
adjacent to the southeast of the temple of Seti I uncovered a terrace fronting temples of Ramses II and Ramses III in Western Thebes. The identification of
the first pylon, and the southeast corner of the girdle wall (5 m. thick) in the present complex as a temple palace on a false analogy with the typical one
brick (40 x 20 x 15 cm.) strengthened with buttresses (section 4.7 x 2.I5 m.). in the mortuary temples cannot be defended.
This wall starts from the small end of the first pylon, proceeds on the same
alignment, then turns at right angles southwest (fig. 9~. It encloses a group THE MAGAZINES OF THE RAMESSEUM.142 These magazines are famous on account
( 103 x 60 m.) of magazines very similar to the one in the longitudinal axis, of their extensive area (about thrice that of the temple) and their fair state of
behind the mortuary temple of Ramses II (Ramesseum). It consists of two preservation. They extend between the temple and the large rectangular enclo-
series of long narrow vaulted contiguous rooms (37.5 x 3.50 m.), each accessi- sure, and are accessible from a street around the temple which opens in the
ble from a passage (39 x 6.6 m. east; 39 x 6.8 m. west) starting from the rear of front side of the enclosure wall, north of the pylon.
a peristyle court (13.5 x 16 m.) with 10 limestone columns just behind the only Three groups of magazines can be differentiated. The one to the north of
entrance to the complex. On either side of the court is a room similar to those the temple consists of two separate enclosures, contemporaneous and adjacent.
of the magazines adjacent to another twice its width ( 6 m.). A central pathway 6.5 meters wide, covered in one case (N.-S.) , is flanked by
This plan differs from that of the Ramesseum in having a court paved two series of contiguous rooms (3.2 m . wide, 3.5 m. high) , roofed over with
with brick ( 44 x 44 x 16 cm.) instead of a columned vestibule, and two parallel parabolic vaults. One stairway rises in the west magazine to the common
 142 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 143

terrace, while the other magazine has two opposite stairways (fig. 95). ... --
.- ..-
~ I

To the south of the temple two smaller magazines are of one single type :
I
:::! = ·- I

..--
~

a square vestibule in stone, roofed over with a wooden ceiling, is flanked by

- I
:;
- :;
.. -- I
two courts and opens into a central corridor bordered by two series of contig- -
::;;:::;
- .-
uous rooms. The floor is of stone slabs.
To the west, at the back of the temple, are two large and one smaller set BJL~
-
;::;

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•...•..•.•.•.•...
I

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.-
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of magazines. The one in the axis of the temple is the most impressive, having J =
;::; I
:k
I

a square, columned vestibule with corresponding pilasters which is connected

I
I
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I
I
I ..-
• 1

·L
- I
I
to a central corridor flanked by two series of deep rooms (3.7 m. wide, 3.8 m. I I
:r- I

high). Apertures probably framed with stone and covered are set every 6 Cil.C - ..
M ~
I .: !...
::: I
I

. I
meters along the crown of the vaults to allow for filling. The large magazine
to the northwest consists of a row of very deep rooms (3.7 m. wide, 4.5 m.
high), faced with a portico on columns. Apertures are provided every 6.3
meters in the crown of the vaults for charging the magazines. At the rear end
; ..
::
: ..
~

l~~l JlJl ~c
11§1.
-
-------
------- - ---

of this portico a dais was set, perhaps for an official or a shrine. In the middle .JI 11 ...
~lrlr
.I 11
"'c:
of the row is a large hall with two series of columns and corresponding lflr r :1 JI ;11 11 Jr;Jr;J

pilasters probably roofed over with three parallel vaults on stone architraves. I
~

Certain characteristics are common to all these structures: they are built
of brick, thinner for the vaults (34 x 17 x 5 cm.) than for the walls (38 x 18 x l~~~!l~l~~·- -" _.._ ..... - ..... ..... .._ ......
11 cm.), with rough grooves to afford a grip (pl. 7). Doorframes, as well as
Hlf lf ltvll
:;_
j
sills, are of stone. Floors are of stone or square brick slabs ( 40 cm.). SETI I '

It is noteworthy that symmetry plays an important role in the layout.

1 '
::

--
Thus, in the magazine to the north it was even thought necessary to cut niches
RAMESSEUM - I

corresponding to the series of doorways in the side wall of the stairway. Such a
strict observance of symmetry was usual in the sophisticated villas at 'Amarna. 1
I 11 ;::::::::::
~-

""'
The correspondence of this archaeological evidence with the graphical I

evidence speaks for the efficacy of Egyptian methods of .graphical representa- r===<
tion, so often disparaged by modern commentators. I

I
ADMINISTRATION BUILDINGS, MAGAZINES, WELLS (MORTUARY TEMPLE OF RAMSES
III AT MEDINET HABU). 143 The temple is the central item in the general layout
of the inner complex, enclosed within a strictly symmetrical wall on a rectan-
PALACE
\
0
gular plan ( 136 x 171 m .), with protruding towers, much like a fortified
structure. ,1
As in the Ramesseum a street, 3- 3.5 meters wide, paved with stone
I I ~.-- 0 40m I
surrounds the three sides of the temple and isolates it from its dependencies
95. Plan of the magazines of the Ramesseum.
 144 II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 145

-
s - N
TEMPLE -

WfLL
0
r---,
'
'
;-·pool--1
t...-------.J

Plate 7. Magazin es of the Ramesseum.

PALACE

Habu.
96. Plan of the dependencies around the temple of Ramses III at Medinet
 146 II: DOMESTI C ARCHITE CTURE II: DOMESTI C ARCHITE CTURE 147

(fig. 96). This street was accessible through a gateway north of the pylon and deviate from the temple axis by the same angle. The third well was in the
a second one in the rear side of the enclosure. These dependencies feature shape of a vertical cylindrical shaft. They were built of large stone blocks,
various groups of buildings which cover the area between the ambulatory and roofed over with slabs and lit through apertures in the slabs or from a special
the enclosure. Just beyond the front entrance a group named "Administration vertical light shaft. In one of the wells the first Bight is built partly above
Buildings" consists of a columned hall Banked on both sides by three rooms gr?und and carefully decorated with low reliefs representing a winding
and separated by a long transverse passage from the back of a row of five wmged uraeus snake and a Nile god.
adjacent rooms. S1ws AT MEDINET HABU.144 Beneath the temple of Ay there were two brick silos
Another building similar to the chancery office of Ramses II depicted in ( 2 bricks thick) on a circular plan and roofed over with catenary domes. The
the tomb of Tjoy consists of a court, a columned hall and three contiguous larg~r one (8.9 m. diam.) is nearly the same size as that at 'Amarna. It is partly
chambers at the back. cut m the bedrock, lined with brick (31 x 15 x 8 cm.-34 x 16 x 9 cm.) and
Although the magazines vary in size, they all ·have the same layout: a plastered. It has been calculated that such a silo, filled to 7- 8 meters of its
central passage (N.-S.) is Banked by a series of contiguous rooms, sometimes height, would contain about 400 cubic meters (fig. 98).
very deep and narrow and certainly vaulted. A staircase is located near the
entrance on the ambulatory street.
A few of the rooms where a bench or a stone table was found could have
been workshops depending from the temple. Some were paved in stone. 98. Plan and section of a large silo (before Ay) and series of six ovens (before Ramses III)
at Medinet Habu, and paintings from the tomb of Ramses III representing two ovens.
Three wells (fig. 97) were used in the inner area, two having staircases
descending to the water in three Bights at right angles. Both of these wells .. --- .....

,/'/ '\
I \

97. Plans and sections of two wells in the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu. I ' ' '

I
/ \ I
I \
I \
I \
I \

~ ____;§;:- --=:=:~j ;;
PAINTIN ~ J or 1 OVlHJ CHAT rno ! TMlDJNn mu
TOMB Of RAM HJ Ill CB!fOOI AYl

Ll..

0
 148 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE

Ovens 145

A series of six large earthenware vessels partly sunk into the ground, with a
hole at mid-height, and coated with clay and crushed brick were used as ovens.
Such an installation is very similar to the eneolithic one at Abydos, 146 in spite
of the long period separating both installations. Two paintings from the tomb
of Ramses III represent this type of separate oven with curving outline,
plastered with mud rings alternatively light and dark blue, or even white-
washed.147

THE ACHIEVEME NT OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE

The New Kingdom is marked historically by the rise of the large capital at
Thebes. According to the idyllic praise given to Thebes by Egyptian texts its
dazzling splendor must have borrowed from all those contemporaneous cul-
tures- Asiatic, Aegean, and Nubian- which had at some time or other come
into contact with the Empire of Egypt through war or trade. The achievement
of domestic architecture is relatively well defined through evidence from texts
and representations of houses and palaces and dependencies in tombs, but
mainly through substantial remains outside Thebes. The period of 'Amarna
was a unique interlude in the history of the Egyptian Empire, its culture, and
its architecture. It is quite easy to recognize the influence of this rich experi-
ence of individualism in later dwellings at Thebes.
On the expensive land of Thebes the town house was probably a three-
storied structure with weaving and bakery installations in the basement,
stately reception rooms on the ground Boor- the piano 11obile of the house of a
grandee at that time- private apartments on the first Boor, and silos, some-
times with a pergola, on the terrace. A few trees or shrubs growing in brick
containers in the lane along the fas:ade formed a meager substitute for the
beloved garden of Egyptian country houses. A staircase provided access to the
CoLoR PLA.TE v. Restored painted pavement in the central palace of Akhenaten at 'Amarna (see
various Boors. This picture of a typical town house is essentially derived from p. 84) . This pavement was that of the ha ll with eight columns south of the garden court in the
representations in the tombs in Western Thebes. Definite information about north harem, in the official palace. Only the eastern half of the area is copied. The strip along the
c.enter of the hall represents bows symbolizing the traditional enemies of Egypt and bound captives
sanitary equipment is lacking. It is safe enough, however, to assume some hke those on the steps to the throne dais, alternatively facing the northern and southern doorways.
provision in this respect, on the analogy of that found in contemporaneous Each h.alf of the pavement consists of a rectangula r pond blue with black ripples, lotus, fish
sw1mmmg and ducks alighting surrounded with thickets of greenery and birds shown in rabatte-
houses adjoining Theban palaces or in 'Amarna.
ment on the four sides between the bases of the columns. Beyond a second similar row of thickets
with birds a border of stiff ceremonial bouquets of flowers alternating with stands of offerings
surrounds the whole composition. This composition is of the same type as those of mural paintings
depictmg gardens in the private tombs of Thebes. The colors used are subdued hues of greenish
blue and black within yellow frames enlivened with occasional dots of red. The painting in tem-
pera on plaster must have easily worn out and had to be frequently restored. Similar pavement
paintings occurred in the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata, in the columned hall of the harem
(see color plate III), and in the audience chambers (2 and 3) .
CoLOR PLATE V I. Restored perspective of the main hall in the villa of General Ra'mose at 'Amarna
(seep. 94). Although n ot one of the largest, this villa in Cen tral City is of interest on account of
its relatively well preserved walls (to the height of r m .) illustrating the typical features of that
category of man sion. T he main hall is square (7 m .), echoing in the
geometrical center of the plan the square outline of the house (21 x
2 1.5 m.; see adjoining fig.) . When looking between the two eastern
colu mns one sees behind the two other columns the western wall de-
signed symmetricall y, featuring a double fal se-door of pinki sh stone in-
scribed with hymns to the Aten, flanked left by the doorway to the
western reception room and right by a niche imi tating that doorway.
Two clerestory windows open in a garland just beneath the ceiling
pain ted a bright blue. A platform in limestone with one step, a parapet,
and a d rainage hole in the fron t right corn er ser ves as a stand for the
water jugs and as a place for ablutions before and after meals. T hese
meals are taken by the family on the dais against the sou th wall, the
usual sitting place during the day. On either side of the dais a doorway zo m
opens on the priva te apartments of Ra'mose (right) and his fa m ily
(left) . The palrniform columns are in wood painted red for the shaft
and brig h t green for the palms, and stand on broad bases of limestone. A cavetto cornice sur-
mounts the lin tels and horizontal painted panels in sequence decorate the inner side of the door-
jambs. T he strict symmetry tha t governs the composi tion, even to have opposed walls exactly
simi lar, is typical for the villa at 'Amarna.
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 149

For the country, architects devised other types of houses to answer the
needs of the different program. Rich people could afford large land houses in
formal gardens with an artificial pond, a kiosk, and numerous and varied trees
surrounded by an enclosure wall. T he house was separate from its dependen-
cies and would comprise as living quarters a reception room, a living room,
and one or more bedrooms.
When the master visited his lands he could find adequate, though simple,
accommodation for a few days in a small rest house, characterized by a pair of
ventilators opening on the roof.
The 'Amarna period was to innovate a type of extensive mansion or
"villa" adapted to the new environment. As desert ground was less valuable,
there was one main floor and additional apartments on the terrace, while the
dependencies were in the form of outbuildings within an enclosure. No gar-
den, or a very slight one, could be grown. Among the elements constantly used
are the window of appearance in the palaces, and the broad hall and deep hall
in the villas. The broad hall was probably an open loggia, facing north or west
and surmounted by an upper similar room on the first floor.
Texts describe the lavish splendor and huge scale of the palaces at
Thebes. Even the house of the High Priest of Amun and the refectory would
have been given such rich finishings as cedarwood doors with gold inlays and
carved stone. That this was no idle talk is proved by the extensive and
CoLoR PLATE v11. Restored model of a temple to Re'H orakhty-Atum by Seti I (Brooklyn Museum gorgeous remains found in the excavations, whether in the residential palaces
acc. no. 66.228; seep. 174). Of the original model only the base in quartzite hollowed with the
socket holes for pieces to be inset subsists (Brooklyn Museum acc. no. 49.1 83, from Tell el Yahu- or the temple palaces on the western bank. Although the latter answered a
diya) . The pieces that were sphinxes, obelisks, statues, and pylon with flagstaffs could be re- definite program restricted to that of a royal rest house near the mortuary
stored and a presumed scale of ea. r : 2 I deduced for them on the evidence derived from com~
parative analysis of monuments of the same period. As to the materials from which they were
temple of the pharaoh, it was nonetheless a substitute for the residential palace
made they are mentioned in the dedicatory inscription on the sides of the base as being of an itself. The symmetrical plan features reception rooms only: portico, window of
unusual type: graywacke for the obelisks, white crystalline stone for the pylon, and mesdet stone appearance, broad hall, and a deep hall used as a throne room and provided
for the flagstaffs. The door is described as lined with copper. The n7odel was designed to abut
against a wall. Only the monumental terraced approach characteristic also for the temple of with a double false-door at the rear. To these would perhaps be appended a
Seti I at Abydos and the pylon fronting a room have been abstracted to represent the whole royal bedroom. T he relatives or retainers accompanying the pharaoh on his
temple, possibly to be used in the found ation ri te 'T o give the house (temple) to its Lord."
visit to the temple would find adequate accommodation in a few suites set as
contiguous units of a uniform plan behind the palace and featuring a vestibule,
a living room, a bedroom, and a bathroom. These could also accommodate the
ladies of the harem ( Medinet H abu) . In the latter site an ambulatory sur-
rounded the whole harem building and numerous doors shut in the inmates.
Such a program here received a most successful solution- very similar, indeed,
to the one in the harem of Xerxes at Persepolis ( 470 B.c.). In the residential
 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECT URE 151
150
palace the harem ladies had contiguous suites on either side of a central hall Very little more than the complexes of the temples is known about the
leading to the throne room and private apartment of Pharaoh. The public capitals of the Empire, Thebes and Avaris. 'Amarna, however, is unique for
apartments for reception and the private ones forming the pharaoh's house ?oth its program and the amount of evidence supplied. There is no symmetry
were set in two groups, each on a symmetrical layout, a momentous achieve- m the town plan, nor does it seem to have been preplanned, although we see
ment in such a large project. In construction and decoration traditional trends provision for traffic, zoning, and emphasis on the central quarter of palaces,
are enriched with new ones acquired from abroad. Walls are lined with stone temples, and official buildings. 'Amarna stands out also in housing, not so
slabs ( r.7 m. high), baths are provided with screen walls and their Boor is a much on account of its momentous achievement as for its unique character of
stone slab with a water-drain. There is a rich decoration of painted stucco on democratization in the programs of middle-class houses and of parsimony for
walls and pavements, fa1ence inlays in colored low-relief scenes or colored those of palaces and public buildings. The main incentive toward this move-
columns with golden bands on their lower part, and paintings on walls and ment, the religion of the Sun disk, was essentially democratic in1 character
ceilings. Many patterns remind one of the Aegean and Nubian styles. since this god dispensed his beneficent rays without distinction of classes or
Town planning seems to have followed the rules already standardized in individuals, the whole day long.
the Middle Kingdom (Lahun) in the fortress cities (Sesebi in the Sudan) or in The palaces in the Central City formed a huge complex with symmetri-
workmen's cities laid out by the State (Eastern Village at 'Amarna). Such a cal groups (servants' quarters, harem, state apartments, bridge with window
layout as that of the workmen's village at Deir el Medina does not seem to be o~ appearance, coronation hall, King's House). Such elements as a square,

the achievement of an architect, though the general arrangement and the plan pillared coronation hall and ramps ascending to the doorways on one side, and
of the contiguous houses are inspired from contemporaneous urbanism. descending from them on the other side, for chariot traffic seem to appear for
Houses on a uniform contiguous plan enjoy much favor in State settlements, the first time and remind one of similar features in Mesopotamian palaces.
where both the orthogonal ('Amarna) and the axial types (Sesebi, Deir el Decoration in palaces shows a mixture of official subjects known in the The-
Medina) of layouts are exemplified. Public facilities such as a public water- ban palaces (panels with plants symbolic of the South and the North) and
supply and cleaning of streets are available (Deir el Medina). scenes of the royal family in the new untraditional naturalistic style. The
The type of standard housing unit was already known in the Fourth King's House proper is no more than a mansion with a nursery.
Dynasty (Khentkawes) and later in the Twelfth Dynasty (Lahun) . It occurs Democratization at 'Amarna is further recognizable in the planning of
in the New Kingdom with a similar treatment of thick walls and labyrinth the villa, embodying the main features of the earlier mansion of the rich. One
plan at Abydos, or evolves into a simpler, nearly symmetrical plan eliminating standard type, varying in scale and detail, is used throughout. Climatic condi-
corridors at Medinet Habu. The most valuable achievement in this domain of tions have led to the elaboration of one or two loggias, set north and west, and
economy is the decrease of the thickness of the wall~ to a strict minimum, several high-roofed halls with clerestory lighting. The private apartments
leading to a rational utilitarian planning of the built-up area. The proportion show a refined and most successful complex of square hall, master's bedroom
of the Boor area to that of the total area reaches 80-90 percent at Sesebi, with alcove surmounted by a ventilator, bathroom, and latrine.
'Amarna, and Deir el Medina, close to that of modern house-planning. The Ingenious planning is conspicuous, not only in villas but in secondary
elements of this "functional" plan are reduced to a vestibule, a living room and programs such as stables for the horses and bakehouses. Stables feature a
twin rear rooms for the bed and the kitchen. Cellars and cellarettes are used built-up manger with tethering-stones on one side and a feeding-passage on
instead of silos. Corridors are nonexistent. Ornamental painting adds its note the opposite side, accessible from outside. A bakehouse (T.36.36) shows the
of cheerful color, despite the modest standard of the house, with patterns and special arrangement of one room for kneading, a second one for exposing
scenes of religious inspiration (altars, niches with stelae, painted scenes) or lay loaves on a rack, and a third one with the ovens. Details such as furniture are
subjects (dancers, fishermen, women at their toilet).
 152 II: DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE II : DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE 153

also treated successfully and are built in (divans, shelves, stoves) as in modern However, the need for economy in no way excluded structural soundness,
architecture. and some new features bear testimony to the technical capability of the
Although closely resembling the plan of Lahun in its general layout, that architects. Some regulation regarding town planning must have been en-
of the workmen's village at 'Amarna East differs essentially in its constituent forced : the choice and the tenancy of the site were defined by erecting bound-
elements. The houses have evolved into highly efficient units, with thin walls ary-stelae inscribed with the name of the tenant and a description of the plot. 1 53
and no corridor. This can indeed be considered as the apex in planning Features that had been known in the Middle Kingdom are still occurring:
uniform contiguous houses : entrance vestibule, living room with brick divan, corners of pilasters are reinforced against traffic shocks, the walls of a ramp
bedroom, and kitchen with oven, storage bins, and staircase to the terrace. (Bridge) increase in thickness as pressure from the enclosed filling increases
And last, but not least, harmonic design is consistently used for the plan with the height 151 ( cf. stepped retaining wall in Middle Kingdom) . Other
and elevation of monumental buildings such as Theban palaces and even for features seem to be used for the first time: stairs are built on wooden beams
the mansions at 'Amarna. brick pillars are reinforced with timber 155 ( cf. construction of Middle King-'
Many new constructional features appear in the New Kingdom, and dom fortresses in Nubia) , enclosure walls are very thin and reinforced with
especially at 'Amarna. It has already been pointed out that walls would vary in buttresses, and spiral or winding stairways are built in tombs and wells. The
thickness according to the character of the building. State buildings for structure of the gable, used since the Archaic Period in light awnings and
officials or workmen were carried out economically with thin walls and light pavilions or as a pent roof in massive stonework in the interior of the pyram-
ceilings, while temple buildings had thick walls carrying vaults. In neither ids, seems to be treated as a wooden truss in the roof of large magazines. Such
type, however, could any sanitary equipment be recognized. seems to have been the scientific probity of the builders that gypsum specimens
At 'Amarna, democratization in the design was allied to parsimony in were presumably subjected to inspection and test at the Office of Works at
the construction, the latter approach probably dictated by financial conditions. 'Amarna.
The Palace had the sole responsibility for the building of temples and palaces In ornamentation, old techniques, such as that of inlay, are used exten-
and the workmen's village as well. Even though projects were carried out with sively and possibly also new ones, like that of molded glazed mud for
the utmost economy, the aesthetic aspect was not disregarded. Even in the cornices. Painting makes use of the fresco technique for the background and of
royal palace, columns and uraei cornices were inlaid on the side most likely to tempera for the details (Malqata palace) .
be seen, while they were just painted on the reverse.148 Cheap imitations of
capitals in the North Palace used soft pastes instead of fai:ence inlay.149 Color
was used lavishly throughout to conceal the poverty of the materials.
The dwellings for the workmen had obviously to follow a stricter econ-
omy in both space and materials. Light materials are used : thin brick walls
(0.13 m.), roofs of poles and rushes plastered with mud, stairways in brick-
work on slanting poles, with cupboards under them. The use of limestone for
carving furniture such as seats and tables 150 is probably to be ascribed to the
same lack of financial resources. Concrete proves to be an adequate material,
inexpensive and easy to work, not to mention the time factor. Large blocks of
concrete are cast in molds ( I.5 x o.6 x 0.35 m.) .1 51 Cement casts are used as
models, especially for the royal cartouches, by inexperienced workmen.152
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 155
Thutm~se IV a~ Thebes is the "Fortress-of-Menkheprurec," and it was actually
filled with captives from Kharu and Nubia.157 Rock temples are explicitly said
to be he~n out of the cliff: Ramses II, the great specialist in rock temples, says
about his small temple for his wife at Abu Simbel: " ... he made (it) as his
III monument for the Great King's-Wife, Nefretiri, beloved of Mut ... , a house
hewn in the pure mountain of Nubia, of fine, white and enduring sandstone,
as an eternal work." 1 58 His father Seti I had described the work on the rock
Religious Architecture temple at Redesiya: " ... that there should be made by digging in this
mountain, this temple, wherein is Amon ... ." 159
A common feature of such Egyptian descriptions is the rich variety of
terms relating to the building itself or to its materials. Such terms could be
Religious architecture of the New Kingdom is perhaps the richest domain of considered as the specifications of Egyptian religious architecture, and a survey
Egyptian architecture as a whole, and until very recent times this branch of these will prove interesting. The temple is usually "like heaven beautiful
. '
pure, glorious and excellent." Its pylons "reach heaven and the flagstaffs '
provided our total knowledge of ancient Egyptian architecture. The number the
s~ars of heaven." They are "of real cedar, wrought with Asiatic copper, their
of well-preserved temples as well as their scale and richness in decorated
features are the main reason for such a notoriety. Evidence from texts and ti~s of elect~u~, approaching heaven." "Two mighty obelisks of red granite,

from scenes gives supplementary information, always interesting, the more so with pyramid10ns of electrum, rise at the double fa<;:ade of the temple." The
when it helps us to catch a glimpse of finishings in materials that have columns "are wrought with electrum," usually in stone, but originally in
wood. The shrines "of sandstone, ebony or enduring granite, lined inside with
otherwise long ago disappeared.
electrum, or gold of the best of the hills, are placed upon a base of alabaster
from Hatnub." Doors are "of new cedar, of the best of the Terraces (Leba-
non), mounted in real black copper and wrought with inlaid figures in
EVIDENCE FROM TEXTS
el~ctrum or gold, representing the great name or the shadow (of the god),"

Evidence from texts about religious architecture during the New Kingdom is :'like the luminous mountain-horizon of heaven." The "shadow" 160 of the god
incomparably richer than that for any other branch of architecture in the same is the re~resentation of the deity on the copper lining of the door as if coming
period, or even in any other period. This weight of textual evidence corre- out of his temple. Pavements are covered with silver or gold, and offering-
sponds to the wealth of remains of monuments, mainly•at Thebes, the capital. ~'ables ~re of silver, gold, bronze, or Asiatic copper. One boasts of using the
It is true that not much information of a technical nature can be derived from beautiful stone of Ayan, fine white sandstone, every splendid costly stone," or
these texts, but they are of great help for the study of the construction and finally "that never was done the like since the beginning." In the description
restoration of temples. The temple is usually the "castle of god" (Egyptian of restoration work the building is said to have been in ruin. The walls were
hwt-netjer), but the desert temples and the rock-cut temples are often called rebuilt in stone and brick, ruined doors replaced by new ones, and wooden
"strongholds." 156 The mortuary temples on the western bank of Thebes or the columns by stone ones.
cult temples at Soleb (Nubia) or at Redesiya provide examples. This concep- . Temples, like any other creations of the Egyptians, were given ~ames. It
tion is emphasized in the text itself ( Soleb) : ". . . making for him an excellent is known that canals, wells, barges, spans of horses, woven-stuff pavilions, even
fortress, surrounded with a great wall, whose battlements shine more than the stables and magazines were entities that bore proper names. These names of
heavens, like the great obelisks ...." The enclosure of the mortuary temple of the temples can express a quality of the building or its lord: "Shining-
 156 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 157
in-Truth" (Temple of Amenhotep III at Soleb) ,161 "Most-Splendid" (Temple the Twenty-First Dynasty, carried out many works but only mentioned his
of Thutmose III at Deir el Bahari), 162 "Splendor-of-the-West" (small temple names and titles. In the temple at Luxor one reads: "Restoration of the
at Medinet Habu), "Splendid-is-the-Seat-of-Amu n" (small temple at Medinet monument, which the High Priest of Amon-Re, king of gods, Menkheperre,
Habu), 163 "Heat-which-is-in-Aten" (Sanctuary of Horakhty at Karnak built by triumphant, son of the Lord of the Two Lands, Meriamon-Paynozem I, made,
Akhenaten). 164 Sometimes the name clearly expresses ownership : "House- in the house of his father, Amon of Luxor." 116 Curiously enough, such huge
of-Nibmare'" (temple of Amenhotep III at Memphis), 165 "Temple-of-the-Son- and valuable monuments as the red granite obelisks that were erected in
of-Seti-Mernamon-in-the-House-of-Amon" (northern part of the hypostyle hall relatively large numbers by the New Kingdom monarchs do not bear long
at Karnak, by Seti·) ,166 "H ouse-of -U sermare-Menamon-m-t
. . h e-H ouse-of -Re' " historical inscriptions on their faces. The dedicatory inscription stretches ver-
(temple of Ramses II at Derr) ,167 "Temple-of-Ramses-Meriamon-in-the-House- tically on the south face, while on the other ones are laudatory inscriptions of
of-Amon" (temple of Ramses II at Luxor) .168 Or the name may designate the the pharaoh. On the obelisk of Thutmose III, now at Constantinople, the
deity to whom it is dedicated: "House-of-Am on-on-the-West-of-Thebes" (mor- dedication reads: " ... (Thutmose III) he made (it) as his monument for his
tuary temple of Amenhotep III),169 "Temple-of-the -Spirit-of-Seti-Merneptah- father, Amon-Re, lord of Thebes; erecting (for him very great obelisks of red
in-the-House-of-Ptah,'' "Temple-of-the-Spirit-of-Seti-Merneptah-in-the-House- granite, the pyramidions of electrum; that he may be given life, like Re,
of-Amon-on-the-West-of-Thebes" (mortuary temple of Seti).110 Parts of the forever)." 111 A unique and most interesting text occurs on the obelisk of
temple such as shrines and doors are also named: "Amon-has-received-his- Thutmose III, originally at Karnak and now in the Lateran. The original
divine-barque" (pylon in the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III),111 "Amon- inscription, as a single column in the middle of each face, is that of Thutmose
Mighty-in-wealth" (door of Thutmose I at Karnak), 112 "Mernmare'-is -rich-in- III, who died before he could erect the monument. His successor set it up and
food" (door of Ramses II in the temple of Seti at Abydos),173 "Usermare'-is- recorded this fact in side columns. On the south face one reads : " .. . Thut-
splendid-in-strength" (door in the tern ple of Ramses II at Serre) ,174 mose (III). He made (it) as his monument for his father, Amon-Re, lord of
"His-great-Seat-is-like-the-Horizon-of-Heaven" (Holy of Holies of Thutmose Thebes, erecting for him a single obelisk in the forecourt of the temple over
III).175 Although not directly related with an architectural study, a survey of against Karnak, as the first beginning of erecting a single obelisk in Thebes;
these types of names of religious buildings helps to picture the ideology of the that he might be given life." 178 Thutmose IV added on the same face: "Thut-
pharaohs and the people who spent such a great amount of energy and wealth mose (IV), Begotten of Re, beloved of Amon. It was his majesty who beauti-
on their temples. fied the single, very great obelisk, being one which his father, the King of
Written sources of information are here again either royal, being official Upper and Lower Egypt, Menkheperre (Thutmose III) had brought, after his
texts inscribed on the monuments themselves and on stelae, or private, oc- majesty had found this obelisk, it having spent 35 years lying upon its side in
curring in biographical inscriptions of high officials on the rocks of the quar- the hands of the craftsmen, on the south side of Karnak. My father com-
ries at Aswan or in their tombs. manded that I should erect it for him, I, his son, his saviour." 179 In this type of
dedication it is usually mentioned that two obelisks of red granite are erected
in front of the fa;:ade of the temple, their pyramidions being covered with
RoYAL INSCRIPTIONS copper or bronze. 180 On the obelisk at Heliopolis, erected by Seti I but inscribed
by Ramses II, the inscription states that Seti "filled Heliopolis with obelisks." 181
The types of the royal texts are varied, ranging from the simplest record or From such building inscriptions we are informed incidentally that a certain
dedicatory formula to the most informative building inscription. Some monu- pharaoh caused obelisks to be erected.
ments bear a very short inscription mentioning the name of the pharaoh who The dedicatory inscription found on a monument or a stela is the official
restored or built them. The high priest of Amun, Menkheperre', who ruled in record stating briefly the name of the pharaoh who caused it to be made and
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 159
158
the deity to whom it was dedicated, supplemented sometimes by a sketchy The deceased Seti I replied with a long speech to his son's benefactions and
description. Thutmose III made an ebony shrine at Deir el Bahari, on prayer, promising him a long life full of all joys.
which he wrote: "The Good God, Lord of the Two Lands ... King of Upper Unlike these official records is the unique text on the so-called Sphinx
and Lower Egypt, Okhepernere, Bodily Son of Re, Thutmose (II); he made stela of Thutmose IV, relating how the god Harmachis himself appeared to
(it) as his monument for his father, Amon-Re, making for him an august the _Young prince in a dream and entreated him to disengage his image, the
shrine of ebony of the best of the highlands, that she [he?] might live and Sphinx at Giza, from the encroaching sands.188
abide (through him) like Re, forever." 18z. Another category of official texts, that of the boundary stelae, is more
Occasionally, a more informative and interesting kind of text occurs on a likely to give architectural or town-planning data. These were erected on the
stela or on the monument itself. This type tends to emphasize the interest of a boundaries of a district or a town as landmarks. The most important are the
certain pharaoh in the building of a temple. The scheme of the text is fourteen stelae cut in the cliffs around the site of Akhenaten's capital Akheta-
ingeniously woven, showing how the pharaoh conceived the plan to build a ten ('Amarna). They bear long texts with a low-relief scene of the pharaoh
temple for a god, how he summoned his courtiers in the audience hall to and proclaim his gift of Akhetaten to Aten, the actual limits and area of the
expose his views and ask for advice, and finally issued instructions to his chief site, and occasionally the respective positions of other stelae.18 9 It is from the
treasurer. Such is the type of text inscribed by Ahmose I about his constructing study of the location of these stelae that surveying units, whose kngth varied
a mortuary complex for his grandmother Tetisheri at Abydos,183 or that of locally, were calculated (itr = 4AOO cubits [2.3 kms.]). 19 0 The texts of the
Thutmose I about the sacred furniture in the temple at Abydos,1 84 or the much boundary stelae delimiting the lands endowed for the maintenance of the
later summons of Ramses II to his court when he decided to complete his statue of Ramses VI have been copied in the tomb of Penna (at Derr in
father's buildings 1 85 on finding the temple of Seti I at Abydos unfinished and Nubia). Each of the five districts is demarked by four boundaries and the area
its endowments violated. The most elaborate of these texts is that of Ramses II, enclosed: "The South is the lands of the domain of the King's-Wife, Nefretiri
from the first court in Seti's temple at Abydos. This pharaoh visited Abydos on which rests in Miam. The East is the desert. The North is the flax fields of
the occasion of his voyage to Thebes and found the tombs of the earlier Pharaoh, L. P.H. The West is the Nile. [Area:] Three khet." 191
pharaohs of the First Dynasty in ruins and the temple of Seti unfinished. He The most informative kind of text is the building inscription occurring
summoned his court, and having announced _Jis intention of completing his us~a~ly on the monument itself and giving a description of the building

father's buildings, he said: actlVlty of the pharaoh. However vague it might be, the description is helpful
for determining the history of the monument and its restorations. One can
often retrace through these official records, which are full of exaggeration and
I will lay the walls in the temple of him that begaJ me. I will charge boasting, much of the historical background of a large temple complex, such
the man of my choice, to conduct the work therein. I will mason up therein the
as that at Karnak or at Luxor, or one of the mortuary temples in Western
breaches of its walls .. . its pylon-towers of.. . . I will cover its house, I will
erect its columns, I will set stones in the places of the lower foundation, making
Thebes, such as that at Medinet Habu. This last temple, being one of the best
monument upon monument, two excellent things at one time, bearing my name preserved, offers possibly the most suitable example for the correlated study of
and the name of my father, for the son is like him that begat him.1 8 6 such building inscriptions.
.. . . Now after . . . these utterances which these nobles (had spoken) It seems that war captives were employed in the construction of the
in the presence of their lord, his majesty commanded to commission the chief temples. Amenhotep III, speaking to Amun about his mortuary temple behind
of works; he set apart soldiers, workmen, carvers with the chisel, . . . draughts-
the colossi .of Memnon, says: "I caused thee to seize the Tehenu (Libyans) so
men, all ranks of artificers, to build the holy place of his father, to erect that
that there ts.no remnant of them. (They) are building in this fortress in the
which was in ruins in the cemetery, the mortuary house of his father.1 87
name of my majesty." 192 Such foreign settlements were maintained even after
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 161
160
The temple of the Mistress of Cusae which had begun to fall to ruin, the ground
the completion of the building stage and were transformed into permanent
had swallowed up its august sanctuary, so that the children played upon its
ones. 193 The influence of clever foreign craftsmen upon Egyptian art, even house; the .serpent, it caused no fear ; the poor counted the . .. in the covering,
upon architecture, is undeniable. no process10ns marched. I adorned it, having been built anew, I overlaid its
Many of the inscriptions deal only with occasional restorations or the image with gold; in order to protect its city . .. . Pakht the great, who traverses
erection of some element such as a gateway or a chapel. One of the earliest the valleys in the midst of the eastland, whose ways are (storm-beaten) .... I
instances is the record by Thutmose III of his coronation and building activity made her temple with that which was due to her ennead of gods. The doors
were of acacia wood, fitted with: bronze . . .. I built his great temple of lime-
in the temple of Amun at Karnak: stone of Ayan, its . . . were of alabaster of Hatnub, the doors were of copper,
the .. . thereon were of electrum. . . .196

I made my monument, I recorded my command at the stairway of the

lord of Karnak, of the fashioner of all that is or exists .... anew, together with Thutmose III records the laying out of a new garden at Karnak, for
a "Divine Abode," a monument of fine white limestone. The king himself per- Amun, perhaps at his feast "Going-forth-of-Min": "My majesty made for him
formed with his two hands the stretching of the line and the unraveling of the a garden for the first time, planted with every pleasant tree, in order to offer
plan-net, putting (it) upon the ground and furnishing on this monument the
vegetables theref~om for divine offerings of every day, which my majesty
exaction of work, according to the command of ... enduring work of their
hands. Behold, my majesty erected for him an august Holy of Holies, the fa-
founded anew as mcrease of that which was formerly ... with maidens of the
vorite place of Amon (named): "His-Great-Seat-is-Like-the-Horizon-of- whole land." 197 More tangible data are given by Thutmose III about his
Heaven," of sandstone of the Red Mountain . ~?interior was wrought with building and restoration in the hypostyle hall, between Pylons IV and V at
electrum. I (erected) the first portal (named): "Menkheperre-is-Splendid-in Karnak:
the-Opulence-of-A mon;" the second portal (named): "Menkheperre-is-Abiding-
in-Favor-with-Am on;" the third portal (named): "Menkheperre-is-the-Great-
One-of-the-Souls-of-Amon;" wrought with real electrum, through which Mat He made (it) as his monument for his father Amon-Re, erecting for him ( 4
enters for him ... making festive the monument. c~lumns) of sandstone set up (in) the hypostyle, as (a renewal of that which)
My majesty erected an august pylon [Pylon VI] of the interior in front his father had made, the Good God, Lord of Offering (viz., Thutmose I),
of (the holy of holies) . . . I erected for him a great door, fashioned of new shaped of cedar. My majesty added 4 columns to the two columns in the north
cedar, wrought with gold, mounted with real black copper ... with copper. side, together 6; wrought with .. . . T he height thereof was made 30 cubits
The great name upon it was of electrum, doubly refined gold and copper . . . on both sides of the great august portal (northern portal), . . . throughout'.
the . . . thereof were of doubly refined gold made in the likeness of the horizon They illuminated Karnak like ... of sandstone, painted with figures of my
of heaven. It was more beautiful than (anything) that has ever been.19 ' father Amon, together with figures of my majesty, and figures of my father,
• the ~ood God (viz., Thutmose I). Behold, as for that which was found going
to rum among them, my majesty established it with sandstone, in order that
this temple might be established like the heavens, abiding upon their four
Of the gates of Thutmose Ill found in Karnak, two could be identified with
pilla~s, ~s a monument, great, excellent and useful for the lord of eternity; of
the first and third portals described. The pylon, which is Pylon VI, corre- granite, ivory, of sandstone, . .. silver. . . .198
sponds exactly to the description, standing just in front of the Holy of
Holies.195
The inscription of the temple of Pakhet at Beni Hassan, the so-called Such texts recur in nearly every reign, mentioning some restoration or
Speos Artemidos, mentions the restoration of two temples and the building of addition in the same vague terms, occasionally with some dimensions (Amen-
hotep II at Amada, 199 the destroyed mortuary temple of Amenhotep III at
that of Pakhet: Th ebes, 200 L uxor temp le,-901 Soleb,2 J 2 Horemheb at Thebes, 203 Seti I in his
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 163
162
mortuary temp1e at Q urna,204 Ramses II at Memph.is,205 an d elsewh ere,206 typical example of what is to be expected from a systematic study of Egyptian
Ramses III in his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu,201 Ramses XI in the texts describing temples.
temple of Khonsu at Karnak, 208 Pinedjem,209 Sheshonq) .210 Sometimes the building inscriptions or restoration texts supplement their
A few texts are not subject to this uniform scheme and describe some "architectural description" with a list of the endowments whether of sacred
original project such as the preparation and transport of Hatshepsut's obelisks furniture, offerings, or land. A most instructive source of information about
(Deir el Bahari),211 or the plan of Seti I to establish a settlement and a temple the enormous property of the temples of Amun during the reign of Ramses III
~s the P~pyrus Harris. 214 This record gives an adequate idea of the gather-
(Redesiya) .212
A comparative study of the existing buildings of the mortuary temple of mg _of nches by the priesthood of Amun in the Twentieth Dynasty, sur-
Ramses III at Medinet Habu with various ~responding descriptions taken passmg by far those of all the other priesthoods in the whole country. These
from contemporaneous Egyptian texts might prove interesting. Holscher, who texts hel~ to pict~re the_ background of the rise of Amun's clergy to royal
excavated and studied the temple, gathered the corresponding texts. 213 Pro- power with the high pnest Herihor in the Twenty-First Dynasty. W ith the
ceeding from the approach to the front: "Its (the temple's) pylons were of expansion of the Empire, temples were built by the Egyptians as far as Djahi
stone, looking (up) to the sky, inscribed and engraved with the chisel in the in Canaan, under Ramses III.2 15
great name of thy majesty" (Papyrus Harris I, IV, r-2).
First court: "(The king made) ... a divine forecourt for the lord of
PRIVATE TEXTS
gods so that he might rise and shine in it" (from Great Pylon, rear, near top of
south tower, south end).
Pylon II: "He (Ramses III) made a monument for his father Amon-Re', In their biographical inscriptions on the walls of their tombs the great officials
the making for him a great portal of beautiful red granite, (with the) door of who had to deal with architectural projects, such as the chiefs of works or the
cedar bound with copper (and with) £.gure(s) of dja'm gold, the name of treasurers, never failed to boast about their achievement in this domain.
Usually they are not satisfied with a mere listing of their works but append a
which is: 'Beautiful-is-Ramses-for-Amon-rejoices-at-seeing-it'" (Pylon II, front,
more or less detailed description, which on comparison with the actual
bottom of doorjamb).
monuments proves to be remarkably veracious. The themes and the
Second court: "He (the king) made for him (Amon) a festival hall ...
surrounded by very great monuments; it appears like the horizon of heaven" style of these texts are not stereotyped as are the royal ones, and they supply a
host of useful and technical data.
(Pylon II, rear, top of south tower).
It is noteworthy that the propensity of pharaohs to endow or even to
According to an inscription on the western jamb of a narrow doorway at
build the tombs of their courtiers, so conspicuous toward the end of the Old
the north end of the terrace, the doorway was used to bri.ng in offerings: "The
Kingdom, is no longer noticeable. The endowment of the mortuary temple of
good god, abundant of fowl, who makes festive the treasury with good things
Am~nhotep son of Hapu by his sovereign Amenhotep III 216 can rightly be
and Ells his house with sustenance daily, with gold and every (kind of) costly
~onsidered as an exception. Many of the texts lay emphasis upon the realiabil-
stone."
1ty o~ the official, which quality led him to be chosen by the pharaoh for
Great hypostyle hall: "He (Ramses III) made a room for his father
certam works, such as the preparation of the royal tomb in the cliffs of
Amon-Re', king of gods, the making for him of an august temple of excellent
Western Thebes (Ineny, Hapuseneb), or a sacred cult statue, "no one seeing
eternally enduring work, provisioned and overflowing day and night, while
no one hearing." '
Amon rests in his palace and the Ennead who are in Karnak rejoice at its
Ineny, the architect of Thutmose I, II, III and Hatshepsut, gives in his
211
beauty" (second court, frieze on north wall).
tomb murals a full description of his preparation of the cliff tomb of Thut-
This collection of texts relating to the temple at Medinet Habu is a
 164 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 165

mose I, the first of its kind for which he devised a new method of plastering Hapuseneb, 220 an architect and vizier, conducted the work upon a cliff
with clay from the clay fields that he laid out especially for the purpose. Of his tomb, possibly that of Hatshepsut. In the tomb of Rekhmire',221 the vizier of
extensive works at Karnak he says: Thutmose III, interesting scenes of artisans and technical data are given. Other
architects mention various works: Menkheperre'seneb (Thutmose III) ,222
Amenhotep son of Hapu (Amenhotep III),223 Roy (Merneptah), 22• Amenho-
I supervised the great monuments that he caused to make in Karnak, erecting
tep (Ramses IX) .225 It is noteworthy that the refectory of the high priests in
a hall with columns, erecting great pylons on its two faces, in beautiful white
stone of 'Ayn, erecting august flagstaffs at the double doorway of the temple, the temple of Amun at Karnak had been built by Roy and was restored, about
in real 'ash-wood from the best of the terraces, their heads being in dja'm-gold ; a century later, by Amenhotep (seep. 13).
I supervised the erection of ... lined with dja'm-gold; I supervised the erec-
tion of the great doorway "Amun is the One Mighty of strength" whose great
door leaf is of Asiatic copper, and upon which is the shadow of Min mod- REPRESENTATI ONAL EVIDENCE
eled in gold; I supervised the erection of two great obelisks at the double door-
way of the temple, in granite. Numerous drawings help to complement the documentation on religious
architecture, which is rich enough in extensive remains. A large proportion of
He also describes the boat 120 cubits long and 40 cubits wide he built to this graphical evidence comes from the tombs at 'Amarna and represents the
transport the two obelisks to Karnak. temples in this ephemeral capital. Other drawings are from scenes in tombs
Senmut,218 the favorite architect of Hatshepsut, cites in general all the and temples at Thebes and from tablets and ostraca.
works he had to achieve at various places: Karnak, Hermonthis, Deir el
Bahari, Isherw, Luxor, and how he was presented with a statue by the queen 'AMARNA.226 The simplicity of the temple of the Aten may explain the success
of the contemporaneous artist at representing its main features quite clearly
and the pharaoh.
The way of describing the works achieved by the architect Thutiy 219 and accurately enough on the walls of the rock-cut tombs. Nothing of this
(Thutmose III) is quite original: the title phrase is written vertically and it success was attained when they tried to represent the palace, a much more
embraces fourteen horizontal lines giving a detailed list of his works: "I acted complicated complex of buildings.
as chief, giving the directions; I led the craftsmen to work in the works, in THE PYLONS. In most of the tombs one or more of the temple pylons has been
. . ." There follows an account of the various achievements: Nile barge, represented. According to these drawings three types of pylons can be differen-
shrines at Deir el Bahari and Karnak, measuring the tribute from Punt. His tiated:
list of works at Deir el Bahari is certainly most informative: . Type I. In the tomb of Meryre' the front fa~ade of the Great Temple
assumes the shape of a pylon with two high towers, with vertical faces
"Most Splendid" (Deir el Bahari temple), the temple of myriads of years; its crowned with a cornice, flanking two doorways of different sizes, with broken
great doors fashioned of black copper, the inlaid figures of electrum. Khasikhut, lintel. In front of each tower five flagstaffs carrying flags are fixed vertically
the great seat of Amon, his horizon in the west; all its doors of real cedar, and two superimposed rows of four papyriform columns with bud capitals are
wrought with bronze. T he House of Amon, his enduring horizon of eternity; shown between the flagstaffs (fig. 99). When compared with the actual re-
its floor wrought with gold and silver; its beauty was like the horizon of
mains of the fa~ade of the temple "Gem-Aten" this drawing is found to
heaven. A great shrine of ebony of Nubia; the stairs beneath it, high and wide,
correspond quite closely. Actually the towers each had five flagstaffs and an
of pure alabaster of Hatnub. A palace of the god, wrought with gold and silver;
it illuminated the faces (of people) with its brightness. abutting porch with eight columns, erected on a massive platform.
 166 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 167

99. Representation of the pylon of the Gem-Aten from the tomb of Meryre' at 'Amarna. roo. Representation of the pylon of the Sanctuary from the tomb of Mahu at 'Amarna.

Type II. Four drawings represent a pylon similar to the preceding one,
The temple. An entrance court precedes the temple and contains one or
but having only two superimposed rows of two columns in front of each tower.
two villas (three contiguous rooms and a hall) on one or both sides of the
This seems to represent the fa;ade of the sanctuary, with two porches of four
entrance portal. Abutting on the left wall of the court is a large enclosure, the
columns each (fig. 100). "slaughter court." In the rear of the court are three rectangular ablution-
Type III. The towers have no flagstaft, but only the abutting porches
basins. Between the outer and inner walls of the court are rows ~f offering-
with four columns each, and probably two royal statues. • tables.
THE GREAT TEMPLE AT 'AMARNA. This temple is represented in most of the The fa~ade of the temple is in the shape of a pylon with two towers faced
tombs, either complete (Meryre', Panehsy) or only its sanctuary (Ahmose, with five flagstaffs each and a porch on four columns.
Pentu). Behind the pylon stretches a court with the great altar, bordered by a row
According to the drawings the temple consisted of three parts: a court, of buildings faced with pylons.
the temple proper, and a sanctuary (fig. 101). An empty shallow court stretches transversely, having only a pylon faced
The court. A high wall crowned with a cornice surrounds the buildings with cells on both sides.
and opens on the fa~ade with three doorways, the central one in the shape of a A third court follows, bordered on its rear by a portico on eight bud
gateway. The inner wall has no cornice. papyriform columns. On the sides are two villas of the simplest 'Amarna type
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 169

~.,I~
l l----"-~~~~~~~~'~--- -- 1:
::,,
•'
~:
:.

,,

.:.:---"1.)- H > i",,

::
"
l~a
' '
n
102. Plan with rabatted elements of the Sanctuary, from the tomb of Ahmose.

(entrance hall and two contiguous rooms).

The fourth court had nothing but eight altars. Each of the fifth and sixth
courts had eighteen cells bordering the walls, each with a simple doorway. In
the center was a large altar surrounded by eighteen offering-tables.
The Sanctuary (fig. 102). As in the entrance court of the Great Temple,
eight basins are laid out in front of the outer waUs of the sanctuary. In the in-
terior, one or two large stelae, sometimes adjoining a royal statue, are erected
• on a platform. Abutting on the left wall are the slaughter-court and two villas .
The fa;ade consists, as does that of the temple, of a pylon with two
porches on four columns each sheltering four standing statues of the king. On
either side of the fa;:ade is a screen wall running parallel to the side and
enclosing an empty passage or a villa- a unique feature indeed.
All the drawings agree in showing, behind the pylon, two walls parallel
to the internal face and forming a screen hiding the interior-a winding
device used since the earliest times in front of the entrances to forts and
purification huts, and probably also in all cult temples.
The walls of the court are bordered with six cells on either side, and a
101. Plan and elevation of the Great T emple at 'Amarna from the tomb of Meryre' showing great altar surrounded by offering-tables is laid out in the center.
from the bottom upward : the entrance portal and court, the fa\ade of the temple
pylon, the great altar court, a second court, a third court with its portico, a fourth
court, and part of the fifth court bordered by eighteen cells.
 170 III : RELIGIO US ARCHIT ECTURE

A passage runs transversely behind the sanctuary and communicates with

a court containing various buildings.
The drawings correspond exactly to the remains excavated.

THE so-CALLED "SuN-SHADE" OF T1Y. One drawing (Huya) represents a temple I

that does not seem to have been built. A portal leads into a first court bordered !
I

by a portico on bud papyrifor m columns which shades statuary groups of the !'
pharaoh and queen. A great altar with a stairway rises in the middle. L_
A second court, to which leads an alley bordered by two columned
porticoes, contains a central enclosure flanked by two subsidiary courts on
either side and a raised chapel in the rear.
THE PYLON OF THE THEBAN TEMPLE (EGYPTIAN bekhen). A series of represen-
221

tations of the pylons at Karnak or Luxor have been recorded in contempora-

~mm
neous tombs or on the walls of the temples themselves. The main characteristic
features common to all these representations are two towers with battered
faces flanking a portal with a smaller doorway in its axis. Four flagstaffs
(Egyptian snwt, "sisters" [ ?]) rise in front of each tower and are fixed at two
Jl
levels by cantilever brackets and protected at the bottom by stone or wood
gratings. The nature of the material of the flagstaff is occasionally indicated as
----------
104. Restored view of the device 105. Painting representing the
a whole fir trunk. The walls are colored white, implying the use of stone or for fixing flagstaffs. pylons of Theban chapels.
plastered brickwork, and the flagstaffs carry brilliantly colored flags (fig. rn3) .
. The drawings give valuable informati on for the restoration of the pylon
103. Egyptian low relief representing the pylon of Herihor on the temple of Khonsu at i~ the !heban temple'. especially as regards the flagstaffs, which have long
Karnak. smce disappeared, leavmg only the massive stone base and the sockets where
~he .brackets had be~n engage~. It is interesting to notice that the angle of
mclme of the faces is greater m the drawings (82 °-85°) than in the actual
pylons; there are also other minor discrepancies in the proportions (fig. rn4).

THE PY~ON OF THE T HEBAN CHAPELS. Several drawings represent the pylons of
chapels m the temple of Amun at Karnak or those of funerary chapels on the
w~st~r~ ba~k: The type is constant and is derived from the fa;:ade of a
primitive dmne booth (Egyptian seh), 228 rectangul ar with battered sides
c~owned with a cornice, pierced with a central doorway and flanked on eithe;
side by a fla~staff, fixed vertically in a prismatic recess of the fa;:ade (fig. ms).
In one drawmg the fas:ade is rectangular.

- -- ----
• m UIIlllll 11111. •
. These pylons or portals, colored white in the scenes, were probably in
brickwork, plastered and whitewashed (Deir el Medina).
 172 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 173
subsidiary temple stretches on either side behind a pillared portico. The south
subsidiary temple consists of a pillared court bordered by three rooms on either
side and two transverse courts, each having a room at either end. It is called by
the text "The Chapel for the Erection of the Willow." In the third court a
small chapel with two stairways ascending from the north is named "The
House of Atum of the Sycamore."
. This plan could be that of a solar temple with three open courtyards
dedicated to Re'Horakhty, with a subsidiary temple of Hathor.

107. Egyptian plan of a temple at Heliopolis and its interpretation .

1 \
I I

106. Representation of the temple of Amun from the tomb of Neferhotep.

• r- - - -,
I L----,
a I I
I I
THE TEMPLEs. 229 A few paintings from Theban tombs represent various tem- • I I
r r - - -J
• L __ ...J
ples or chapels.
In two tombs (nos. 96, 324) a small chapel appears in the scene represent-
ing the house. It is erected near it and consists essentially of three contiguous
rooms, probably shrines, as may be inferred from the statues they contain and
the offerings placed in front of these. A court planted with trees and enclosed I I
within a small wall occasionally stretches in front of the chapel.
THE TEMPLE OF KARNAK (FROM THE TOMB oF N EFERHOTEP). This is a schematic
representation of the side elevation of the rear part (Pylons III-V). Various
errors in draftsmanship are to be noticed, such as the inclination of the
external face only and the inclination of the flagstaffs, ~hich are shown as if
shifted outside their prismatic recesses. These errors result from the method of
architectural drawing peculiar to the Egyptians. It is interesting, however, to
I I
note that a wooden porch on open papyriform columns stood abutting on Pylon I I
I I
IV and that trees were planted outside the buildings (fig. rn6). I I
I I
PLAN OF A TEMPLE AT HELIOPOLIS. On a stone slab the plan of a temple with I I
I I
informative text is carved, while an inventory of the temple is engraved on I I
the back of the slab (fig. rn7). Three transverse courts, each fronted with a - - - --1
I
I
I IQ
~ pylon, are laid out on a longitudinal axis (E.-W.). In the middle court a
_ ___ _l__J I
I
I
I
I
___ ___ _JI
 174 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 175
MooEL OF A TEMPLE OF RE'HoRAKHTY-ATuM.230 Only the quartzite base of this
unique model (now Brooklyn Museum Acc. no. 49.183) was found at Tell el
Yahudiya. The socket holes for the pieces that were inset allow for the
restoration of the design. Along three sides of the base are carved eight scenes
of Seti I making offering to the sun gods and inscriptions describing some of
the pieces of the model and their unusual materials : obelisks of graywacke,
flagstaffs of stone, pylon of marble-like stone, and door of copper. Two
sphinxes, probably the pair at the end of the processional avenue, two standing
colossi, and two obelisks flank a broad stairway rising to a terrace where two
smaller sphinxes mark the entrance fa;:ade consisting of a doorway with
broken lintel between the two towers of a pylon with flagstaffs ( color plate
VII) . Beyond there are two walls enclosing an area open to the sky. The model
was to abut against a wall. It was not only an architectural model but must
have served for rituals, perhaps that of the "presentation of the house to its
lord" performed during the foundation of a temple before its construction, and
again at its consecration.
ro8. Egyptian project for a landing quay at Thebes.
THE LANDING QUAYS OF TEMPLES.231 Since archaic times all temples had to be
located on the Nile or on a canal connected to it, since traffic was mainly by
ro9. Restored plan and section of the project for a landing quay.
waterways. Remains of such layouts have been recovered in many of the
mortuary complexes of the Old Kingdom and in the temples at Luxor and
Karnak. Two drawings give supplementary information concerning such
landing quays at Thebes.
An architect's project (fig. ro8) with dimensions can be interpreted as
representing a landing platform on the bank of a watercourse, adjoining a
garden surrounded by a wall and containing in its center a platform to which
two stairways ascend at the front and the rear. A thick ~irdle wall, parallel to
the bank, abuts on the enclosure. This landing quay could have served for some
domain or temple (fig. 109) .
In the second representation the temple of Amun (Tomb of Neferhotep;
see p. 172) is approached by a landing quay shown in detail. A secondary
T-shaped watercourse branches off the main river and ends in a rectangular
basin. In the center of the rear side a platform surrounded by a parapet
projects into the water. A pole, shown rabatted, stands at either outer corner
and a stela is erected on either side of the entrance to the temple (fig. no). lf./fjJtl

The two posts were probably to secure barks when they moored along the
quay, or were they to carry an awning for shade?

.
 176 III: RELIGI OUS ARCHI TECTU RE III: RELIGI OUS ARCHI TECTU RE 177
temple is often the result of continuo us building and addition in front of an
original kernel, not to mention the numerou s restorations. Since the cult
temple was the "house of the god," it was built, as the Egyptian texts put it,
"with materials of eternity"- soft and hard stones.
The typical simple plan is best studied, however, in the two small temples
built by Ramses III at Karnak (see fig. 135).
The three essential divisions of the plan, as adapted from those of the
dwelling, are: the forecourt with pronaos, the hypostyle hall, and the sanc-
tuary with its dependencies. One can readily set in parallel the forecourt
with the courtyar d of the house, the pronaos with the vestibule, the hypostyle
hall with the broad hall, and the sanctuary with the deep hall and depend-
encies, where the master of the house actually lived. 233 This gradual increase
in the privacy of the apartmen ts, beginnin g from the entrance doorway,
is further enhance d by the upward slope of the floor and the lowering of
the ceilings toward the rear of the temple. Correspo nding to this is the grad-
l
ually decreasing illumina tion, from the sunny porticoed court, to the pronaos,
...,

the hypostyle hall with its clerestory windows, and finally to the nearly
:
"' ;,

total darkness of the sanctuary. Texts always speak of "ascendi ng to the

:'. "i
JG. temple," perhaps an indicatio n of this gradual rise in the floors of the various
parts toward the naos, or because the whole building was at a higher level
than the town. Access to the various parts was graduall y restricted from
r ro. The approach and landing quay of the temple of Amun at Karnak as represente
d the entrance onward to a decreasing number of worshipers who had to fulfill
in the tomb of Neferhote p.
certain conditions.
Various rooms and magazin es surround the shrine, where the statue of
THE TYPICA L CULT TEMPL E IN THE NEW KINGD OM 232 the god lived in a naos or in a bark. In the New Kingdom , when conquer-
ing the Empire, the outer walls of the temples were decorated with battle
The cult temple, being the dwelling of a god (Egyptia n per, "house" ), presents and victory scenes featuring the pharaoh as an invincible conquere r. Such
the same essential elements as a palace adapted for the ritual of the cult. Since scenes of epic characte r must have proved a successful means of political
the Eighteen th Dynasty the cult temple has developed into a standard type propaga nda in a land where most of the inhabita nts were illiterate. 234
which remains until the late Ptolema ic Period. The tripartite division, which A girdle wall in brick, usually rectangu lar in plan, sometimes surround s
rules the plan of a private dwelling or palace, is also conspicuous in the simple the sacred precincts as an enclosure and a defense, and is entered through one
cult temple. That this basic division is often marred to a considerable extent is stone gateway in the axis of the plan (fig. 229) .
owing to the pharaohs ' habit of enlargin g the original project by duplicat ing
various elements, such as a hypostyle hall, a pylon, a court, or an avenue of THE PYLON (EGYPTIAN bekhen). Since the Middle Kingdom , the fa~ade of the
sphinxes or columns. This growth of a temple "by accretion" is probably best temple assumes the shape of a pylon, consisting of two large towers on a
illustrate d in the Great Temple at Karnak. Accordingly, an Egyptian cult rectangu lar plan, with battered faces crowned with torus and cornice and
 178 III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III : RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 179
a winged to
flanking a lower central gateway, itself crowned with a cornice with A paved way or dromos could extend from a landin g place or chapel
and the numer ous ionally along the alley
disk of the sun represented in relief. The remains of pylons the pylon. The sacred statue or bark was carried process
! aspect y by boat
contemporaneous representations allow us to reconstitu~e their origin~ of sphinxes and dromos to the landin g quay, whence it might journe
bn~k, and .
fairly accurately. They were built mostly of stone, sometm~es also of to anothe r temple
entmg the
profusely decorated with scenes in painted sunk low relief, repre~ The treatment of an entrance fa\=ade consisting of two massive towers
es rose otamian
pharao h slaying enemies. They had many stories and one or two staircas flanking the doorway and protecting it was also known in Mesop
fs tall:r architecture.
to the top of the central gateway and farther up. Often, wooden flagstaf
erect:d m
than the pylon and described by the texts as being of cedar were a court,
faces and held vertically THE FORECOURT (EGYPTIAN wba, "OPEN CouRT") . Behind the pylon
front of it inside prismatic recesses in the battered plan, is
upper p.art usually of the same width as the hypostyle hall and on a rectangular
upon a stone base by wooden or stone brackets protru ding from the s or pillars, with
flagstaffs occupied bordered on one or more of its sides with a portico on column
of the wall. Colored banners floated gaily at the top. These this court
es shown abutting Osiride statues of the pharao h (Ninet eenth Dynasty) . In
a similar position as, and perhaps originated from, the two flagpol axis ( Medam ud).
protect ed the was a great altar for the offerings, usually on one side of the
at the front of primitive shrines on the archaic labels. A grating
235
of the
in front of In the earliest temples the portico stretched only in front of the rear wall
bottom of the flagstaffs, which were set symmetrically (one to four a ramp. The
of the court, upon a raised platfor m (Seti I at Abydos) reached throug h
each tower) . Graphical evidence suggests that at 'Amar na the faces h in
. . . scenes on the walls, in painted low relief, sunk, represent the pharao
pylons could have been vertical. various historical or religious activities, leading military expeditions
for the
torus
The architectural treatm ent of the pylon, with its battered faces, its s or in
pe . co~­ benefit of the deity, worshiping the gods, and playing his part in festival
runnin g along its edges and its cornice, points to an early prototy d in these
foundation ceremonies. Nothin g of the divine mysteries is reveale
structed in plant stalks and mud. Althou gh the pylon d.oes not ~p.pear
m its ~
consist mg of two scenes whic~ were to be seen by the popula ce.
stereotyped form before the New Kingd om, its basic design two
om. 236 Sometimes at the rear of the court stands a high portico with one or
massive towers flanking an entrance bay is known from the Old Kingd its fa\=ade .
of fortified rows of columns and pillars and partly closed by screen walls on
It occurs in the front fa\=ades of the mastabas, of the valley temples, This marks the frontage of the temple proper .
could be
walls and of the royal palace. It has even been suggested that it
of ar- Ns"). A
reco;n ized in the double cabins flanking the central entrance-awni
ng THE HYPOSTYLE HALL (EGYPTIAN wadjit, "HALL OF PAPYRIFORM CoLUM
the whole
chaic boats. hall set transversely to the longitudinal axis and stretching along
Ho~i­ architec-
According to Egyptian texts the pylon is the "Lumi nous Mountain width corresponds to the broad hall of the contemporary domestic
mount am the royal
zon of Heaven," this latter being represented in hierogl¥phs as two ture. A similar element can be recognized in the foretemple of
Dynasty a
peaks between which the sun rises. This name could therefo2~; imply
that the mortuary complex in the Old Kingdom. In the Nineteenth
238

A figure of t~e characteristic feature of the hypostyle hall is the arrang ement of its column
s so
sun or deity appears from the entrance doorway of the pylon.
so that it columns,
deity was actually worked in metal on the wooden leaves of the door that a central nave is bordered by two rows of high papyriform open
type. A
might appear as if comin g forth from the temple . while the aisles have shorter columns, usually of the bud papyriform
Paired colossal statues of the pharaoh, abutting on the external face of
the lets in the
row of clerestory windows with gratings set between the ceilings
e. An alley of with the Roman
pylon and obelisks, were sometimes erected to protect the entranc light. The striking similarity of this type of hypostyle hall
connec-
sphinxes, man- or ram-headed ( crio-sp hinx), called the "Way ~f God"
could basilica has been pointed out, and it has been suggested that a direct
quay or a ius (VI. 5),
also lead from one temple to another or simply from the landm g tion between it and the "Egyptian Hall," as it was called by Vitruv
tribune to the gateway of the girdle wall and to the pylons. and the Roman basilica could be considered. 239
.
 180 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 181

The scenes on the walls are different from those in the forepart of the with retaining walls lining its sides and stairways descending in its corners. It
temple. They represent the ceremonies that were probably held there, such as was filled by the infiltration of subsoil water. Boats were sailed on it during the
jubilees and processions of the sacred bark. The pharaoh, who had been festivals when sacred mysteries such as those of Osiris were performed, and in
represented completely dressed in the forecourts, now wears a short kilt as he it the priests made their ritual ablutions four times daily.
approaches the deity. This dress conforms to a religious ritual reminiscent of a
similar one in Mesopotamia. Often, especially in the Nineteenth Dynasty, as
many as three secondary hypostyle halls were added beyond the main one. THE FuNcTioN OF THE TEMPLE FROM ITs WALL ScENEs
From their names one may grasp an idea of the types of ritual ceremonies
performed in each one : "hall of appearance" (wsekhet kha'it), "hall of The temple is intrinsically the "house of god" and not a gathering place for a
offering" (wsekhet hetep), "intermediate hall" (herit ib) . congregation. The people (rekhyt) have access to its courts and occasionally to
its hypostyle hall to hail the bark of the god on certain festivals or the newly
THE SANCTUARY. At the rear of the temple is the private abode of the deity, a crowned pharaoh. 240 Its main purpose is described in its wall scenes and
deep and narrow room containing the naos or the sacred bark. The cult statue inscriptions representing the various rites performed within the corresponding
was a small wooden figure, often plated with gold and kept in a naos behind rooms for the daily ritual or during the procession of the bark or the crowning
sealed doors. It was waited upon thrice a day by the pharaoh or by the priest of the pharaoh. As before in the tombs and temples of the Old Kingdom the
delegated to represent him, "the servant of god" (hem netjer). In the New activities depicted could eventually become real through religious magic.
Kingdom the naos was often placed on a sacred bark set on a stand and was The nucleus of the temple is the rear sanctuary or naos containing the
carried shrouded in procession by the priests on festivals to a repository in the cult statue placed from the time of Amenhotep III in the axis of the plan. Its
vicinity or to a secondary temple. On this account a second doorway had to be s~enes depict the daily ritual performed for the statue and for the offering
opened in the rear wall of the sanctuary and the latter became a bark-chapel. ntual, but they never give the name of the sanctuary nor show the statue itself,
Often there is a bark-chapel in front of the usual type of rear sanctuary. described as being "more mysterious than what is in heaven." The sacred bark
Sometimes a small hall on a square or deep plan is set contiguous to the placed on a stand in its long narrow room in front of the sanctuary as shown
sanctuary and was used as the "deep hall" or living room was in the domestic on its walls does, however, appear carried out in solemn procession. This is the
program. The hallowed mystery of the sanctuary is such that before the typical scene covering the whole wall, but in some bark rooms the waifs are
Twenty-Second Dynasty no name appears to designate it. Here also numerous subdivided in two or three registers representing the king at the offering-table,
rooms (storerooms, staircases) surround the sanctuary. If the temple is dedi- before the bark, and among the gods. In front of these private apartments of
cated to more than one deity two or more shrines ai:e placed side by side the god was an axial "central room" (wsekhet herit ib) where food and
flanking the central one. In the temple of Khonsu (Ramses III) at Karnak the various offerings were presented by··Pharaoh to the gods as depicted in its wall
scenes.
sanctuary appears for the first time as an independent bark-chapel similar to
that of the peripteral temples. In all these rooms the walls and columns are According to the wall scenes in rooms in the vicinity of some santuaries
covered with low-relief scenes representing the rites that were performed in th~se rooms could be dedicated to the funerary offering ritual for the king and
them or the items they contained. might feature a false-door and a scene of the king at the funerary repast or,
Adjoining the temple buildings was a room or court (sekhw wa'b, "pure more often, that of Amun; or they could be dedicated to the cult of the royal
court;') for the slaughter of animals presented as offerings (slaughter-court). statues, or might be chapels for the ritual of purification, the so-called "Bap-
tism of Pharaoh."
A sacred lake was sometimes dug in the vicinity of the temple within its
temenos wall on a rectangular or LI-shaped plan (temple of Mut at Karnak),
 182 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTUR~ III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 183

The small rooms round the rear part of the temple can also be defined top of a prismatic pillar rabatted, its base aligned with the entrance fac;ade. It
from their wall scenes as rooms dedicated to deities associated with the god of appears that the Egyptian architect used his device of the rabattement in a
the temple, magazines for unguents and equipment, treasuries (per hedj, horizontal plane to unite heaven and earth, a feat his Mesopotamian colleague
"house of silver"), and slaughter areas, usually a court decorated with scenes of strove to achieve in a vertical plane with his ziqurrat, "the high one" or
the ritual sacrifice or the preparation of the cattle. "pointed one," topped with its chapel, abode of the god.
The larger part of the temple is designed for the festivals and consists of
the hall of appearance (wsekhet kha'it) and the feast court(s) (wsekhet
hebit) . The hall of appearance is the hypostyle hall where the sacred bark THE ORIENTATION OF TEMPLES

proceeds and rests during festivals to receive offering, and where the pharaoh
is crowned. These themes form the subjects of the wall scenes, to which are The ideal orientation to the east, which had prevailed in most of the temples
occasionally added those of the birth of Pharaoh and of the foundation cere- built in the desert during the Old Kingdom, is seldom found in the New
monies whose relevance in the context of the scenes is substantiated by the fact Kingdom. Nearly all the remains from the Old Kingdom are those of mor-
that they form part of the story of the temple and its founder, the pharaoh. On tuary temples, sun temples, or the unique Sphinx temple at Giza, which must
the walls of the court are episodes from the feasts of the gods, their processions, all be symbolically connected with the east where the sun rises. Only two other
the lJ eb-sed, and crowning cycles set above a plinth decorated with offering temples dating back to the earliest times, the archaic temple of Khentiamentiw
bearers or so-called Niles personifying the nomes, and a frieze of lapwings at Abydos 243 and the temple at Medamud, 214 seem to be oriented north.
representing the people (rekhyt) . Here the greater variety in theme marked Whenever a temple was not located in a desert area where nothing could
by the virtual absence of those of ritual allows for greater artistic freedom and interfere with an ideal orientation, several factors come to play a prominent
development. This accounts for the intrusion of scenes of war and the triumph role. These can all be brought into relation with traffic considerations or
of Pharaoh from the external walls onto those of the court. symbolic implication. In Egypt the Nile or its canals have always been used as
Though most of the wall scenes represent activities or rites performed natural ways of communication, and temples as well as cities were built along
within that room some do refer to the function of rooms in the vicinity. All, them. This importance is pictured in the Egyptian terms "to sail downstream"
however, are marked with the kinetic opposition of the performers striding in for traveling northward, and "to sail upstream" for traveling south. For some
toward the god who strides out, giving to the whole composition an eternal aesthetic reason later recognized as valid by Vitruvius a temple had to be laid
dynamism focused on the naos which is enhanced by the contrast of moving out on an axis perpendicular to the bank of the watercourse on which it was
light and shade that enliven an already vivid coloring and gilding. For the located . The reason could perhaps be that such an approach featuring a
abode of the god is a model of the world and of the pri.ineval hill emerging out landing quay aligned along the waterbank and a processional avenue perpen-
of the primeval waters of the Nun.241 On a background of columns rising dicular to the latter but in the axis of the temple was the only rational solution
above papyrus thickets that conceal the lower part of the columns and the that the Egyptian architect could devise in conformity with symmetry. A
walls, gods, kings, and men meet beneath the blue sky sprinkled with golden landing quay aligned along the waterbank would be less liable to the erosive
stars of the ceiling. The gradual rise in the Boors in conjunction with the action of the current or to silt-deposition. According to the Egyptian scenes
fowering height of the ceilings and the dynamic focusing toward the rear representing landing quays, whenever a building was located at the dead end
express architectonically the fact that the naos is the "heaven" described by of a watercourse, a rectangular mooring basin was laid out transversely to the
inscriptions. This ultimate object of the design of the typical cult temple of the axis of the temple and the watercourse,. so that the quay could assume the same
Empire can also be deduced from the diagram of harmonic analysis of its setting transverse to the axis.
plan 242 where the location of the bark-chapel or the naos coincides with the During the Old Kingdom the articulate layout of the mortuary or sun
 184 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 185
seem to be some predominant directions (fig. ru). Yet this impression is only
superficial, and the prevailing southeast direction is due to the fact that the
majority of the temples studied are in Western Thebes. Needless to say, such a
diagram can be only an approximation on account of the discrepancies result-
ing from inaccurate surveys of the monuments. An examination of the condi-
tions underlying such contradictory directions as N.E. and S.W . or N.W. and
S.E. has led to some basic arguments that can explain all cases:
r. In independent locations where the temple is not connected to a
waterway, such as temples in the desert or rock-cut temples, a deliberately
cosmic orientation to the west seems to be avoided. Only one temple- a small
rock-cut chapel to That in the eastern cliff at Gebel Adda (Lower Nubia,
Nineteenth Dynasty ) - faces west. The direction of the setting sun and the
netherworld could hardly be expected to be a favorite. Later cultures such as
the Etruscan and the Roman considered the west unlucky.
2 . Rock-cut temples have to comply with the conditions of their setting,
and their axis is perpendicular to the fa~ade dressed in the rock cliff. Usually,
they are located in Lower Nubia on the west bank of the Nile (except Speos
Artemidos in Middle Egypt) and accordingly they face eastward ( Beit el W ali
N.E.; Abu Simbel E. and S.E.).
3. Most of the Theban mortuary temples face S.E., as they are set perpen-
dicularly to the riverbank (N.E.). Some scholars hold the opinion that they
are oriented toward Luxor, as their main element is always a temple to Amun.
r r r. Diagram showing the orientations of temples during the Empire. 4. A gener~l empirical rule is that the temple fronts an approach perpen-
dicular to the riverbank. The varying downstream direction has been rather
inadequately called "local North" by Egyptologists. As the river meanders
temples built on a desert plateau, with the long inclined causeway connecting along its r,ooo-kilometer course in Egypt, sometimes following such directions
the upper funerary temple, itself facing east, and tb.e lower portal in the as S., S.W., or W., temples are liable to assume contradictory orientations. This
valley, allowed for some adjustment. Usually, the valley portal also faced east, is most easily recognizable in Nubia (S.W. for 'Amada, Semna, Kumma,
while the causeway ran at an oblique angle following some natural feature of 'Amara West). Even the large complex at Karnak is oriented N.W. The same
the site. Sometimes the portal assu1ll'ed another orientation, presumably in rule holds for the temples on canals. The temple at Abydos (Seti I) is oriented
reL:ition with some existing watercourse (sun temple of Neuserre', mortuary N.E., probably on account of its connection with the canal El Kasra.
temple of Sahure', of Neuserre', of Pepi II) . But in the later temples built near 5. When there is no watercourse near a large complex the internal layout
the river there was no such flexibility and the layout on an axis perpendicular is governed by a similar rule. Temples are then set perpendicularly to the main
to the waterbank prevailed against the ideal orientation to the ea~t. street. At 'Amarna the Great Temple and sanctuary are perpendicular to the
From the diagram featuring the various orientations of the longitudinal Royal Road. At Karnak the small temples tributary to the Great Temple of
axes of the temples between the Eighteenth and the Twentieth dynasties there Amun are perpendicular to the axis of the latter (S.W. for Seti III; N.E. for
 186 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 187
., ....1-~I\\\•·
Ramses III). Peripteral chapels, used as repositories for the boat or statue of a ,l/•1' ~11 '"1111\t { .... \ ...
~ ~, ..
god, can be set on the same axis as his temple, on the opposite side of a
processional avenue, but oriented in the opposite direction (Kamutef at Kar-
nak) . Sometimes these chapels are at right angles to the main temple and near
its front (Maru-Aten at 'Amarna).
6. These interrelations between temples, expressed graphically in the
general layout, could assume a large scale and govern temples built at great
distances from one another. The Theban district affords an excellent example
(fig. r 12). Three of its tern ple corn plexes are set in relation to one another,
while the supremacy is left to the Great Temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak. The
latter is the symbolic focus toward which the neighboring temple of Mut is
oriented and to which it is connected by a monumental approach. Even the
distant mortuary temple of Hatshepsut (see color plate XI), on the western
bank across the Nile, is oriented toward it, as was the earlier mortuary temple
of Mentuhotep and, indeed, the cirque itself known as "Opposite the Face of
Her Lord," a name subsequently given to the whole Theban necropolis. At
Luxor the temple was originally built parallel to the river, but during the
I
building process its longitudinal axis was gradually curved to orient toward I

the temple of Amun at Karnak. The long processional avenue bordered by

sphinxes leads from the court of Ramses II at Luxor, set askew to the curved r 12. Map of Thebes showing the interrelated orientations of Deir el Bahari and Luxor
toward Karnak.
axis of the Eighteenth Dynasty temple, to the temple of Khonsu (S.W.) along
the enclosure of Amun at Karnak. The interrelated layout scheme of the three
temples of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu at Karnak is presumably meant to meet records that the Etruscan haruspices advised in 65 B.c. that the fallen statue of
the requirements of the rites observtcl during the yearly visit made by Amun Jupiter on the Capitol be reerected in the direction of the east, so that it could
of Karnak to Luxor. As early as the Twelfth Dynasty Amun also crossed every see over the Forum toward the political center of the city. In this connection
year to the western bank to visit the temple of Mentuhotep at Deir el Bahari.215 Vitruvius (IV.5, 2) seems to believe that a normal orientation for a temple
It is noteworthy that such extensive layouts of several temples connected by along the Nile was perpendicular to the river: "Also if a sacred temple is raised
some ritual were also known in Mesopotamia.246 along the riverside, as by the Nile in Egypt, it ought to seem to regard the
In such a layout as that of Luxor, where the small chapel of Thutmose III banks of the river." 210
faces the temple built later by Amenhotep III, one can deduce that the
approach must have featured a processional avenue leading from the Nile THE SOLAR ORIENTATION. There is undeniable evidence that some types of
quay to the site, later built up by Ramses II as a walled-in court surrounded by temples are definitely oriented in connection with the sunrise. In the Old
a colonnade. Kingdom the sun temple was laid out on an E.-W. axis, with the altar, chapel,
In Rome there must have been an ideal orientation, probably E.-W., and other cult elements in the eastern court. Similarly, both the funerary and
but the actual examples, as in Egypt, show considerable variations (S.E.-N.W., the valley temple of the pyramids after the Third Dynasty faced east, though
S.W.-N.E.). 247 This variation is also due to the local environment. Cicero 248 they usually had to be connected by a causeway running askew on account of
 188 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 189

the topographical conditions of the terrain. that the azimuth of important stars shows the direction of the temples whose
It was to be expected that the solar temples and chapels built by Akhena- gods are connected to these stars. Though we are sure that the tombs from the
ten in the Eighteenth Dynasty would also be oriented in connection with the Archaic Period and the Old Kingdom were oriented with their entrance
sun. As a matter of fact, all his temples, whether at 'Amarna or elsewhere ramps toward the north, as indicated by the contemporary polar star, accurate
(Sesebi), fronted east, except perhaps the Maru-Aten, which was nevertheless evidence as to a stellar orientation for temples of the New Kingdom is still
laid out along an E.-W. longitudinal axis. The kernel of the temple was the inchoate.
altar, consisting of a square platform to which a stairway ascended from the On the other hand, the evidence for an orientation toward sunrise for the
west (see p. 201), so that the worshiper would face the rising sun when sun temples, or perpendicularly to the riverbank for cult temples, seems to be
offering. In the private chapels in the estates at 'Amarna the basic element was convincing. The orientation of some Theban sanctuaries toward the Great
also such an altar set within a hypaethral structure. The stairway ascended Temple of Amun at Karnak, which is basically a symbolic one, is also a proved
from the west (house of Hatiay), but also from the east (T.36.36; H.0.49.2.3). fact. As has been brought forward by Nissen, the rite of the Jews to turn for
Numerous representations of both altar and hypaethral chapel in scenes from prayer toward Jerusalem and of the Muslims toward Mecca forms a striking
contemporaneous tombs allow a pretty accurate restoration of both types. A parallel to the orientation of an Egyptian temple at Thebes symbolically
few chapels had stairways ascending from the south (North Palaceand King's toward the Great Temple of Amun.
House at 'Amarna), and the desert altars east of the North Suburb were not
oriented eastward.
In the mortuary temples at Thebes there was a court located north of the TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF CULT TEMPLES
sanctuary of Amun, with an altar dedicated to Re'Horakhty. A stairway
ascended from the west (Hatshepsut, Seti I, Ramses II, Merneptah, Ramses THE TEMPLES AT P1-RA'MESSE (ARABIC, SAN EL HAGAR). Pi-Ra'messe, the Delta
III). The rock-cut temple dedicated to Re'Horakhty by Ramses II at Abu Residence of Ramses II at Tanis, was extraordinarily rich in temples: the Great
Simbel had an altar court to the north of its fa~ade, with a stairway ascending Temple, the Northern Temple, and extra-muros the temple of Anta.
from the west and facing sunrise behind two pseudo-pylons. In general the
area of solar worship in a temple of Amun was located to the right of the THE GREAT TEMPLE. Ramses II built a temple on the remains of an earlier one
axis when looking from the front toward the sanctuary. A further good ·ex- dedicated to Seth of A varis ( ?) , reusing materials from the ruins. Reports of
ample would be the one at Karnak where the area is marked by the colossal ancient travelers point to the large number of obelisks on the site, a fact quite
statue of a scarab on a stand, north of the Sacred Lake. 200 in accordance with the numerous · jubilee festivals that Ramses II celebrated
probably as many as fourteen.253 Remains of more than twenty-five obelisks'
THE THEORY OF THE STELLAR ORIENTATION. It has been presumed, on the basis of have actually been found. Some of these are monuments from the Middle
a few foundation texts in the temples of the Greco-Roman Period (Edfu, Esna, Kingdom or even from the Old Kingdom reused by Ramses II. They were
Dendera), that the orientation of the main axis of a temple was toward various probably erected in pairs in front of the successive gates of the temple on both
stars. There is indeed an earlier text from the reign of Thutmose III mention- sides of the longitudinal axis, and the location of their bases helps to supple-
ing that the pharaoh "awaited the day of the New Moon." 201 for the founda- ment the somewhat deficient information yielded by the foundation walls, the
tion ceremony. Both temples at Edfu and Dendera, where the texts mention only remnants of the monument.
the Great Bear stars as one pole of the axis, have exceptionally a N.-S. Ramses II erected a colonnade, using the palmiform granite columns
orientation, with a N.N.E. front at Dendera and a south one at Edfu. The (rn.95 m . high; 1.43 m. diam.) from the Old Kingdom temple and inscribing
theory of the stellar orientation, propounded mainly by Nissen, 252 maintains them with his own titulary and figure. 251 This colonnade on both sides of a
 190 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 191

paved avenue forms a monumenta l approach to the western fa;ade of the successor of Ramses II erected a large temple of limestone to the north of the
temple, marked by Pylon I. Such an arrangemen t was commonly used in other jubilee chapels of that pharaoh. These chapels could have stood to the west of
cult temples at that time. The plan is a long rectangle (W.-E., 250 x 80 ~.) Pylon III. The sanctuary itself is in a ruinous state, especially since Psusennes
bounded to the north and to the south by limestone walls 4.5 m~teryh_ick, and Siamen raze~ to build it again. The granite walls were decorated with
themselves abutting on earlier brick walls from the Hyksos or the Middle King- three registers of scenes representing Ramses II, and they were roofed over
dom 255 and divided transversely by three pylons into two courts, a hypos~yle with a large monolithic slab inscribed with one line. Small reused obelisks
hall and a sanctuary (fig. u3). The location of the pylons can be surmised with dovetailed apex and palmiform columns had stood in the vicinity.
on ~ccount of the large obelisks ( 13-18 m. high) flanking their gates and
THE NoRTHERN TEMPLE. It has been surmised that the "limestone building"
fallen near their bases. These red granite obelisks are exquisitely carved, an_d
named in the inscription mentioned above was the Northern Temple and that
their inscriptions in a vertical column along each of the four faces have their
it was built by Ramses VI 256 and destroyed in the troubled period at the end of
hieroglyphs directed toward the longitudina l axis of the temple (on the
the Twentieth Dynasty. Its plan stretched along an axis set transversely to that
eastern and western faces) or toward its rear (on the northern and southern
of the Great Temple, to which the northern gateway gave access (fig. u4). On
faces) . In the second court four sandstone statues ( 8 m. high) represe?ted
both sides of the latter the inner face of the great girdle wall was found to
Ramses II standing, and they were probably set along the eastern face (i~te­
present for some length a rough brickwork surface, which suggests that it was
rior) of Pylon II. Between Pylon III and the sanctuary, th~ area of the earliest
lined with limestone. To the west and east of the court, behind the girdle wall,
temple, one can surmise the existence of a columned _portico and ~ hypostyle
were the walls of a portico running possibly along the inner face of the girdle
hall (of smaller breadth). According to the inscript10n upon a lintel, some
wall. The northern gateway dated back to the same time as the girdle wall of
113. Layout of Tanis. Pi-Ra'messe in which it opened, and accordingly the court itself was also built
RUTORATION Of rnt by Ramses II. In the time of that pharaoh the general plan of this temple
FA~ADl Of Tttt mAT HMPlE connected by an avenue to the side of the Great Temple could have offered

l 14. Restored plan of the Northern Temple at Tanis.

BA I( K

0 JTO NE o
GR l AT HMP l [ 0 0

-·
0 0
0
XX IJT DYNAfTY Cl
0
z 0 0
0
0
0
0 (OUU 0
D 0
0
0
0

n
<t 0
0

~ o:: o~o::.,
0

L--------,.----
~Orn ° 12
>

~ CO URT ~
O ....._._JOm o
 192 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

some similarity with that of the temple of Amun at Karnak.201 Later, the
lUNK~Am /
JO RECEIV[
MlTAl CAP
temple proper was built behind a pylon bordering the court to the south. Its
rear walls abutted on those of the Great Temple.258 l ~
THE TEMPLE oF ANTA. 259 To the southwest of the great girdle wall lies the
:1.02 ,
temple dedicated to the Asiatic goddess Anta. Its axis is nearly perpendicular I I
I
to that of the Great Temple. The bulk of the remains date from the time of I

Siamen, but this pharaoh rebuilt the temple on the foundations of a larger
temple of Ramses II and Ramses III. The foundations ( 14 m. wide) reached
down below the subsoil water level. A monumental gateway opened to the
north, resting on a thick layer of sand (5 m. thick), encased within brick walls
(N., S.) . A vestibule with statues of Ramses seated or standing with Anta
formed an approach to the temple. Nothing of the latter remains except
perhaps statues of Ramses II and reused palmiform columns of the same type
-
0

ci

as those of the Great Temple. z,

I o I
I ;::::: r
THE OBELISKS AT P1-RA'MESSE. 260 At least ten of the larger red granite obelisks I~ I
I ~ l
I ~
were originally erected by Ramses II in front of the pylons of the Great
I
I - I
I z I

Temple. They stood in pairs, Banking the portals. Their heights vary (about I -
I
I

10.44 plus 2.05 m. [Ob. X]; 15.10 plus 1.12 m . plus x [Ob. IV], the first figure ntcur OB ELI JK WITN
DOVfTAIL[D APEX
indicating the height of the shaft itself, the second that of the pyramidion).
They are square or rectangular in section. All of them have bases of a rectan- 2. 20
gular plan, larger than the bottom of the obelisk so that a ledge is left between I'- I"' - - - - - - t--

both (fig. n5). The width of this ledge is not necessarily the same on adjacent '
'
Ill
sides (Ob. V, 0.415 and 0.225 m.). The upper face of the base is cut with a
simple groove reaching to one of the longer sides (II, X), or reaching from one ~Lj
side to the side opposite (V, IX), or a groove on an angular plan (III, IV) .
L _ _ ..J

Some bases are without any groove (I, VIII). These gr~oves were to direct the 1.63
lower edge of the obelisk as it was being lowered into position. Some of the 2.23

obelisks have had pieces of sheet iron placed in ancient times under one side to 2 .5 0 , r ·--- - - -- ~

help in their adjustment. 261 The height of the base varies between about 0.80 I
o
~ :, v
meter (V) and 1.25 meters (IV), and does not seem to be proportionate to the I
'
width or the length. The slope of the faces of the pyramidion varies, some
being rather tapered with receding areas around the apex to allow for affixing PlAN OF ~AlEJ
a metal cap (VI, VII, XI), sometimes by means of a dowel pin (II). TOPPfD WITM DOUBl t
PlAN AND tllVATION OF OBtlllK II CAOOVEl
There is no doubt that the obelisk was connected with the sun, and here
at Pi-Ra'messe, with the sun god of Heliopolis. 262 A vertical column of inscrip- u5. Plan, elevation, and details of obelisks at Tanis.
 194 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 195

tions in beautiful hieroglyphs runs along each face. The text gives the titulary Bonding of brickwork at the quoins is secur~d by means of wooden
of Ramses II and boasts of his valor in the battles against the Asiatics. The beams set in both directions (N.E. corner). A drain (0.9 m. high, 0.65 m.
deities most often mentioned are Seth, Montu, and Anta, all of Asiatic conno- wide) built in the shape of a brick vaulted channel passes through the bottom
tation. Even the figures of speech, such as the comparison of Ramses II to a of the eastern branch. It seems to have been connected to a system of limestone
lion or a bull, have a Semitic flavor. basins and chambers built above it in the thickness of the girdle wall (fig.
It is noteworthy that Ramses II, who usurped so many monuments, was 116). Large granite elements such as obelisks, pillars, and lintels characterize
so afraid of being deprived of his own by his successors that he caused his the construction, mainly in the vicinity of the sanctuary. Large roofing slabs
name to be engraved on the bottom face of the obelisks out of reach of any (2.70 m. span) or lining slabs with notches to fit the ends of lintels were used
impious hand (Ohs. VI, VII). (fig. 117). The cross section of the lintel is semicircular of the same type
already known in the Old Kingdom brick vaults and stone ceilings."64 Archi-
DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION IN THE GREAT TEMPLE (TANIS) . The great girdle
263

traves meeting at right angles in plan were jointed along a broken line,
wall ( I6- 17 m. thick, ea. 1,400 m. long) consists of recessed parts with convex
running parallel to one of the sides to continue along the diagonal (45 °)
courses of brickwork alternating with protruding parts with concave beds.
between both. Monolithic pillars (6 m . high) and bundle papyriform columns
The latter courses were built first and are larger. Faces of walls are battered.
(fig. n7) were occasionally used. A series of large granite slabs from the
The brick used is of a larger type than is usual (40 x 19 x 13-42 x 21 x 14
cm.), and there seems to be some evidence of the use of scaffoldings of timber 117. Constructional details from Tanis.
beams. The brick wall was built on a layer of rammed ostraca (south wing).
The gateways were built of various materials, chiefly sandstone and granite,
after a human sacrifice had been performed and the remains buried in pottery
jars under the threshold.

116. Details of gateways in girdle wall of Tanis.

~,.II,,.
DtTAIL OF LINTEL
.~~
----=-=~,

t4-- - - - - 15 m - - - - - -
DLA N Hi

rntlVAY Of PTOlt MY 1
Cl ~DL[ -WALL Of TAN II
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 197
''
sanctuary ( ?) were engraved with low reliefs representing scenes of offering.
The theme is uniform, but the scale of the personages varies ( r.65, r.40, r.20
m.), possibly planned to attain an effect of perspective.265 Such optical illusions
were certainly embodied in the design of the eastern monumental gateway of
hf. the temple complex at Medinet Habu 266 and in the fa~ade of Abu Simbel.
(( """
111111

-w THE TEMPLE OF HERISHEF AT EHNASYA.267 It seems that a temple was built in

the Eighteenth Dynasty on the remains of a Twelfth Dynasty temple. Ramses
Kf'
((
"'"'
11 1111
E II, however, rebuilt the structure on the same plan, adding colossi along both
~
I
sides of the court (fig. n8). The plan is restored hypothetically as a court, a
::z portico, a hypostyle hall, a transverse hall, and a sanctuary. The court opening
hr- I south is wider than the rectangular outline of the temple and has a row of
(( '""' E
columns along both sides. A colossal standing statue of the pharaoh in various
11111

-w """
dimensions is placed in front of each column. The whole court is paved with
limestone. The front of the temple proper has been restored as featuring a
-rf-- """
portico with eight ( ?) columns of granite with palmiform capitals, probably
~
11 1111
"""
taken over from the remains of the Twelfth Dynasty and having a central
" wider intercolumniat ion to emphasize the main gateway. The architrave bears
a symmetrical inscription and the lowest course of quartzite along the side and
I OOO OOO back walls had colossal inscriptions. It has been surmised by Petrie that, owing
OOO OOO
to the depth of the portico, a second row of limestone columns should be
f-rf' I
restored.
(( Ill"'
I OO O OOO The hypostyle hall was restored in later times. A transverse hall with four
~
OOO OOO columns, flanked by two or more side rooms, follows. At the rear a sanctuary is
also flanked with two side rooms.
f-rf-
.-----J I...____
mm
(( 111111 I

r-w ' THE TEMENos WALL OF THE TEMPLE AT HELIOPOLIS. 268 We are informed by the
inscriptions that the Ramessids built extensively in the temples in Heliopolis.
hf-. I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
On an obelisk of Seti I from there, now at Piazza del Popolo in Rome, this
(( 111111
I
Do pharaoh is called "Seti I-luminous-of-monuments" (akh menw). Practically
K- OD
nothing remains from the temples, except for the great temenos wall of the
o D Do main temple as a rectangular enclosure of double walls in brick ( E.-W.),
~
(( "'"'
'""' I
oD DO abutting against the fortified city wall on the west. Remains of a gateway have
~ oD D O been found on the east side and in the city wall on the west.
oD Do The curious fact that the walls are double has been attributed to their
oD CJ 0 having been constructed by two pharaohs, perhaps Ramses II and III. The
Do outer one is later and was intended as a reinforcement to the inner one.
oD
 198 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 199

000 0 0 0 0
0000000
0 0 0 0 0:
0 '
oOOO o!

Sllfz~lziJ
~ o\ .,_ _____ _..,
00 00

120. Plan of the western hall (Ramses II) in the temple of Ptah at Memphis.

Little architectural information has been yielded by the excavations. The

temple of Ptah was surrounded by a large temenos wall (N.-S.), nearly
rectangular in plan, perhaps the result of the building activity of a host of
pharaohs from the First Dynasty to Ramses III or even later. It is built in the
traditional style of the great brick wall with curved beds. The bricks are
42 x 21 x lI.5 cm. set in courses perpendicular to the face, which has a batter
of o.rr :r. 210 Menes is said to have been responsible for the earliest structure
(Herodotus II, 99); then a pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty built the eastern
propylaea; Amenemhat III (Twelfth Dynasty) built the northern propylaea ;
119. Sketch plan of some temples at Memphis.
Seti I built a small chapel; and Ramses II laid out a forecourt on the north and
a temple in the middle of the precincts and erected the statues in front of the
A GENERAL .SURVEY oF THE TEMPLES AT MEMPHIS.269 Only scanty remains of the temple. A recently discovered temple of Ramses II abuts on the south face of the
numerous temples that once covered large areas of the capital of Memphis enclosure wall of Ptah, oriented east and consisting of an approach through a
have been excavated. According to Herodotus supplemen,t:ed by Diodorus, the gateway, a columned portico, a squarish sanctuary with four columns and at
city extended about 8 miles ( 12.88 km.) along the border of the desert necro- its rear three contiguous chapels.211 Ramses III built a new temple in the court
polis. Its history goes back to the earliest dynasties and it remained an impor- and added much to the sacred furniture. Actual excavation yielded the plan of
tant center of civilization, even when it was no longer a capital, down to the the western hall (Ramses III) , consisting of a pylon with statues abutting on its
Ptolemaic Period. There were temples dedicated to no fewer than nineteen external face and a rectangular hypostyle hall (N.-S.) set transversely to the
deities, the most important being that of Ptah, as large as the temple of Amun axis (E.-W.) . The hypostyle hall preserves the peculiar arrangement of being
at Karnak. Other deities who had temples are Hathor (built by Merneptah to bordered on three sides by small columns and having in the remaining area
the south), Neith (to the north), Amun, Imhotep, Isis (built by Ahmose), four rows of larger ones, perhaps supporting a higher ceiling with clerestory
Osiris, Khnum, Thot (built by Ramses II), the Aten (built by Akhenaten), windows (fig. 120). Two passages run from two side entrances along the north
Anubis, and Sebek (fig. rr9). and south sides of the hall.

•
 200 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 201

c~~~
r:~9{<J- LJ \ I
\I
The essential elements were a small obelisk on a high base and an altar. In the
Aten worship no intermediate element is necessary and nothing of the equip-
ment of the Old Kingdom solar temple is maintained except the altar, indis-
pensable for presenting an offering to the sun disk. As a natural result the
~rogram of the '~mama temple appeared as an original and unique adapta-
tion to the adorat10n of the sun disk in the sky.
~\ ,
In its essential parts the temple is hypaethral. There is no need for a naos
since there is no deity to be sheltered, and most of the dependencies of the
' \~
typical cult temple of an anthropomorphic deity in its capacity as the "castle of
12r. Imitation of three rows of cord at the bottom of shafts in the columns of Kha'mwas
the god" are not featured. Other elements, however, are essential. Among
(temple of Merneptah at Memphis).
th~se. characteristics are the general rectangular shape of the plan, enclosed
w1thm a tremenos wall; symmetry about a longitudinal axis; orientation
The outer walls are of basalt, on a base of granite casing stones. Many of (fa~ade toward the west at 'Amarna); the pylons as entrance fronts to the
the blocks are reused column-drums of various sizes, engaged in the building co~r~s ! the circuitous entrance to conceal the interior from the eyes of the
of Ramses II. Another curious feature of the structure is the arrangement of unm1ttated; the slaughter court; the altar; and the trees flanking the entrance
the statue bases to suit both the front face of the pylon and the axis of the hall, approach. Most of these features, which had existed in Egypt since the Archaic
which is somewhat askew. The bases can have one of their sides square with Period, 214 could not easily be dispensed with.
the face of the pylon while the other is parallel to the axis of the hall. The . The basic element of an Aten temple is the altar to which a ramp or
colossi were of red granite ( S. entrance, 22 ft. [6.91 m.] high), alabaster statrway ascends from the west in the middle of the court, surrounded by a
(center of south tower, 38 ft. [ rr.58 m.]), and limestone (central gateway, 35 ft. temenos wall. Such an altar platform, occasionally surrounded by a wall and
high [ ro.67 m.]). fronted with a porch, is the typical chapel built as a rule in the axis of the main
From the temple built by Merneptah two elements are known: the main entrance in private estates at 'Amarna (see p. 96). A similar chapel had been
south gateway, later blocked up, and the doorway to the temple. From the erected by Akhenaten in his fortified town of Sesebi in the Sudan (see p. 275).
masonry a ruined column of Prince Kha'mwas, the "archaeologist," son of The altar could abut on four ramps oriented toward the cardinal points, as in the
Ramses II, of the bundle type with bud capital has the unique feature of so-called "desert altars" east of the North Suburb at 'Amarna. 275 This basic
imitating a three-course rope binding the shaft (fig. r2r). This reminds us of altar is to be found in the rear court in each of the three temples at 'Amarna,
the thin band running toward the bottom of all fluted•shafts in Neterikhet surrounded by rows of offering-tables. This court is occasionally preceded by
Djeser's complex at Saqqara (Third Dynasty). 272 another one quite similar (Per-Hai/Gem-Aten) and usually by one court
( s~nctuary in the Great Temple and in the Royal Temple) or more, filled in
with rows of offering-tables (Per-Hai/Gem-Aten).
'Amarna

The program of the cult temple at 'Amarna was quite different from that of Typical Examples at 'Amarna
the usual cult temple, being in fact that of a solar temple of a special type.
Egypt had had solar temples since the Old Kingdom, and remains of that of THE DESERT ALTARs. 216 To the east of the North Suburb at 'Amarna there are
Neuserre' at Abu Gurab 273 have allowed a thorough reconstitution of the plan. three square brick platforms of various sizes, erected along one axis (N.-S.).
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 203

The northernmost had four ramps of well-rammed sand and probably an altar
in the center. The middle building had originally been a chapel of the type
used in private estates with a ramp on the north side and an altar. Later it was
replaced by a larger chapel with a ramp, flanked by two mud altars. The
southernmost building is the largest and was probably a peripteral pavilion,
approached by four ramps, having a central dais and perhaps lined with stone
(fig. 122).
A road runs from the north altar to the north tombs, a disposition that
allows us to surmise that these altars were intended for funerary ceremonies.
THE GREAT TEMPLE. 277 The Great Temple occupies the largest area in the
Central City at 'Amarna (fig. 123). It seems to have been the earliest site to
E have been built up. Three periods of building can be differentiated from the
...
0

123. General layout of the Great Temple at 'Amarna.

lANCTUARY

H AU GHU R-COURT

GfM·ATEN

i ---- - •
...... : I

: off!RIN~
: TA& lf l :
PER·l;IAI I
I I I I
400 i. __ - -•o _ L_______J_~
m
R O~A L 1l0A D
 204 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

remains. In the last stage there were two large temples inside a large enclosure
(760 x 270 m.), directed E.-W ., with an entrance fac;ade on the Royal Road in
the shape of a pylon. Both temples are set on the central longitudinal axis,
about 350 meters apart. The earliest temple, the "sanctuary," was laid out at
the rear of the court. In front of it is a small platform, probably for a stela and
a colossus of the pharaoh. Just near it is the square enclosure of the slaughter
court. The second temple, on an exceedingly long rectangular plan, was built
near the entrance, flanked with two areas filled with rows of offering-tables.
m
The northern wall of the enclosure encroaches upon the so-called "Hall
of Foreign Tribute."
Several features of the construction are of interest. The whole of the
foundation-trenches was flooded with lime plaster, on which the line of the
walls was marked in black, and the foundation-blocks (50-54 x 25- 27 cm.)
laid with lime mortar. A similar process was used when laying out bases for
the offering-tables or other light structures, the whole area underneath being
covered with a plaster floor, then filled in with sand and the actual mud floor
laid smooth. There is no doubt that the practice of covering a plaster floor with
sand and an upper layer of mud implies some symbolic idea connected with
mud, perhaps as the primeval material of the earth.
A comparison of the actual remains with the representations of the
temples as found in 'Amarna tombs (see p. 166) has proved most helpful for
the restoration and comprehension of the monuments. Most of the ancient
drawings agree about the essential features, which have sometimes left no
traces after the destruction of the ephemeral capital.

THE SANCTUARY. The plan is enclosed within a court surrounded by a temenos

wall with two pylons, one behind the other. At the soutl,i end of the shallow
court between both front walls are three contiguous priests' houses of the same
type as the workmen's houses in the Eastern Village (see p. 113). A white-
washed sunken pathway leads along the axis to the fapde of the temple
proper. The tern ple consists of four courts of the same width, set one behind
the other, with the second and third ones having a high altar in their rear part.
On both sides of the Erst court are screen walls winding off the plan,
parallel to the sides and enclosing a blank area. No attempt has been made by
Egyptologists to explain this unique feature; but from my study of the harmonic
architectural design of the Egyptians it has become apparent to me that the

r24. Restored bird's-eye view and plan of the Sanctuary of the Great Temple at 'Amarna.
 206 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 207
two arms jutting out from the body of the plan are 87 cubits apart, that their pylon and bordered by two columned porticoes- and six other courts of the
rear outer wall is 89 cubits from the fa<;:ade of the outer enclosure, and the same width but diminishing in length eastward and separated by pylons. The
length of the inner cul-de-sac 34 cubits. The width of the plan is 55 cubits. The central pathway runs through all the courts along the axis to the last court.
purpose of the two arms becomes obvious : to indicate the layout of the fictive The first two courts are identical, having two series of offering-tables on both
squares whose dimensions give the essential elements of a summation series of sides of the pathway. The third court is shallower, contains two rows of
Fibonacci- 34, 55, 89, 144. This series was often used because of the constant offering-tables and, at the rear, a colonnade. The fourth court, which is
ratio of any two consecutive members as j means of attaining harmonic shallower, contains the usual offering-tables. The fifth and sixth courts are
proportions in architectural design. identical, each containing a high altar surrounded by offering-tables and a
In the first court accessible through a gateway rows of offering-tables border of shallow chapels, each enclosing an altar or offering-tables (fig. 125).
border the three sides, with shallow lateral rooms beyond. From the evidence The unusual number of offering-tables literally covering the floors of the
supplied by the representations of the sanctuary in the tombs, two porches of
four columns each with royal statues between could be restored in front of the 125. Restored plan and isometric view of part of the Per-Ha'i and Gem-Ateh.
two towers of the pylon, leading to the second court (fig. 124) .
A system of screen walls insuring a winding entrance to the second court
can be recognized from the foundation-trenches with the help of the represen-
tations. The use of the two porches and screen walls is not necessarily an
invention of the 'Amarna architects, for these elements, probably carried out in
perishable materials such as wood, must have been usual features of all cult
temples. This second court is the most important one and contains a high altar,
rows of offering-tables, and a border of contiguous shallow chapels open to the
sky ( ?).
This forms the Sanctuary in its latest stage; but outside the temenos wall
are two other courts, one abutting the main court containing the altar of the
earliest stage of the project, which once stood at the end of a broad avenue
bordered with rows of trees. This area was later built over. From the evidence
supplied by the study of the temple Per-Ha'i/Gem-Aten it can be safely
inferred that the rows of offering-tables, peculiar to the ~emples at 'Amarna,
have a symbolic implication.

THE PER-HA'i/GEM-ATEN. The second temple behind the entrance to the great
enclosure consists of two parts, the Per-Ha'i or "House-of-Rejoicing" and the
Gem-Aten or "Finding-Aten" or "Recognizing-Aten." This building was
erected on the site of an earlier processional way with a gateway and bordered
with sphinxes. The columned pavilion stood to the north of the axis near the
entrance to the temenos wall. The layout of the temple proper is unique.
Along the longitudinal axis, it consists of the Per-Ha'i- a court faced with a
 208 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT yRE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 209

courts has received inadequate explanation. Assuming that the two rear altars THE. MARU-ATEN. 279 Well to the south of 'Amarna, near the river, are two
were not used concurrently, the original plan would feature five courts with an contiguous enclosures, directed E.-W. The larger one contains a symbolic
additional duplicated altar court. The total number of offering-tables on one complex of temples, lake, and palace (fig. l27).
side of the longitudinal axis in the five courts is 365, or 366Yz if the rearmost The so-called entrance hall. This is a large court with four rows of nine
court is substituted for the one fronting it. The calendrical implication of such columns each, with palmiform limestone capitals filled in with colored pastes.
figures is obvious. The ubiquitous emphasis laid on "every morning" for the
126. General layout and restored plan of the Sanctuary of the Royal T emple at 'Amarna.
rebirth of the Aten in the religious literature at 'Amarna confirms this in-
terpretation.

THE RoYAL TEMPLE.278 This temple named If-wt-Aten, "The-Castle-of-Aten,"

located near the King's House, is enclosed within a temenos wall ( rno x 200
m.) fortified with buttresses except on the entrance fapde along the Royal
Road. This fa<;:ade was in the shape of a brick pylon, possibly with vertical
faces as is shown in the representations of the temple in the tomb of Tutu (fig.
126), with doorjambs lined with stone. Two flagstaffs were fixed into slots in
each tower. A secondary doorway in the enclosure flanks either tower of the
pylon. In the first court a central ramp bordered with rows of brick offering- 0 200
tables rose up to a brick altar. A pylon formed the fac;:ade of the second court,
flanked with secondary gateways. Similar doorways opened in the north and
south sides of this court. Granite stelae were inserted within the main gate-
ways.
A priest's house was erected in front of the south tower of the pylon, at
the rear of the second court, having a court with an altar and a corridor with
three rooms, one of which has a bed alcove.
The third pylon and gateway lead directly into the sanctuary itself. The
court around it is entered through two subsidiary doorways and contains three
domestic buildings in its south part. The sanctuary is reGtangular, with wing
walls similar to those of the sanctuary of the Great Temple, and it consists of
two courts, each with an altar and series of offering-tables. It seems that there ,, ..
....
was a colonnade flanking either side of the doorway to the inner court. A ' II

winding entrance with screen walls leads into the latter, which is bordered
with a row of contiguous shallow chapels. Trees were grown to the east,
behind the sanctuary, this being corroborated by the representations from the
tomb of Tutu.
The temple in its main lines is similar to the sanctuary of the Great
Temple, though less elaborate. It shows the same harmonic characteristics, 0
though less completely. ...__....__._~~...__~_._~~...._~....::.;50m
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHI TECTU RE 211

~
The central alley opens at both ends, to the west on the street and to the east on
TE MPl1 PALA([ {tYJ
10 the garden and its pool. There seems to be a columned court to the north, and
to the south a court with an altar or throne surrounded by three or more
columned rooms.
At the eastern end of the garden planted with shrubs are two houses.
l A K l Along the western side of the northern enclosure and separated from the
50
remaining grounds by a N.-S. wall is an alley on which open uniformly
planned houses set in a row. They are of the same type as the ones in the
workmen's village, with a narrow yard extending along their long side. The
plan shows the same tripartite division: entrance or front hall, living room
with two columns, and two small rooms in the rear part. Animals seem to have
been kept in the yard and it is surmised that this series of houses was to be used
100
m by the workmen or officials in the precinct.

[J
The largest area is occupied by an artificial rectangular lake ( 120 x 60
m.) about r meter deep, with sloping gravel sides, reminding one of the
f 3.
LJ artificial lake in the palace of Amenhotep III at Malqata. A long quay begins
P 0 ND
from the wall enclosing the houses and stretches eastward along the axis of the
northern enclosure. It projects into the water and has a breast wall on both
. sides and presumably an awning at its end. The lake was surrounded by a
hrnANH-HALL" garden planted with trees in holes filled with Nile humus and enclosed within
<:
·' a low mud wall, such as those represented in the contemporaneous Egyptian
~i
<: drawings of gardens. At the southeast corner of the lake are the remains of a
\!
structure of unusual plan. It is square with two wings Banking a central body
and a tank. In the wings, cellars formed the lower story, perhaps topped with a
loggia, while the central body consisted of various rooms of uncertain distribu-
~~-~~-:-'-'.:---'' m
I I I I
tion.
I 1 I I

•
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:
To the northwest of the lake is another building set symmetrically along
- - - - - ___ 1'...1 _J-:s...- - -- - - -r•- -~
\\._;·\- \ / 1~~
an E.-W. axis and approached from the west by a long passage between two
screen walls. The plan consists of three adjacent courts divided by two trans-
verse walls. Two rows of three columns stand in the first section and probably
an awning above the throne and a painting of the Aten on the back wall. The
balusters were decorated with colored stripes. To the south of the court
stretches a long room, at the rear of which is the alcove characterizing the
bedroom and presumably used by the pharaoh when he withdrew for the
127. The Maru-Ate n: 1 , plan; 2, restored cross section of the kiosk island; 3, detailed plan worship of the Aten. To the north are three contiguous rooms with brick Boor
and section of part of the tanks; 4, painted pavement from the water court.
and whitewashed walls.

i I
 212 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 213

The second section, which is the largest, has two rows of columns along axis common to both: the quay would have formed the parallel element to
two series of four contiguous lateral rooms. A brick coping ( 0.2. m. high), view the Aten in the morning across the lake, and the Aten could have been
built against the column bases, enclosed the central area which was open to the viewed at sunset from the temple as it went down into the lake. It seems that
sky. From the west a central alley flanked by two smaller columns led to two this lake was symbolical for the Nile, which is said in the solar hymns to have
mud compartments. The walls were decorated with painted patterns of grapes been created by the sun.
and pomegranate designs. Two staircases led up to the terrace. The kiosk forming the central element of the eastern complex is a
The third section has a central hall with three rooms of four columns peripteral chapel raised on a platform to which a stairway leads. Four columns
each, flanked by two series of three lateral rooms, probably used as cellars, as with reeded shaft which are connected by high screen walls form the sides of
may be inferred from the quantities of broken wine jars found in them. The the pavilion. A dais for an altar or throne rose in the middle. The outside is
walls are cemented and painted in tempera, with vine patterns and pomegran- decorated with naturalistic designs of plants and animals. According to Fair-
ate designs. I think this building corresponds to the temple palace, commonly man 283 the kiosk would have served as the often-mentioned "sunshade,"
laid out in front of the funerary temple in the New Kingdom at Thebes. known from the inscriptions.
The buildings laid out to the east of the lake formed with the latter a The kiosk is surrounded by an artificial moat which forms a small square
complex about two axes crossing at right angles (W.-E. for the lake and N.-S. island. The approach to the kiosk itself is flanked by two houses, similar in
for the buildings, flower beds, and water court). The W.-E. axis of the lake plan and decoration: a pavilion with open front fac;:ade on two pillars, flanking
and its eastern quay coincides with that of the front building. On the compara- the doorway and two antae. Here also the richness is the main feature:
tive evidence provided by the description of a maru dedicated by Amenhotep doorjambs are reeded, screens are perhaps in the shape of inlaid quartzite or
III to Amun in Western Thebes 280 and that of Ptolemaic times 281 dedicated to alabaster stelae, floors are of alabaster, and internal walls are lined with
Horns at Edfu Behedet, Edfu Djeba, and Dendera, it seems almost certain that faience. I would rather consider this kiosk as the temple where the initial
the eastern complex of buildings formed the essential part of the Marn-Aten. monthly festival of the Aten, called "Birth-of-Aten" ( mswt-ltn), was cele-
A maru was a religious building, which according to its name, would have brated. It is to be brought into connection with the eleven tanks of the water
served as "viewing place" for solar gods such as Amun, Aten, and Horns. court, which presumably symbolized the remaining eleven monthly festivals. 2s4
This complex, as it now exists, consists of the front temple, the kiosk on The flower beds flanking the pathway between the kiosk and the water
the island, the flower beds, and the water court. court would symbolize the beneficial action of the sun upon plants. A solar
The front temple forms the connecting link between the eastern complex hymn of 'Amarna reads: "Thy rays nourish every garden."
and the lake, since both N.-S. and W.-E. axes cross in the center of its court. The water court was a long rectangular area (E.-W.) with a central row
The temple is of the normal 'Amarna type: an outer cou~t with four columns of square piers ( 13), in the midst of a series of contiguous T-shaped shallow
of alabaster (lower drums) and sandstone (upper part), a pronaos with four tanks. The construction of these tanks is ingenious: the T-shaped elements
columns and a hypaethral sanctuary, with a central altar exposed to the sun alternate in plan, being separated by ridges triangular in section and plastered
and two columns along each side wall. It has been suggested by Gunn 282 that a with mud. These sloping sides were painted white below the water level, but
window of appearance opened in the east rear wall of this sanctuary just above decorated above it with designs of water plants. The floor of the passage
the altar so that the Aten could be seen and adored as it rose in the morning. surrounding the tanks was also decorated with such motifs as fowl and heifers.
Richness of treatment must have characterized this building, the shaft of the This rich color treatment, although lacking in originality, was probably sym-
columns being carved with wreaths of grapes and ducks, and the capitals with bolical for the flora and fauna characterizing every month and calls to mind
lotus, the lintels being in alabaster, and the walls decorated with inlaid reliefs the treatment of the pavement in the Northern Palace. It shows a good sense of
and inscriptions. Its connection with the lake is clearly indicated by the W.-E. composition and technical ability, being a mixture of details and impressionis-
I

11

•
 214 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 215

tic treatment. As a preparatory stage in the construction the whole area of the
tanks was excavated and cross walls were built in brickwork and a floor of
brick laid down. Two of the pillars were reinforced with timber beams laid
crosswise in superimposed layers. It can be noticed that the tanks were laid out
asymmetrically about the alley and the axis of the kiosk. This intriguing point
can happily be accounted for if we accept the surmise that each tank symbol-
ized a month with its particular flora and would have served for the celebra-
tion of the monthly "Birth-of-Aten." In Ptolemaic times the initial festival of
the Falcon of the sun god Hor-Re' was celebrated in his maru at Edfu on the
first of the month of Tybi (fifth month of the year). At Mam-Aten four
monthly festivals would have been celebrated in turn about the four tanks
west of the alley; the initial festival, however, would have been celebrated in
the kiosk, and the seven remaining ones about the seven eastern tanks.
With the exception of the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos, the Mam-Aten is
probably the most elaborate symbolic layout in the religious architecture of the
New Kingdom. It would have conveyed by means of architectural elements
and layout the various aspects of Aten in his potentiality as Creator.

THE TEMPLE OF SETI I AT ABYDos. 285 This large temple is unique in being laid
out on an irregular plan and having seven shrines for seven deities, one being
the deified pharaoh (fig. 128). The main body of the building is symmetrical

128. Perspective of second hypostyle hall, of one of the chapels, and plan of the temple
of Seti I at Abydos.

Plate 8. Second hypostyle hall in the temple of Seti I at Abydos.

 216 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

(N.E.-S.W.) up to the rear of the shrines, but it has a southern wing appended to
one side. Several explanations of this unusual feature have been propounded,
including the following: the presence of the Osireion mound and building just
26 feet (7.92 m.) behind the site; its sacred spring 286 (Strabo mentions a spring
connected with the temple of Seti I, "The Memnonium") ; and last, but most
unlikely, the difficulty of excavating the rock.281 The structure is of fine
limestone for the walls and of harder limestone for the architectural elements.
A landing quay, a ramp, a front terrace, and two courts with two pylons
and pillared porticoes ( 12 pillars) at the rear precede the buildings. On the
walls were scenes celebrating military exploits of Seti I and his son Ramses II
in the presence of the gods. To the southeast of the main body of the temple,
between the first and second courts, has recently been found what presumably
is the temple palace of Seti I. The first hypostyle hall of appearance, relatively
shallow, has two rows of bud papyriform columns (24), set in pairs flanking
five processional pathways and ramps leading to five doorways in the axes of
five of the shrines. There are two more pathways on the two sides having a
similar arrangement, but with only one pair of columns on one side. The wall
scenes represent the themes relevant to the function of appearance hall : youth
of Seti, his coronation, and offering-bear.ers personifying the names. The same Plate 9· Seti I pouring a libation before Osiris and Horns ; low relief on the west wall 11
of the hypostyle hall.
plan is used for the second hypostyle hall (pl. 8), which has three rows of
columns, two being identical to the former ones but the third being raised on a
Platero. Seti I enthroned between Buto (left) and Nekhebet, with Horns and Thot;
high platform and consisting of a cylindrical shaft without capital. The deco- low relief on the west wall of the sanctuary of Pharaoh in his temple at
ration consists of incised reliefs from the reign of Ramses II in the first hall Abydos.
and beautiful low-relief scenes representing Seti I and gods in the second one
(pl.9) .
In the seven axes are seven sanctuaries for the sacred cult statues and their
barks in the shape of deep contiguous rooms roofed ovei;. with corbeling slabs
cut as flat vaults. They are decorated with stars and the royal cartouches, while
the low-relief scenes on the walls represent the pharaoh with the seven gods
and their relatives (pl. ro). In the rear wall of each is a double false-door,
except in the sanctuary of Osiris, closely similar to that of the throne room in
the temple palaces at Thebes (palace of Ramses III at Medinet Habu).- Seti I
calls his temple "An August Palace of Eternity." Behind the sanctuaries and
accessible from the sanctuary of Osiris is a central transverse hall with ten
columns without capitals, flanked on either side by three contiguous rooms.
 218 Ill: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 219

Each of the five sanctuaries of Ptah, Re'Horakhty, Amun-Re', Horns, and

Isis contained the cult statue of its god and the wall scenes of each represented
the daily cult ritual. Although these sanctuaries were located to the rear as
were the bark-chapels in other temples they did not contain the barks. These
were stored together in a special room opening north of the kings' gallery. The
broad bench running around the walls of this room was to store the barks (ea.
2.68 m. long) depicted on the walls. The barks were carried to their cult-statue
sanctuaries on festivals; hence they were also represented there. The sanctuary
of Seti I ( southeast) was dedicated to the cult of the royal statue.
The unfinished south wing, accessible from the second hypostyle hall,
consists of a small hall with columns without capitals, and the kings' gallery
on whose walls are the names of the most important 76 pharaohs down to Seti
I, leading to a slaughter court bordered on three sides by a portico on seven
columns. The drainage system in its floor is a proof that the animals were
- ,
_____

really sacrificed ther'e, as shown in its wall scenes.

The architectural value of this temple is outstanding, showing a marked
effort toward simplicity, in both the design and the layout, with its seven
parallel series of groups of columns with wider intercolumniations for the
pathways and ramps, and the columns with the simple cylindrical shaft with-
out capital. This latter rare type was met with in the temple of Sahure' (Fifth
Dynasty), but here it has sturdier proportions (5.5 diameters to the height
instead of 6.5) and a slight taper, with a square abacus whose side equals the
diameter of the top of the shaft and four vertical bands of inscriptions. 288 The
mural decoration in fine low-relief scenes of elegant design and coloring ( color
plate VIII), among the best of all periods, enhances the aesthetic value of this
monument.
The harmonic analysis of the plan shows that the.L-shaped design was
not an afterthought, but the result of a well-studied alternative to the usual
axial plan.

THE OsrnEroN OR CENOTAPH OF SETI I (ABYDos). 289 The cenotaph lies within the
sacred precincts, to the west and on the same longitudinal axis as that -of the
main body of the temple of Seti I. It was built in an excavation in the
sandy-day stratum of the desert, with almost vertical sides. Two parallel
limestone walls running over the eastern room of the cenotaph )
served as
retaining walls to the sand bed upon which the temple was built. It seems that
129. General layout, plan, and section of the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos.
both cenotaph and temple of Seti I were built at the !lame time (fig. 129).
 220 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 221
Layers of stone chips corresponding to the levels of the horizontal joints
between the masonry beds may be interpreted as the result of throwing in the
marl excavated during construction to serve as a constructional ramp. Six
tree-pits were found on the north, east, and south sides of the central hall.
They are circular in shape, 4 meters in diameter, with walls of limestone flakes
( 0.5 m. thick), containing black earth intended to reach ground level around
the temple.
The cenotaph is a subterranean building on a rectangular plan, reached
from the west through a long vaulted ramp N .-S. (32 m.), entered from the
bottom of a shaft outside the temenos wall of the sacred precincts. The vault is
flat, of the laminated type five courses thick, alternating in their inclination
( rn ° from the vertical), built of special curved bricks. The limestone walls of
the passage are inscribed with scenes from funerary books and support a
sandstone pent roof ( 71 ° to the horizontal) . A broadening of the passage
where it turns at right angles to the sloping passage reminds one of the same
broadening in the Theban royal tombs. The sloping passage (15°) starts and
ends with a horizontal stretch and had texts from the Book of the Dead on its
walls. It opens into a transverse room (27.15 x 5.25 m.; 4.65 m. high), roofed
over with a corbel roof cut in the shape of a pent roof underneath. It is
symmetrical with the sarcophagus chamber (pl. rr ), set on the other side of
the central hall.
This central hall forms the main part of the building, in the shape of a
rectangular island surrounded by a channel bordered with unfinished cells. A
ledge surrounds the island and the cells opposite (pl. 12) . Two stairways
descend from the eastern and western small sides to the bottom of the channel.
Ten sturdy pillars of red granite (seven monoliths 2.05)-2.12 x 2.35-2.38 m.)
form two rows along the long side of the island. At the .ends of the rows are
corresponding antae pilasters in the walls opposite. They carry architraves
supporting roofing slabs ( IO x 2.5 x r.6 m. thick) and coping stones.
Plate I r. The chamber in the shape of a sarcophagus in the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos;
Thrust beams were set at the bottom of the channels between the island
the only light reflected by a mirror comes through the gap in the wall.
and the opposite walls, under the line of piers and pilasters about one-third the
height above the foundations. The latter were just above the subsoil water-
table in Seti's time. 0

The west room (27.15x4.75x4.45 m. high), set transversely and simi-

lar to the entrance hall, built of limestone with a corbeled roof of sandstone cut
in the shape of a pent roof, had inscriptions on its plaster. Its seems that there
 (
222 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIQUS ARCHITECTURE 223
was no entrance to this sarcophagus chamber. The roof has delicate reliefs
showing Nut, the goddess of the sky.
The similarity of the plan of the cenotaph to that of the Theban royal
tombs is obvious, the sarcophagus chamber being itself, on account of its shape
and position, a huge sarcophagus. Such cenotaphs intended as a substitute for
the actual burial located in some other place were built at Abydos by Senusert
III, Ahmose, and Queen Tetisheri. In the cenotaph of Seti an Osireion, or the
likeness of an Osirian burial on the Primeval Hill, surrounded by the primeval
waters was set out as described and pictured in various texts and papyri. The
central hall, with its channel surrounding the island and accessible from two
opposite stairways, obviously pictures the Primeval Hill and its surrounding
waters. Thus it amalgamates Osirian (sarcophagus chamber and trees) and
cosmogonic beliefs.
The building was never finished and it has been described briefly by
Strabo (XVII.I). It was decorated with low relief. It is in sandstone with
limestone for the rooms and corridors, and granite for the piers and archi-
traves.
The architectural simplicity, which reminds one of the Fourth Dynasty
style as exemplified in the valley temple of Chephren at Giza, features even
sturdier proportions for the piers and intercolumniations (360:168 in.
[9.14:4.27 m.J for height:width, compared to 444:210-254 in. [1r.08:5.33-6.45
m.] at Giza). This simplicity is certain! y not due to the unfinished state of the
structure, but rather to an attempt at expressing its purpose as an underground
duplicate of the Primeval Hill and waters and a parallel to the royal tomb.
This monument is perhaps the most conspicuous example of religious
symbolism in Egyptian architecture. A basic phase of the Osirian myth, that of
the burial of Osiris in a cosmological setting, is inter.preted in everlasting
architecture. As a result of the democratization of the Osirian rites, originally a
prerogative of royalty, individuals seem to have yearned for an Osireion of
their own. In at least two Memphite tombs there is a representation of the
funeral ceremonies being performed on an artificial island surrounded by a
watercourse bordered by a range of edicules on the outer bank. Whether this
was a copy of the Osireion at Abydos or of a Memphite one cannot be
assured (see p. 496).
Plate 12. The hypostyle hall in the cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos.
THE TEMPLE OF RAMSES II (ABYoos) . Located north of the temple of Seti I
290

and also dedicated to Osiris and the deceased pharaoh this temple had a large
 224 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 225
the chapel of the bark of Ramses II (north of the hall), and the chapel for the
funerary cult of Ramses II and for Hathor. The central pillared hall must have
served as offering-table hall fronting the three contiguous sanctuaries: the
middle one contained the cult symbol of Abydos on its sled and featured a
0 0 0 0 0
0
double false-door in its rear wall, the northern one reserved for Isis' bark, and
0
the southern one for Horns' bark. The chapels opening north of the offering
D hall were dedicated to various gods while the rooms symmetrical to them
0 opening south were magazines for linen, costumes, and equipment. The two
D squarish halls, each with two pillars and nine niches, were perhaps for the cult
D of the ennead of the temple.

0
()
On the external walls are scenes of war against the Hittites (north and
west) and an inscription recording the building and endowments of the
=:JI temple.
130. Plan of the temple of Ramses II at Abydos. THE TEMPLE OF AMuN AT LuxoR "SouTHERN HAREM" OR "SouTHERN PRIVATE
AREA" (!pet resyt). 291 The greater part of the temple was built by Amenhotep
forecourt fronting a peristyle court bordered with Osiride pillars. The plan of
III on the site of an earlier structure and dedicated to the triad of Thebes:
the temple proper is symmetrical consisting of two broad pillared halls trans-
Amun, Mut, and their son Khonsu. The temple ( 623 x 181 ft. [ 189.89 x 55.17
verse to the longitudinal axis E.-W ., flanked by small chapels, and at the rear
m.]) consists of a colonnade, a court with porticoes, an "open" hypostyle hall
the three typical contiguous sanctuaries, and in either corner a hall with two
of an unusual type, four small halls with lateral rooms, the sanctuary, and two
pillars (fig. l 30). The broad halls and the three rear chapels are the same
shrines (fig. 131) . Around it ran a girdle wall consisting of independent
width so that they form an axial strip flanked on either side by a narrower one
consisting of the chapels. The plan is in fact based on a grid pattern.
In spite of its ruined condition the temple is of considerable interest not 131. Plan of the temple at Luxor, restored front, and details of columns from the (1) hypo-
only because it must have been the most beautiful and richest among the sty le hall, ( 2) processional colonnade, and ( 3) forecourt of Ramses II .
temples of Ramses II but also on account of its significance for the study of the
correlation of function of building with wall scenes. The walls of limestone
had pink and black granite door frames, sandstone pillai;.s, and a sanctuary of
alabaster. The scenes in low relief compare as to quality with those in the
temple of Seti I. Sunken relief was used in the court, in the first hall, and' in its
adjacent chapels. The first pillared hall is the Hall of Appearance decorated
with a dado of offering-bearers personifying nomes, topped with scenes of the
pharaoh making his offering to Osiris, heading a procession, carrying the
Abydos cult symbol into the temple, and being crowned. The two chapels on
either side of the first hall open directly on the _court and are dedicated to -l

forms of the royal cult: the cult statue of Seti I and its bark (southernmost
chapel), the chapel of the ancestors of Ramses II (south of the pillared hall), i'~l j>
-
~)
!~
'

-]/-:- hl - . 711-
,,
-'-1' -

1-=x:-
r
~,,,, \h
"'--':£\\\
3
 226 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 227
massifs of sun-dried brick abutting at their ends, built of courses set on a triple
system that ran concave-horizontal-concave.
In front of the temple was the earlier small sanctuary in granite of
Thutmose III (pl. 13). Beside the temple Amenhotep IV built a sanctuary to
the sun which was later destroyed by Horemheb. Tut'ankhamun, Horemheb,
and Seti I worked at the low reliefs on the walls of the colonnade. In front of
the temple Ramses II added a large court with porticoes, along an axis askew
to the curved original one so that the entrance to the new pylon could be
placed beside the earlier sanctuary of Thutmose III without encroaching upon
it. The sanctuary was reconstructed by Ramses II at the same spot and was
embodied in the courtyard portico, abutting on the inner face of the northern
tower of the pylon. 292 It was necessary for the columns nearest the sanctuary of
Thutmose to be engaged in its walls resulting in a quite unusual type of
column. Such deviations are evid, rit in other temples: the Ramesseum set
askew owing to the older temple of Seti I, the girdle wall of the mortuary
temple of Ramses III laid out irregularly because of the older temple of Ay and
Horemheb.
The longitudinal axis of the temple is curved, formed of straight stretches
set end to end (pl. 14). The rearmost part of the plan up to the open hypostyle
hall has the same axis as the earlier temple of Thutmose III, probably parallel
to the riverbank. From the rear of the open hypostyle hall the axis deviates
eastward to allow it to pass east of the earlier temple of Thutmose .QI and be
linked to the axis of the processional alley of sphinxes running toward the
temple of Khonsu at Karnak. The process of curving the axis is allied to a
deformation of the various parts of the plan beyond the hypostyle hall into
trapezoids (court and colonnade) or parallelograms to allow for symmetry
along this axis. At the same time the lines transverse to th,s: axis are not parallel
to one another but they follow the curvature in a compromise to set them at
right angles to this axis. Curved axes are also used at Karnak and later in
Philae.
Plate 13. Fa<;:ade of the small temple of Thutmose III in the court of Ramses II at Luxor.
The part added by Ramses II consists of a forecourt (wsekhet khefet-her)
Beyond is the west tower of the pylon and one of the obelisks that fla nked the
surrounded on the inside by a double portico along its four sides and fronted
entrance.
by a huge pylon faced with six royal statues, the one to the east being
"Ruler-of-the-Two-Lands," and with two granite obelisks. These two obelisks
are not on the same alignment, probably to make up in perspective for their
difference in height. The court, a "feast court" called "The-Temple-of-Ramses-
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 229

Meriamon-united-w ith-eternity," 29~ is a parallelogram ( 187 x 167 ft. [57 x

50.9 m.]) and is bordered on its four sides by a portico with two rows of bud
papyriform columns with cylindrical shafts. Colossal granite statues of
Ramses II representing him striding with a diminutive Queen Nefertari were
placed between the columns of the south part (pl. 15). The colossus to the
west was "Re'-of-the-Rulers," a name borne by other statues at Abu Simbel
and the Ramesseum. The decoration of the walls is in sunk relief showing
scenes of victories over the Hittites in Syria (outside), the battle of Qadesh
(pylon), and sacrificial scenes and processions above a long row of princes,
princesses, priests bearing offerings, fatted oxen gaily decorated, and priestesses
about to enter the pylon of the temple. The eastern doorway was the "Great-
doorway-'King-of-Upper-and-Lower-Egypt-U serma'tre'-Setepenre'-worshiped-
by-the-people.' "
The temple proper, as built by Amenhotep III, was approached via a
colonnade of fourteen huge open papyriform columns (52 ft. [ 15.85 m.]),
enclosed within two parallel walls later decorated by Tut'ankhamun, and
usurped by Horemheb, with realistic scenes on its west wall of the voyage of
Amun from Karnak to Luxor and back on the yearly festival of Opet (pls. 16,
17). Inscriptions mention six way stations of the bark carrying the statue of
Plate 14. View of the great colonnade of Amenhotep III at Luxor, showing the bent axis of Amun between Karnak and Luxor, each possibly having a repository chapel
the plan. (men wahet, "way station") .294 The processional dromos bordered with col-
umns, but without the side walls, is a current feature in the Theban cult
Plate 15. The southeast corner of the court of Ramses II at Luxor.
temples ( Soleb). The side walls were probably built by one of the successors of
Amenhotep III. The granite chapel of Thutmose III consists of three contig-
uous deep shrines for the barks of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, preceded by a
porch with four columns. It was rebuilt by Ramses II whose statuettes stood in
niches in Amun's shrine. The orientation of this small temple parallel to the
river, but southward, implies the existence of a watercourse stretching perpen-
dicularly to the river which was probably filled in later.
The large court ( 148 x 184 ft. [ 45.11 ~ 56.08 m.] ) is a "feast court"
bordered on three sides by a portico with two rows of bud papyriform col-
umns. It is to be noticed that the width of the court at its rear is slightly less
than at its front to comply with symmetry about the curved longitudinal axis.
This would have perforce enhanced the depth of the perspective of the court
by an optical illusion and added to its impact ( cf. similar optical illusions in
the entrance gateways at Medinet Habu).
 230 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 231

The hypostyle hall, described as a hall of appearance (wsekhet kha'it),

has 32 bundle papyriform columns and is of a unique shape on accot1nt of its
front fa\'.ade open to the court (pl. 18) . This type of plan corresponds to the
much earlier two-step plan of vestibule connected by a pillared court found in
the Old Kingdom funerary temple (Cheops) .295 The decoration of the walls
shows Amenhotep III before the gods of Thebes ceding the temple ("present-
ing the house to its lord") above a plinth of personages personifying the
Egyptian nomes. The effect of light and the balance of the plant columns in
this hall can be regarded as a most successful achievement of architectural
beauty 296 (pl. 19).
In the rear wall of the hall one doorway opens onto a broad hall,
originally with eight columns, flanked by two small shrines (Mut, Khonsu), a
staircase, and a passage to the rear. This hall was used later for the cult of the
Roman emperors and contained the standards of the legion, once its south
doorway was blocked with an apse painted with figures of the two Augusti
and the two Caesars (end of A.D. third century) . ,,
Two square halls, each having four columns, follow one behind the
other. They are flanked by side rooms, in three of which are three columns,
and an outer series of four contiguous cells. The second central hall is the
bark-chapel, now containing a shrine built later dedicated by Alexander the
Great to Amun. Its scenes represent the king entering, receiving the two
crowns, and offering rites. The north lateral room on the east is dedicated to
the theogamy or marriage of Amun with Queen Mutemuya, the mother of
Amenhotep III, represented in low-relief scenes similar in subject to those of
Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahari. This record of a divine marriage,
imagined by some ruler to legalize his rights to the throne, was interpreted
graphically in the Eighteenth Dynasty, but it had been k;,pown since the Old
Kingdom ( cf. the divine origin of the pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty as related
in the Tale of Cheops and the Magician) . At the time of Amenhotep III the
remaining part of the temple was accessible through a side doorway in the east
wall of the rear hall. Later a central doorway was opened behind the stand for
the bark, in the axis of the plan. This arrangement of two separate sanctuaries,
the one in front made accessible to the people and the one to the rear reserved
only for the priests, is one of the characteristics of this temple. Above the lintel
of the doorway between both rooms, concealed by removable slabs and accessi- Plate r6. The colonnade of Amenhotep III as seen from the first hypostyle hall at Luxor.
ble by holds cut in the wall, was a small chamber probably for oracular
 232 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

pronouncements like that in the temple of Khonsu. It is possibly the earliest

example of a bark-chapel set in front of the shrine of the statue of the god, an
arrangement that was followed in later temples. 297 A broad "hall of the offer-
ing-table" ( wsekhet hetep) with twelve columns precedes the shrine of the
statue and is flanked by two small rooms, the eastern one being in fact a small
"hall of the offering-table." The statue of Amun seated was of colossal propor-
tions, placed on a socle abutting on the rearmost columns, like the socles of
thrones in temple palaces. There were two lateral balustrades. This is repre-
sented in low relief in two scenes flanking the entrance doorway to the rear
shrine. This separation between two sanctuaries was not a new feature; the
mortuary temples of the Old Kingdom have it. Amun-Re' of Opet put in an
appearance every ten days under Ramses II to proceed to a way station near
the Nile; and every year he crossed the river to visit the Lords of the West or
earlier kings in Western Thebes and rest in the shrine of Amun at Medinet
Habu.
Flanking the gates were colossal statues of the pharaohs standing or
seated, such as those of Ramses II in the forecourt, and groups of Amun-Re'
and his wife on the south side of the doorway of the pylon just before the
Plate 17. View from the south corner of the court of Amenhotep III at L uxor.
northernmost columns in the colonnade of Amenhotep III (pls. 20, 21).
Plate 18. View from the south west corner of the court of Amenhotep III at Luxor at sunset.
THE TEMPLES AT KARNAK (EGYPTIAN !pet Iswt, "THE-oNE-CHECKING-THE-
CENsus-oF-PLAcEs") . El Karnak is an antiquated term in the local Arabic of
Upper Egypt and the Sudan meaning "fortified village," curiously reminiscent
of the Egyptian "castle of god" (temple) .

A HISTORICAL SKETCH. The power of the god Amun of Thebes had gradually
increased in the early New Kingdom, and after the shor.t: persecution led by
King Amenhotep IV- Akhenaten, it rose to its apex. In the reign of Ramses III
more than two-thirds of the property owned by the temples belonged to
Amun. The stupendous buildings at Karnak are one aspect of this wealth
recorded in contemporaneous temple archives.
There are remains of a temple from the Middle Kingdom to the rear of
the complex. The mention of a pharaoh's name preceding that of Snefru in the
list inscribed in the ancestors' hall of Thutmose III at Karnak proves that this
site was hallowed ground since the Third Dynasty. Amenhotep I ( 1557- 1530
B.c.) built a small alabaster ~anctuary. Thutmose I enclosed the earlier
Twelfth Dynasty remains within a girdle wall and built a new structure con-
 234 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 235

sisting of a court surrounded by columns and Osiride statues, preceded by a

pylon (V), a hypostyle hall with cedar columns, and another pylon (IV) .
Hatshepsut removed the wooden ceiling and erected her two obelisks in the
rather narrow hall. Thutmose III ( 1504- 1450 B.c.) rebuilt the ceiling to hide
the obelisks of Hatshepsut, two halls between Pylons V and VI, and the
famous Great Festival Hall to the east of the temple of Amun.
Amenhotep III (1408- 1372 B.c.) built to the west a large pylon (III) ,
preceded by an avenue of sphinxes. Ramses I (1315 B.c.) built a still larger
pylon to the west (II) and connected it to the other by a colonnade. His son
Seti I completed a huge hypostyle hall called "The-Great-Divine-Palace-of-the-
Spirit-of-Seti-Merneptah-in-the-Temple-of-Amun." Ramses III ( l l 98- 1166 B.c.)
built a complete temple near the foremost plyon, at right angles to the larger
temple.
Later, the Libyan pharaohs (Twenty-Second Dynasty, 950-730 B.c.)
began the construction of a large court bordered on two sides by a portico
which was completed only under the Ethiopian and Ptolemaic dynasties. "
Besides this large temple of Amun-Re' there are several other independ-
ent smaller temples built by pharaohs of the New Kingdom. The temple of
Ramses III and the chapel of Seti II are embodied in the large temple. To the
north are the temples of Ptah (Thutmose III) and Montu (Amenhotep III);
to the south the temples of Kamutef (Hatshepsut), Amun-Re', and Mut
(Amenhotep III), and the temple built by Ramses III as well as a series of
pylons and (Pylon VII by Thutmose III, Pylon VIII by Hatshepsut, Pylons
IX-X by Horemheb); and to the southwest the temple of Khonsu (Ramses
III- XI). Other pharaohs contributed to the architectural growth of the site:
Amenhotep IV, Thutmose III, and Ramses II, not to mention the later sover-
eigns until the Ptolemies. This complex is probably the.best example of the
growth of a temple by accretion during more than l,500 years. Throughout
that long span of time building activities never ceased. Courts fronted with
pylons larger than the preceding one were added in front of the existing Plate 19. View looking north along the western double colonnade in the court of Amenho-
buildings. The resulting regularity of the huge complex implies the existence tep III at Luxor.

of a strict tradition and well-defined regulations in harmonic architectural

design.

GENERAL LAYOUT (fig. 132) . An appraisal of the general layout of the site
could be achieved by considering the Great Temple of Amun as a focal center,
0
 236 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
l

132. General layout of the temples at Karnak.

and that of his wife Mut as a secondary one connected to it by a long avenue of
sphinxes and courts with no fewer than four intervening pylons. Each temple
was surrounded by a large brick girdle wall enclosing other smaller temples.
The temple of Montu, the earliest and original deity of Thebes, stands inde-
pendently to the north within its own temenos wall and has its own avenue of Plate 20 . Colossal group of Ramses II and his wife Nefertari at the northern end of the
great colonnade at Luxor, in the early morning.
sphinxes (pl. 22).
The street bordered with sphinxes and coming from the temple of Luxor
branches off into a lateral avenue (E.) toward the entrance to die temple of
Mut, before reaching the front entrance to the temple of Khonsu at the Plate 21 · Colossal group of Ramses II and his wife Nefertari at the northern end of the
great colonnade at Luxor, in the sunset light ( cf. pl. 20).
southeast corner of the main enclosure of the Great Temple of Amun. From
the front pylon of the Great Temple and along its longitudinal axis an avenue
of sphinxes leads to the landing quay or tribune. The N.W. orientation has no
cosmic implication. Probably the riverbank formed the basis line upon which
the longitudinal axis of the Great Temple of Amun was set perpendicularly.
Directed to this temple as a pole of orientation were the nearby temple of Mut
and that of Amun at Luxor, not to mention the mortuary temple of Hatshep-
sut on the opposite bank at Deir el Bahari. The unusual orientation of the
small temple of Khonsu is accounted for by its use as a repository at the end of
the long processional avenue from Luxor. The girdle wall around the Great
Temple of Amun is trapezoidal in plan, (N. 530 m., E. 510 m., S. 510 m., W.
710 m.) with four gateways opening on two crossing axes and at least three
 238 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

other secondary gates. Its perimeter of 2,260 meters was given as 13 stadia
(2,308 m.) by Diodorus. The girdle wall around the complex of Mut is also on
a trapezoidal plan. This unusual shape is also a result of the layout connection
between both complexes by means of a curved processional avenue. The
curvature of the latter was an attempt to comply with the traditional setting of
transverse lines at right angles to the longitudinal axis. The pylons across the
curved avenue between the temple of Amun and that of Mut are not parallel
to one another, but set in slightly diverging directions. Architectural design
could ally strict traditional norms to a versatile treatment.

I. THE CENTRAL GROUP. THE GREAT TEMPLE OF AMUN-RE' 298

The name I pet lswt defines the sacred precincts from the beginning of the
Eighteenth Dynasty up to Amenhotep IV, between Pylon IV and the festival
Plate 22. Air view of Karnak from the southwest (before 1945).
hall of Thutmose III.
The longitudinal axis of the temple is perpendicular to the riverbank, thus
giving a W.-E. orientation. The site once occupied by the earlier buildings of
the Middle Kingdom was left vacant and the pharaohs of the Eighteenth Plate 23 . The processional alley of sphinxes and the tribune as seen from the top of Pylon I
Dynasty built in front of it. Later buildings were added to the west, gradually at Karnak; beyond, the Nile and Western Thebes.
approaching the riverbank.
In front of the main entrance was an elevated platform or tribune with a
central socle bordered by a parapet wall with two small obelisks of Seti II (fig.
133) connected by an alley flanked by crio-sphinxes called "The Way of Rams"
to Pylon I (pls. 23, 24). Another such tribune existed to the north of the
temple of Montu. The landing quay was located much lower on the river-
bank.299
Pylon I (112.78 x 15, 43.43 m. high) is of Ethiopian date or later, built of
sandstone without mortar, left unfinished, with one internal staircase rising
from the northern tower passing above the gateway to the southern tower.
This pylon forms the fac;ade to a large squarish court (8+12 x 99.40 m.)
bordered on two sides by a portico with columns (Twenty-Second Dynasty).
A constructional platform built of brick caissons enclosing tamped earth
between retaining walls perpendicular to the pylon abutted against its faces. A
central colonnade of eight huge open papyriform tolumns (Taharqa; 21 m.
high) once formed a timber-roofed processional way or kiosk down the main
 240 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

=
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0 0 Karnak.
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0000000
o "o 0000000
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Plate 25. Restored perspective of Thebes as seen from the Great Temple of Amun-Re' at
RAMJU I
Karnak; in the background, Western T hebes and the peak of the Horn.
0
0
0
0 D
0
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0
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133. The Great Temple of Amun at Karnak : plan, restored perspective of the hypostyle
hall, and of the tribune, and detail of an open papyriform capital from the hypostyle
hall.
 242 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

axis of Pylon II. It was paved with irregular slabs of granite and contained a
pedestal built on a rectangular alabaster base. The kiosk served as a way station
or repository for the sacred bark.
In the northern corner of the court stands the small repository of Seti II
called "Castle-of-Seti-Merneptah-in-the-Temple-of-Amun," with three contig-
uous shrines for the barks of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. It is similar to the
earlier chapel of Thutmose III at Luxor. Seti II was probably the first to build
westward. The repository served for the three barks on their voyages to Luxor,
to the western bank, or to the festival hall of Thutmose III and would have
allowed Seti II to profit by the ceremonies performed during the station of the
barks. It was of sandstone on a socle of quartzite with niches in the rear
containing representations of royal statues.
In the south corner of the court is the temple repository "temple-of-
Ramses-heqa-Iwnw-in-the-domain-of-Amun" dedicated to Amun by Ramses
III and built transversely to the longitudinal axis on a socle profiled as a
cavetto cornice. It has been regarded, along with the temple of the same
pharaoh dedicated to Khonsu, as an example of a simple typical cult temple
from the New Kingdom (pl. 25). The fa\'.ade is in the form of a pylon, in front
of which stood two royal statues. The court is bordered on two sides (E., W.)
by a portico with eight Osiride pillars of Ramses III, those to the west (local
North) wearing the crown of the North (pl. 26), those to the east (local
South), the crown of the South. Along the rear and at a higher level is an open
vestibule fronted by four similar Osiride pillars between which runs a parapet
1.83 meters high, except for the central intercolumniation. A row of bud
papyriform columns is set behind the Osiride pillars. The scenes on the walls
picture the sacred processions.
The hypostyle hall is shallow, with two rows of fow bud columns each.
In its rear are three contiguous chapels for the boats of the triad and also a few
rooms. The ceiling was at one level except for the sanctuary of Amun and its
flanking rooms, so that a row of clerestory windows at the rear of the hypo-
style hall lighted the back of the temple, with additional light provided by slots
between the slabs of the ceiling. There was a system of water drains on the
roof with three gargoyles on each side of the temple. The roofing slabs were
placed perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, except above the vestibule.
Pylon II ,(98x14 m.) begun by Horemheb and finished by Ramses I has
four grooves for flagstaffs in each tower and a vestibule preceded by two

Plate 26. The Osiride pillars on the north side of the court in the temple of Ramses III
at Karnak (central group) .
 244 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

confronted colossi of Ramses II. A staircase in the northern tower rises to the
top. The decoration begun by Horemheb was completed by his successors. A
vestibule or porch similar to the one fronting this pylon is probably to be
reconstituted as a structure in wood in front of every temple ( cf. the screen
walls in the temples at 'Amarna). The gateway or the pylon itself was called
. . Thebes. " 300
"Ill ummatmg-
The great hypostyle hall (338 x 170 ft. [99.40 x 5r.82 m. J deep) was "The-
tem ple-Seti-Merneptah-is-1 uminous-in-the-House-of-Am un." It was described
as "the resting place of the Lord of the gods, beautiful sojourn of the Ennead"
and "the beautiful sojourn of the Ennead, where Amun rests, the place of
appearance of the Lord of the gods at his annual feast." Its designation "Hall
of the two crowns" points to the ceremony of the coronation being performed
in it, as depicted in its wall scenes. One of the most momentous achievements
of Egyptian architecture, it is the largest example of the typical hypostyle hall,
and very similar to the Roman basilica. Its central nave (79 ft. high [ 24.08
m.]) is bordered by a row of 7 huge sandstone open papyriform columns
(diam. 69 x rr.75 ft. [ 21.03 x 3.58 m.]) and two lower aisles ( 46 ft. high [ 14.or
m.]) with 60 bud papyriform columns in each (diam. 42 x 6.5 ft. [ 12.80 x r.98
m.]). Excavations have disclosed a foundation wall under the first row of
lower columns on each side of the central nave. This leads to its interpretation
as the foundation of a wall enclosing the central alley of columns, before the
two aisles were added. This would have been a colonnade forming the ap-
CoLOR PLATE vm. Typical wall scene in low relief painted from the temple of Seti I at Abydos (see
proach between Pylon II and Pylon III, similar to the colonnade in front of the p. 218) ._All t~e scenes on the walls, columns, and ceilings of the temples were carved in low relief
temple at Luxor, and possibly dating from the same Amenhotep III, though and pamted m the _conve~tional colors of the Egyptian palette. The background is usually a
gray blue or yellowish white. The scene shown here represents the rite of the erection of the
nothing appears in front of Pylon III in the mural representing the cross Djed-pillar of Osiris by S_eti I in front of the goddess Isis. The rhythmic perfection of the design,
section of the temple of Amun in the tomb of Neferhotep (Reign of Ay). At the balance of the _grapluc elements m a composition within their framing hieroglyphs, and the
the top on each side of the central nave is a series of cl&restory windows with quality of the carvmg typJCal for the wall decoration in this temple mark the climax in the evo-
lution of graphic art and monumental sculpture in the Empire.
stone gratings (pl. 27). It is noteworthy that the central nave gives the impres-
sion of having three aisles because the high walls and clerestory are carried
upon the row of lower columns bordering this nave. The columns as well as
the walls are covered with low reliefs and inscriptions from the reign of Seti I
which represent mostly pharaohs in the presence of deities. About 400 wall
scenes depict the coronation, baptism and foundation ceremonies, the child-
hood of Seti I, six scenes of the sacred barks on their pedestal (east of
entrance) carried in procession or of the "divine arrival" on the shoulders of
thirty priests wearing masks of hawk and jackal heads (west) and of sailing to
CoLOR PLATE IX. The Great Temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak seen across the Sacred Lake at sunset
(seep. 253). The eye wanders in amazement from the obelisk of Hatshepsut (right) to that of
Thutmose I, to the hypostyle hall and to the impressive mass of Pylon I of the Kushites. One won-
ders what must have been the aspect of this huge complex faithfully mirrored in the lake when
the walls were still gorgeously clad in their painted low reliefs, the pylons and their flagstaffs in-
creasing in stature like many sentinels posted along the approach and the obelisks glittering in
their sheath of electrum as if "piercing the heavens."

CoLOR PLATE x. Rock temple of Re'Horakhty by Ramses ll at Abu Simbel in Lower Nubia (see
p. 308). The fa~adeoffers the unique solution of adapting the pylon with its fronting colossi from
the typical cult temple of the Empire to a temple entirely cut from the rock of the western cliff.
In a recess in the shape of one tower of a pylon two pairs of colossal statues of Ramses II ea. 20
meters high flank the falcon -headed Re'Horakhty carved in high relief in the niche above the
doorway. This statue with that of Ma't and a scepter Wser form a group to be read as Wser-Ma't-
Re', the prenomen of the pharaoh. Surmounting the cavetto cornice is a band of 22 cynocephali
raising their hands in worship to the rising sun. The central stairway flanked by two recesses for
ablution basins leads to the terrace bordered by a cavetto cornice and a balustrade behind which
is a row of falcons and statues of Ramses II. At the north end (right) is the miniature pylon of a
hypaethral shrine of the sun . In addition to its harmonious design the fa~ade shows originality in
the forceful architectural statuary with excellent portraiture on a colossal scale.
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 245

CoLoR PLATE x1. View toward the valley from the north vestibule on the second terrace
of the
temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahari (see pp. 186, 3p). Nowhere in the vast terraced mortuary
temple of Hatshepsut is there a more vivid impression of classicism in th~ style as in the vestibule
at the north comer of the second terrace. From behind the 16-sided columns stretch the similar
columns of the unfinished north portico in graceful yet forceful simplicity, pointing as though to
Ipet-Iswt, the Great Temple of Amun-Re' far down in the blue valley.

Plate 27. View from the aisle of the hypostyle hall at Karnak (Great Temple of Amun-Re'),
showing the clerestory windows bordering the upper part of the nave.
 246 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

Luxor. Each column consists of a base with eleven or twelve drums of unequal
height, each in two halves topped with an abacus. The cross section of both
types of shafts is always circular and the segments of alternate drums are at
right angles. The architraves above the nave and the first two rows of lower
columns on each side are parallel to the longitudinal axis while the others are
transverse. In front of Pylon III a vertical wall was built, leaving the flagstaff
recesses clear, to support the western ends of the architraves. On the exterior of
the hypostyle hall are scenes of historical interest recording victories of Seti I
(north wall) and Ramses II (south wall) over Palestine and Libya. There are
scenes of Ramses II campaigning against the Hittites at the battle of Qadesh
which record the courage of the young sovereign who fought for his life and
was saved by Amun.
Pylon III (Amenhotep III) also has four vertical recesses for flagstaffs in
each tower and a vestibule. The floor of its doorway "Double-gateway-of-the-
horizon-of-the-Lord-of-the-Universe" was "adorned with silver." 301 It is from
Plate 28. Top of an obelisk with scene of Amun-Re' and Thutmose III (Karnak), originally
the foundations that numerous blocks of earlier chapels of Senusert I, Amen-
standing against the eastern doorway of Pylon III.
hotep I, Haptshepsut, Amenhotep II, and Thutmose IV were extracted. They
had been used as filling for foundation walls. The pylon replaced a pair of
obelisks of Amenhotep II. It is in sandstone, with strong batter, and has a
Plate 29. Upper part of the south obelisk of Hatshepsut between Pylon IV and Pylon V.
staircase rising northward from the southern tower. The court behind it is Thutmose III hammered out the name of the queen and substituted his own .
extremely shallow and contained two pairs of obelisks (Thutmose I and III, pl. Seti I restored the name of Amun-Re' hammered out by Akhenaten, and added
28), those of Thutmose I having once marked the front entrance to the temple. his own (left figures).
Pylon IV built by Thutmose I who was called "Amun-Re', Mighty-of-Pres-
tige,'' formed the front of the temple proper as built by Thutmose I under the
supervision of the architect Ineny. It is followed by a shallow court with two
rows of columns. These replace the wooden columns of Thutmose I which
supported a wooden roof. Thutmose III removed the col~ssi in Osirian garb of
Thutmose I which abutted on the inner side of the walls around the court of
the remains of the Middle Kingdom and set them against the four walls in the
hall between Pylon IV and Pylon V. This hypostyle hall, called "Splendid hall
of papyriform columns" ( W adjit shepeset), was a kind of jubilee hall. After
removing the wooden ceiling, Hatshepsut erected two obelisks of which the
northern is still standing 29.50 meters high and the southern has fallen down
(pl. 29), but Thutmose III surrounded these with sandstone walls to conceal
them and placed a stone ceiling over the papyriform columns. None could
have access to this part of the temple except the high priests and the king who

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 248 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

had first to perform the "royal ascent" toward the place of enthronement of
Amun to renew his consecration. This rite was performed in a room open at
the front south of Pylon V near the statue of Amun-Re' imposing its hands on
the head of the kneeling pharaoh. The statue was in a naos opening north on a
socle of sandstone 0.80 meter high, flanked on either side by a row of four
square and four Osiride pillars against the east and west walls of the room.
Behind Pylon V (Thutmose I), called "Amun-Senior-in-Prestige," are
two antechambers flanked by a courtyard with sixteen-sided columns and
jubilee statues.
Pylon VI (Thutmose III), called "Menkheperre'-Beloved-of-Amun-
Great-of-Prestige" forms the frontage to the hall of records, whose ceiling
rested on two massive monolithic granite pillars decorated in high relief on the
side with the heraldic plant for Upper Egypt, the so-called iris, and with the
papyrus for Lower Egypt (pls. 30, 31). On either side is a court of Thutmose
III with bundle papyriform columns. The wall scenes are all connected with Plate 30. The two granite pillars symbolizing Upper and Lower Egypt in the Hall of
Records of Thutmose III (Great Temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak).
the preparation and consecration of offerings.
The sanctuary of the temple stood behind the first hall of records and is
now occupied by a granite shrine for a sacred bark of Philip Arrhidaeus Plate 3r. Group of Amun and Amunet in the Hall of Records (Great Temple of Amun-Re'
(323- 317 B.c.), probably on the model of an earlier one of Thutmose III. On at Karnak).
both sides are the rooms of the second hall of records, decorated with scenes
representing the military feats of valor of Thutmose III. The original structure
built by Hatshepsut consisted of a chapel for the bark of Amun and two courts
of offering flanked by rooms.
The site of the temple of the Middle Kingdom extends to the east of the
sanctuary.

THE PRISON. In two texts dating from Seti I and Rames II it is mentioned that
thieves and criminals in Thebes were imprisoned in the "dungeon of the Gate"
of the temple of Amun. This was not the only prison but was the one used for
those committing crimes against Amun. At Thebes there were prisons depend-
ing from the State. In the violation of the settlements of Seti I 302 as well as in
the robberies of the royal tombs at Thebes 303 the character of the crime could
have brought it under the jurisdiction of the clergy of that god. We know that
captives from military campaigns were settled in strongholds by Ramses IIl.304
The vizier Rekhmire' mentions the "great prison" in his famous description of
his official duties. 305
 250 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 251

~-~--~-~--~-~250ft
~~~~~---~---~t50~

134. Plan of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III and perspective of the
upper part of the hall.

Prisons are known to have existed in Coptic and European monasteries.

In Constantinople the "important enemies of the State could be imprisoned for
their sins" in monasteries. 306
THE FESTIVAL HALL OF THUTMOSE III "MENKHEPERRE'-IS-BRILLIANT-OF-
MONUMENTS" (EGYPTIAN Akh-Menw).307 This is set transversely at the rear of
the Great Temple, inside the girdle wall of Ramses II. It was built as a
J:Ieb-sed jubilee temple as an ex-voto to the deities of Egypt for the power and
glory they had given to Thutmose III. It was entered from the rear of the Great
Temple through a portal in the southwest corner opening onto an L-shaped
vestibule (fig. 134). To the south is a row of contiguous cells, the two rearmost
of which are two-storied open pillared rooms. From the vestibule one has
access axially into the hypostyle hall ("intermediate hall," herit ib) of a
unique type. It has a central nave and two aisles on either side returning at the
small ends ( 144 x 52 ft. [43.89 x 15.85 m.] ). The nave is bordered on either side
by ten tent-pole columns, a unique stone imitation on a large scale of a wooden
tent pole with a shaft narrowing at its lower part and a bell-shaped capital.
Such a wooden 'pole formed the usual support of the J:Ieb-sed pavilions used in
the jubilee festivals 308 (pl. 32). The two aisles on either side of this nave are
Plate 32. The nave with its tent-pole columns in the Festival Hall of Thutmose III at
Karnak.
 252 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 253

separated by a row of square pillars which return at both small ends of the perfect cylinder. The hall is probably the most adequate example of the "oecus
rectangular plan. These 32 pillars carry architraves topped with a row of aegyptius" described by Vitruvius (VI, 8- 9), which he regarded as the proto-
clerestory windows between the ceiling slabs over the nave and the lower ones type of the basilica. The plan features returning aisles and proportions of
over the aisles. The latter slabs project as chamfered cantilevers inside the nave width to length approaching those of the early basilica at Pompeii. In the latter,
to reduce the internal stresses in the slabs due to the bending moments, a however, the row of pillars was replaced by engaged columns lower than the
remarkably ingenious device in structural science. Originally there was a wall columns about the nave.
bordering the outer aisle and supporting the lower ceiling. There is no evi- THE SACRED LAKE AND ITS SCARAB. To the south of the girdle wall of Ramses II
dence from the decoration that the sacred barks were carried farther than the
is a rectangular Sacred Lake dug by Thutmose III, the largest of its kind,
entrance vestibule, whose corner is rounded to allow for turning the barks.
whose sides are lined with stone and provided with stairways descending into
The hypostyle hall was transformed into a church (sixth-seventh centuries
the water ( color plate IX). At the northern corner, beyond the embankment,
A.D.). Three contiguous deep chapels border the north end of the hall. They is a huge granite statue of a scarab dedicated by Amenhotep III at Korn el Hei-
were dedicated to Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. tan to the god "Khepri coming out of the earth," the sun growing toward
There is a transverse axis from the mid-length of the hall running east,
noon (pl. 33). The area was probably reserved for a sun ritual similar to that
along which are three rooms opening onto the so-called "botanic room,"
performed in other temples at Thebes, in the special court set to the left when
whose walls are decorated with species of animals and plants from Syria, looking to the main sanctuary ( cf. mortuary temples of Hatshepsut, Ramses II,
"every exotic plant and every beautiful flower which was in 'god's land.'" This Ramses III).
transverse chamber has a central row of four papyriform bundle columns,
with two sandstone sphinxes between them, fronting panels of two engaged THE TEMPLE OF AMUN-RE'HoRAKHTY. Toward the end of the Eighteenth
columns in the rear wall. It forms the antechamber to the sanctuary behind: Dynasty there was in the longitudinal axis of the temple of Amun-Re' east of
this is a long rectangular hall N.-S. with a sanctuary at the north end contain- the festival hall of Thutmose III a "single obelisk," tekhen wo'ty, 33 meters
ing a granite altar and a naos in the rear wall, and on either side in the hall high, of Thutmose III forming the main element of a hypaethral sanctuary
itself four niches which were shut by means of wooden doors. The decoration with a hypostyle hall on four polygonal columns.309 To this Bakenkhonsu,
is similar to that in the first room, representing plants and animals from Syria. architect of Ramses II, added a peristyle court with polygonal columns and
Both vestibule and hall should probably be interpreted as dedicated to a cult of two Osiride pillars, two lateral doorways dedicated to Mut and Khonsu, and,
the divinity in his potentiality of Nature god of the foreign subjected coun" in the brick wall with undulating courses, a gate named "Great Door 'Userma't-
tries. It is assumed that Thutmose III brought back specimens of the fauna and re'-and-Amun-are-those-who-listen-to-prayers,'" and also "The Upper Door-
flora of the Asiatic lands he conquered and set them in this sanctuary, and they way of the Domain of Amun." Farther east on the same axis a gateway opened
were represented on its walls (see fig. 134). in the girdle wall fronted externally by two obelisks and two sphinxes of
To the southeast of the hypostyle hall is a large hall with eight sixteen- Ramses II. This temple of the rising sun was therefore in correlation with the
sided columns, bordered to the south by three narrow rooms and to the east by Festival Hall of Thutmose III, whose chtonian ( southeast halls of Sokar) and
two-storied pillared storerooms for offerings. solar (northeast) aspects defined the eternal cycle of rejuvenation.
The architectural style, characterized by its simplicity and unity, is simi-
lar in classical beauty to that of Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahari. Many of CosMic SYMBOLISM OF THE TEMPLE OF AMuN-RE' AT KARNAK. In principle every
the features of thi,s monument point to a high degree of aesthetic perfection. Egyptian temple imitates the world, its floor representing the earth, its ceiling
The inverted taper of the shaft of the columns in the hypostyle hall could be a the starry sky, and its columns the growing plants. In the temple of Amun-Re'
device to induce an illusion of perspective, so that it appears from the floor as a the cosmic symbolism found its fullest expression during the reign of
254 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 255

Thutmose IIl. 310 The temple then formed a complete entity oriented west-east
from the entrance located at Pylon IV to the eastern temple dedicated to Amun-
Re'Horakhty and the eastern gateway. This gateway opened through the wavy
courses of its girdle wall and represented the point where the first rays of the
rising sun darted through the waters of the Nun. A fragment of lintel from
the gate of Pylon VI depicts Thutmose III worshiping Amun-Re' "at the ninth
hour" which is the hour when the sun in its daily voyage enters the "Field of
Reeds" and rests at the top of a mound or stairway. In this field, allied to the
"Field of Offerings," the blessed deceased reaped bountiful harvests. The
elements of this description can be recognized in the bark-chapel surrounded
by the halls of offerings and the offering-chapels ( karw) of the pharaohs. The
complete voyage of the sun in its various stages from the east to the west is
represented in the corresponding parts along the axis of the temple: the
eastern temple whose doorway was "the upper doorway of the Domain of
Amun" symbolizing sunrise at the first hour, the bark on its pedestal in the
sanctuary symbolizing the sun resting on its mound at the ninth hour, the area
between Pylon VI and Pylon V as the tenth hour, and that between Pylon V
and Pylon IV as the eleventh hour from where the sun proceeds westward to
set at the twelfth hour.

THE TEMPLE OF KHONSU ("TEMPLE OF RAMSES-HEQA-lWNW-IN-THE-DOMAIN-OF-

KHONsu"; LATER NAMED Benenet). The importance of this temple in the
general layout is indicated by its location just beyond the point where the
Plate 33. Colossal scarab in the north corner of the Sacred Lake at Karnak.
avenue ( 13.8 m. broad) lined with human-headed sphinxes built by Nekhtnebef
leading from Luxor to Karnak branched off to the temple of Mut. It is situated
within the south west corner of the great girdle wall that surrounds the precincts
of the Great Temple of Amun-Re'. Together with the two other temples of
Ramses III at Karnak it is regarded as an example of a typical cult temple in
the New Kingdom (fig. 135).
The plan is rectangular, nearly symmetrical (240 x 96 ft. [73.15 x 29.26
m.]). A portal, restored by Ptolemy Evergetes I, opens in the girdle wall onto a
court bordered by crio-sphinxes and columns. Beyond a pylon ( 105 x 33; 59 ft.
high [32 x ro; 17.98 m. high]) with four vertical recesses for flagstaffs, were
two porches with wooden ceilings on columns. The court, a "feast court" made
by Herihor (Twenty-First Dynasty), is surrounded on three sides by a portico
with double rows of bud papyriform columns. Of its west wall is a scene
 256 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 257
r- - - - , ,- - - - - - - , I

1, II II :I '

: : : I ~
't;::j I II I I
L=;:J ~ ~
p--q
I J
I
I
I
I
I
L., n
r--.J i'--------
1 1.1-, r----------
,, f'v. r,
0 !Ji 1 I I
fJ HI /) '----.J •-...JI
r-------

t
000000
000000
00
Ju i: __' _
136. Plan of the temple of Ptah, Central Group at Karnak.

depicting Pylon II. The rear of the court is at a higher level, forming a terrace
carrying twelve columns. Four lateral doorways provided for the free circula-
tion of crowds on festival days. The transverse h yposty le hall named "Wearing-
the-Crowns" (wtjes kha'w) has eight papyriform columns and beyond it is the
sanctuary that features the bark-chapel of Khonsu. The central columns of the
hypostyle hall were taller than those on either side, and the resultant difference
in the level of the ceilings . above them served to accommodate clerestory
windows. The hall was built by Ramses XI, who allowed the hight priest
Herihor to be represented with him in the offering scenes, a feature proving
the decline of the royal power of the last Ramesside pharaoh. Flanking the
sanctuary are a solar hall to the west and an Osirian one to the east. A small
transverse hall with four sixteen-sided columns, flanked by two double rooms
and communicating with three rear rooms, was built behind the sanctuary by
Ramses III and decorated by Ramses IV.
THE TEMPLE OF PTAH ("TEMPLE-OF-PTAH-SouTH-oF-His-WALL-IN-WAsET") .
Built in sandstone by Thutmose III it abuts on the inner wall of the northern
side of the girdle wall near its northern gateway and is dedicated to Ptah, the
god of Memphis. It is approached through five gateways, a colonnade, and a
small pylon built by Thutmose III on the site of an earlier temple of the
135. Restored sectional bird's-eye view, plan, and view of the court of the temple of Khonsu, Middle Kingdom in wood and brick restored by Shabaka (Twenty-Fifth
Central Group at Karnak.
 258 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

Dynasty) and the Ptolemies. A shallow court with a portico on two sixteen-
sided columns precedes an axial offering-table hall 311 flanked by two lateral
shrines for Ptah (N.) and Hathor (S.) (fig. 136). A slot in the ceiling of each
shrine provided very impressive lighting that fell on the statues set in it. It is
famous for the statue of Sekhmet, the consort of Ptah with a lioness' head,
replaced in situ in the southern room.
THE AREA souTH OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF AMuN-RE'. Between the central
court of the Great Temple of Amun-Re' and the fa<;:ade of the temple of Mut
to the south was a sequence of four courts with four intermediate pylons :
Pylon VII of Thutmose III, Pylon VIII of Hatshepsut, Pylon IX of Horemheb,
and Pylon X of Horemheb. Pylon X stretches on the alignment of the south
side of the girdle wall, and beyond starts an avenue more than 310 meters long
with ea. 120 crio-sphinxes (ram-headed) . This avenue meets toward its south-
ern end with another avenue 13.80 meters wide of human-headed sphinxes of
Nectanebo connecting it to the main avenues of sphinxes running between the
temple of Luxor and that of Khonsu at Karnak.
Access to the southern group is provided by an approach from the central
court between Pylon III and Pylon IV, which also gives access to the temple of
Ptah near the northern gateway. The area to the south of this central court is
of traditional importance since in it were two temples, one from the Middle
Kingdom, demolished by Thutmose III. This importance is corroborated by
the fact that under the last Ptolemies the clergy buried their discarded sacred
statues (779 of stone and 17,000 of bronze) in the court between the Great
Temple of Amun-Re' and Pylon VII, and by the important historical inscrip-
137. Connection between the Great Temple of Amun and that of Mut at Karnak.
tions of Ramses II and Merneptah on its west and east walls.
The connection of the temple of Amµn-Re' to the southern gateway and Pylon IX (Horemheb) and Pylon X (Horemheb ). It is a jubilee temple,312
to the northern one is by means of a curved alley featuring, to the south, a nearly symmetrical in plan and very shallow and broad, erected on a platform
series of courts with intermediate pylons set in radiating directions perpendic- crowned with a cornice. Such a socle would be a symbolic substitute for the
ularly to the curve (fig. 137) . The theoretical center of curvature of the axis of girdle wall topped with a cornice which usually surrounds the sacred pre-
the alley is to the south of the longitudinal axis of the temple of Amun and is cincts. A ramp ascends to a portico with twelve pillars with antae. In the
much nearer the temple than is the point of intersection of the hypothetical square hypostyle hall four rows of five square pillars each form a central nave
projections of the southern and northern sides of the trapezoidal enclosure bordered on either side by two aisles. In the passage along the inner face of the
wall. This is a clear instance of the use of curved axes in the layout ( cf. temple wall an architrave with cornice crowns the pillars, an indication that these
of Luxor) . should be regarded as forming an independent pillared chapel within the hall.
THE TEMPLE OF AMENHOTEP II. This temple adjoins the fourth court, between From the low-relief decoration it can be deduced that the sanctuary of Amen-
 1ooft
,...
1'I
•1
I

D 0 a a a a o a

139· Plan of the temple of Mut, Southern Group at Karnak.

0 10

138. Temple of the jubilee of Amenhotep II, Central Group at Karnak. 'Making-joyous-Isherw'" in a Ptolemaic inscription.314 The plan is symmetrical
(N.-S.), fronted by a pylon (Seti II), preceded by a Ptolemaic porch on pillars
hotep II was rebuilt by Seti I who closed the doorway in the east side (fig. decorated with Bes figures (fig. 139). A transverse forecourt, halved by a
138). This was no longer a jubilee chapel but a temple to•Amun, and the back processional avenue bordered with columns, precedes the temple proper. A
doorway was replaced by a false-door, which gives it some resemblance to the second court bordered on three sides by a pillared portico and having a central
reception hall in palaces. The original peripteral temple was "The Temple of processional avenue with Hathoric columns continuing the outer one con-
'Aakheperure'-Amun-rejoices-when- ... to-behold-the beauty-of-Thebes." tained numerous seated statues of Sekhmet, the lion-headed goddess. The
hypostyle hall with eight papyriform columns is Banked by two rooms and is
connected with the bark-chapel open at both ends and surrounded by various
II. The Southern Group dependencies. The very massive enclosure surrounding the temple is bordered
on its three rear sides by a curious horseshoe-shaped lake later called Isherw,
THE TEMPLE OF MuT (AMENHOTEP III). 313 This, the largest temple in the after which Mut is "Mut the Great, Lady of Isherw."
complex at Karnak after that of Amun, is dedicated to his wife Mut and A girdle wall (Ptolemy Philadelphus) enclosed the precincts of the
connected to it by a large processional avenue. The temple was "The House temple of Mut and also that of Ramses III and that of Amun-Kamute f.
262 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 263

THE TEMPLE OF AMuN-KAMUTEF (HATSHEPSUT, THuTMOSE III [?]) .315 Abut-

ting on the south side of the temple of Mut is a temple complex dedicated to
Amun-Kamutef, a form of Amun in his potentiality of fertility god. It is
composed of two buildings set opposite each other and flanking the alley of
sphinxes laid out by Hatshepsut, between the temple of Mut and Pylon X of
the temple of Amun (fig. 140). Both buildings are on the same longitudinal
axis (E.-W.), the one to the west being the chapel used as the ultimate
repository in the procession of the sacred bark.
The repository consists of a peripteral chapel, with a shrine for the bark,
and a second part with a few rooms. The latter part was transformed at a later
stage into a second repository for a bark and the whole building was enclosed
within a brick wall.
The main temple to the east of the alley of sphinxes is a much larger
= = UPPtR GRANIH MING[
building, consisting of a transverse court and a central nucleus flanked on its
= =
= = northern and southern sides by a columned portico fronting nine contiguous
=
=
=
140. Plan of the temple of Kamutef at Karnak.
=
=
= ITT chapels. The nucleus is composed of a hypostyle hall, a vestibule or court ( ?) ,
and a pronaos with three contiguous shrines at the back. It seems that the
vestibule was flanked on either side by a chapel, while the rooms to the north
and south of the shrines served as magazines. The nine contiguous shrines in
each of the north and south sections contained royal statuettes ( ?) .
The temple complex in its first stage was built by Hatshepsut, but an
14r. Plan of the temple of Ramses III, Southern Group at Karnak.
annex (stalls for sacred bull [ ?]) was added on its northern side, while on its
longitudinal axis in the court rows of columns and two rows of smaller
columns with screen walls on the front fa;ade emphasized the central ap-
proach. The date of the addition to both the repository and the main temple
DODOO could be Hatshepsut's or Thutmose's reign.
It has been presumed that the procession started from the royal palace,
not far from the Karnak temples, and entered the main temple where it

J2J collected the sacred statue, the lettuce plants, a white sacred bull, symbols, and
royal statuettes. It then proceeded to the repository opposite for certain rituals

DDDDDDDD and turned to come back into the main temple.

THE TEMPLE OF RAMSES III CALLED "THE TEMPLE-OF-USERMA'TRE'-MERYAMUN-

IN-THE-DOMAIN-OF-AMUN-IN-THE-CITY" (fig. 141). Located to the southwest of
I
the temple of Mut is one similar to the other small temples of that pharaoh
• at Karnak, exemplifying the typical cult temple. It is oriented N.-S., having a
 264 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 265

pylon with two statues of the pharaoh flanking the entrance and decorated in
the customary way with battle scenes of Ramses III in Syria and Libya. The court
is somewhat deep, bordered on the rear by a raised portico with four columns.
The square hypostyle hall with four columns is flanked by side rooms and
communicates with the sanctuary, itself flanked by two lateral rooms. Two side
antechambers lead to two subsidiary rooms. The bases of the columns in the
hypostyle hall have been sliced off on the side of the central alley to allow for
the circulation of the sled carrying the bark.
H<TIONA L

Ill. The Northern Group

THE TEMPLE OF AMENHOTEP III (KARNAK NoRTH) .316 This was originally
enclosed by a girdle wall larger than the one remaining now. There are two 0 0 0 0 0 0
periods in the construction of the temple of Amun-Re'-Montu in the reign of
0 0 0 0 0 0
Amenhotep III. The plan is rectangular and symmetrical (N.-S.) . In its .first
stage it was a square structure raised on a platform fronted with a columned 0 0
portico (twelve bundle columns) and surrounded by an ambulatory. A pro-
naos preceded the shrine, itself flanked by two side rooms connected with
0 ( 0 uRT 0
smaller ones. A unique feature consists of a door sliding horizontally between 0 0
the chamber west of the naos and an adjacent room. The actual opening is 0
0
only 0.67 x 0.47 meters at floor level. A sandstone block kept in a recess can be
0 0 0 0 0 0 BLOCK IN Rf(E55 \
slid out over a granite sill by means of a piston and a chain. The device recalls I P l AN l \.
the elaborate ones used in the burial apartments of the Middle Kingdom to ._I ____________
L-----·-·•••• " :
prevent violation. Here, however, the purpose of such an arrangement is not
I
.. r- - • • - - - - - - - -
...' -------------' I
clear, although one could assume that it was to confine some small animal.
In the second phase of construction (fig. 142), a portico was added along
the three sides of a court, preceding the original fa<;ade, and the shrine was
(\) .. -------- ------ "'-1
I

:
I
I
1-t-~~~~~-

~--c:::::::i-~L==~
1
.- -·
I -,
-A

transferred to a new room behind the original one flanked by two other rooms :
!. ____________ ..;._..J
i

on either side. The dimensions are 52.50 x 26.25 meters ( roo x 50 cubits), the
socle being u5 meters high. A stairway formed the approach in front of the D D
0 10m
ElE VAT ION

BLO(K lLIDIN G MOR IZONTAllY

new structure, and a double ramp rising along the western side led to a lateral
entrance to the portico. 142 . Plan of the temple of Amun-Re'-Montu at Karnak North and details of a sliding door.
At some distance west of the temple fa<;:ade an artificial pond on a
rectangular plan was excavated, bordered on its east and south sides by a
 266 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 267

0 0

~
,_Q_.9_~
0

0 Ij
:I I I
r----:-:--~·
' ~ .----.J ·---------,__r-
I I I I 'o~-. . .-_-.___..-_-~--,~·~~~·
.. ~~~.__~~~20 m

143. Plan of the temple of Thot at El Kah.

stairway and on its west by a Nilometer. In the middle of the north and east
sides a cubical stand was erected, similar to those at Dendera.

ElKab
Plate 34. Facrade of the temple of Nekhehet at El Kah.

This most ancient site, sacred to Nekhebet, the vulture goddess of the South,
and dating back to the Archaic Period, was certainly rich in temples. A large
squarish temple enclosure wall contains several buildings, some of which are
within a second smaller enclosure wall. Two of these date back to the Eight-
eenth Dynasty: a smaller temple dedicated to Thot and built by Amenhotep II,
abutting on a larger one dedicated to Nekhebet and built by Thutmose III, but
enlarged in the Twenty-Sixth to Thirtieth dynasties. ..
Both are on the typical plan of the N ew Kingdom cult temple : court
with portico, hypostyle hall, pronaos, and three contiguous shrines.
T EMPLE oF T HoT (AMENHOTEP II) .31 7 A pylon built by Ramses II forms the
frontage of this temple. The court has two side-porticoes on four columns each
(fig. 143). A hypostyle hall with two rows of columns precedes the pronaos or
transverse hall with two columns which stretches in front of three contiguous
shrines.
In the longer temple adjoining this one on the northeast which was built
 268 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 269

0
0

0
0

0
[]
0 ~
t t·
144. Plan of the temple of Nekhebet, details of its columns, and plan of the chapel of Thot
at El Kab.

during the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty on earlier remains, the walls of the fore-
court were originally in a line with those of the hypostyle hall of that of Thot.
Later it was enlarged eastward so that it finally assumed an unsymmetrical
plan.

THE DESERT TEMPLES: TEMPLE OF NEKHEBET ( AMENHOTEP III) .318 This well-
preserved small temple at El Kaq was dedicated to Nekh~bet, "the Mistress of
the Entrance to the Valley," by Amenhotep III. It consists of one single room
with two rows of two columns each supporting architraves parallel to the
main axis (fig. 144). One door (S.) serves as entrance (pl. 34). The columns
are unique in having a shaft with a cross section combining a sixteen-sided
Plate 35. Hathoric column in the temple of Nekhebet at El Kab.
contour at the rear and an eight-sided one at the front, and crowned with a
Hathoric face toward the central nave. This can be regarded as a simple
architectural adaptation of the sacred musical instrument, the sistrum of the
goddess Hathor (pl. 35).319 The scenes on the walls have retained much of their
 270 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 271

original color and represent Pharaoh making offerings to the gods or to a

sacred bark. The ceiling is decorated with a row of vultures with outstretched DEIR EL MtDI NA
wings, while the architraves and the top of the walls have a frieze of Hathor
faces alternating with royal cartouches. A vestibule with papyriform columns TE. MPLt or AMUN
was added in front of the temple in Ptolemaic times. ( RAMlU II>

L,;----,
,----
THE CHAPEL OF THoT.320 A small room was dedicated to Thot by Setau, the r----J L---

governor of Nubia under Ramses II, who also cut the large rock-temple at ,,
1 I

Garf Hussein (seep. 299). A doorway opens in the northeast fa;ade while a
"
:!PAVED COU RT
prismatic window admits light from the rear wall. The scenes show Setau and
Pharaoh adoring various gods.

Deir el Medina

TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DEIR EL MEDINA (SETI 1).321 This relatively well-

preserved temple stretches (S.E.-N.W.) to the east of the temple of Hathor
(Ramses 11) and can be regarded as a typical example of such sanctuaries at
Deir el Medina. The plan is symmetrical (fig. 145) . A long double stairway
rises to a court with a central paved pathway, containing three ablution basins.
TE MPl[ 0 f 1:1AT1:10R
A smaller stairway rises to a hypostyle hall with two columns, a brick bench ( HTI I>
with seven seats along the western side wall, and an amphora sunk in the floor.
Adjoining this hall a long kitchen contains an oven and a sunk amphora. Two
stelae are fixed in the rear wall above a step flanking the central doorway.
A second hypostyle hall follows the first one, of the same width, having
two columns consisting of clay applied around a wooden central post. As is
customary, a small chapel adjoins this hall to the south, dedicated by a certain
Buqentuf to Amenhotep I, Nefertari, Amun, and Haehor. A rectangular
limestone basin is sunk in the limestone pavement, askew to the longitudinal
axis of the plan, and two limestone high monolithic altars found at the foot of
the stairway rising to the platform of the pronaos had probably fallen down
from the pronaos. Three contiguous vaulted naoi form the rear part of the
temple. Paintings above a white plinth and surmounted by a kheker frieze
decorated the second hypostyle hall and the annexed chapel, and probably also WALL- PAINTI NGJ
the other walls, now destroyed.
145. Plan and section of the temple of Amun, plan of the temple of Hathor, and details
TEMPLE OF AMuN AT DEIR EL MEDINA (RAMSES 11). 322 In front of the temple of of wall paintings at Deir el Medina.
 272 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 273

Hathor (Ramses II) and built outside the Ptolemaic enclosure wall is a temple Sebu'a, Abu Simbel). In the Middle Kingdom every fortress had its own
on a rectangular plan, facing west. It consists of a square paved court and a temple, but in the New Kingdom temples were built adjoining towns or even
square hypostyle hall with two columns. It is noteworthy that a round hole cut in the rock of the western cliffs, far from the attacks of the Bedouins. Some
opening (2 cm. diam.) in a flagstone of the hypostyle hall was probably of these monuments are on the remains of earlier structures from the Middle
intended to fix a standard-pole. The whitewashed walls were probably lined Kingdom (Kalabsha, Dakka). Egyptian temples are found even as far as
with stelae and other ex votos. Two large stelae were found in the rear wall of Sesebi and 'Amara in the Sudan. Some of these temples were cut in the cliff
the hall, above two steps and flanking the central doorway opening into the and their colossal masses and statues bore testimony to the extensive power of
second hall. A stairway rises to the rear platform, which forms the pronaos to Pharaoh.
three contiguous naoi. The pronaos is paved with polished limestone and two
'AMADA.325 this is a small temple built by Thutmose III (9.75 x 2r.34; ro.67 m .
limestone columns with corresponding antae-pillars supported a vaulted roof
high) and Amenhotep II, enlarged by Thutmose IV. The original project has
painted dark blue with vultures and cartouches of Ramses II. Paintings cov-
been regarded by Maspero as an early example of the small town-temple,
ered most of the walls of the rear hall, the pronaos, and the naoi (see fig. 145) .
further copied in the small temples at Karnak (e.g., that of Ramses III) ; it is
Doorjambs are painted with a tall bouquet, or a date palm beneath which
dedicated to Amun-Re' and Re'Horakhty. It consists of a court within a brick
stand several figures.
wall with proto-Doric columns forming a rear portico. Thutmose IV enlarged
it transforming the court into a pillared hall through the erection of twelve
TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DEIR EL MEDINA (RAMSES II). 3 23 The Eighteenth Dy-
pillars in three transverse rows in front of the four columns, with intercolum-
nasty chapel was razed and embedded under the platform in the court of the
nar walls between the outer pillars. Seti I seems to have built a large pylon
larger temple built by Ramses II, to which rose a double stairway with a
with a sandstone gateway abutting against the hypostyle hall (iwnit; fig.
central ramp. On the north side of the court was a pylon embodying a rock
146) . The temple proper, built in sandstone, has a shallow transverse hall of
knoll which opened onto a second stairway leading to the temple area. To the
appearance decorated with coronation scenes, a deep offering-table hall with a
east of this stairway was a court featuring a tree and a basin, bordered on the
stela in its rear wall mentioning that it was "the place where the king stands,"
north by a portico on pillars. The latter arrangement reminds one of the
connected on either side to a small cult-statue shrine for Re'Horakhty ( S.) and
terraced temple at Deir el Bahari.
Amun-Re' (N.) .
The temple palace adjoins the court and the two stairways to the south-
west. 146. Plan of the temple at 'Amada.

tom
Cult Temples in Nubia and the Sudan

The interest in Nubia which Egypt had manifested since the Twelfth Dynasty
and which had temporarily been stopped under the Hyksos kings was revived
0
in the Eighteenth Dynasty. Egyptian pharaohs penetrated still farther south to D D 0
Napata. Temples 324 similar to those of Egypt itself were built by Egyptian
pharaohs and dedicated to the Egyptian gods Amun, Re'Horakhty, Ptah, and
Isis or to local deities like De dun (at Semna), or to the deified Senusert III,
patron of Nubia, and to the reigning Ramses II and his wife (Garf Hussein, El D 0 0

lET I I T ~UTMOJ IJ IV T~UTMOJIJ Ill - AMEN ~om II

 274 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 275
SESEBI.326 In the fortified town of Sesebi in the Sudan, dating from the reign of terrace precedes the common fa~ade. Each of the two lateral temples has a
Amenhotep IV, are four temples, three of which were built before his sixth court, a transverse hypostyle hall (eight columns), and a sanctuary with a socle

~
year of reign when he abandoned Amun, and the fourth, a sun temple to the for the sacred bark. It is to be noticed that a passage runs at the back of the
Aten. three temples and connects their sanctuaries. The whole structure is raised on a
The three contiguous temples have the same type of unusual plan and the platform consisting of retaining walls, foundation walls, and blocks under the
same fac;ade wall with three entrance doorways facing east. The central temple columns, enclosing rubble. It has been surmised, on the grounds of certain
is the most important, and originally had a transverse hall with eight sturdy finds, that the three temples were dedicated to the Theban Triad Amun, Mut II
palmiform columns, a second hypostyle hall with four columns and two lateral (S.), and Khonsu, and that their walls had been covered with excellent low
rooms, a pronaos, and a sanctuary. Opening in the pavement of the north reliefs. Large granaries of the usual type extend to the south of the temples. I
lateral chamber a crypt stretches E.-W. and has walls decorated with low The fourth temple is an independent hypaethral structure to the north-
reliefs representing Amenhotep IV, probably the builder of the three temples. east on a long rectangular plan within an enclosure. It might have had a small
Seti I altered the original sanctuary into a pronaos and built a sanctuary court (n.7 m. square), on a platform 2 meters high, to which a stairway
outside the western wall, abutting on the temple (fig. 147). A large court on a ascends from the west. A symmetrical stairway with a colonnade was probably
added by Seti I on the eastern side. The priest ascending to the court from the
147. Plan and section of three adjacent temples and plan of the Aten temple at Sesebi in west would face the rising sun, as in the sun altars erected in the Re'Horakhty
the Sudan. courts adjoining the mortuary temples at Thebes. The temple was built by
Amenhotep IV for the cult of the Aten.
'AMARA WEsT. 327 In the northeast corner and abutting on the brick enclosure wall
built by Seti I around the town at 'Amara is a temple (N.-S.), entered through
a northern gateway preceded by a porch on two columns and a court (fig.
148). The temple built by Ramses II presents in its later stage an irregular

148. Plan of the temple of Ramses II at 'Amara West.

00000
0- ·- ·- - - - · - - · - -
I'!==:;'!
 276 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 277

plan, symmetrical about a N .-S. longitudinal axis and consisting of a court

bordered by a columned portico (14 columns), a hypostyle hall (12 columns),
r---_--_-_-_-_-_-:d
r-----
1--
I

0 I -- -------..J
and a transverse vestibule or pronaos with three contiguous shrines and a rear I ------- - -

:,·-1
staircase to the roof. Magazines roofed over with laminated vaults, accessible
from the court, stretch to the east and the west of the temple. It seems that the
original projects had been a hypostyle hall (the same as later) accessible from
a court (instead of the later sanctuary) and a sanctuary to the north never
0 : 0
:
!-------'~

r -;-~lrno
00 0 0
·:

carried out. Low reliefs on the walls of the hypostyle hall show religious or .: 00 0 0
" :i. [~_:=..:::;;:;
triumph scenes and inscriptions give the names of African and Asiatic towns 0 0 0 0
·:.
and peoples. \) c.: 0 I!
~· ~·
~) () 0 0
M1'M ('ANIBA) .3 28 In the northeast corner of the New Kingdom fortified ~; 0
,, ~'
~) ::1 0 0
enclosure of the city there was a tern ple ( E.-W.) laid out with two sides m 50 ,, ._,
parallel to the walls and very close to them. The building is badly ruined and it
,;.

•:} C•
(}
yj 0
0
0
0
seems that it dates from Thutmose I and Thutmose III, presumably enlarged ,______ _,,
Q '~-..' I
' - - _____ .J
under Amenhotep III. The symmetrical plan consists, as that at Soleb, of a L-:::: .:::.:J

pylon, a court bordered on two sides with a pillared portico and to the rear
149· Restored plan of the temple in the fortified city of 150. Plan of the temple of
with a raised double portico. A transverse hypostyle hall leads into a deep
Mi'm and detail of a palmiform capital. Tut'ankhamun at Paras.
shrine connected with two side rooms at the rear and flanked by two groups of
chambers and staircase. Two types of capitals have been found-bundle papy-
riform and palmiform (similar to that of Amenhotep III at Soleb )-a fact that l5I. Plan of the temple at Buhen. 152. Plan and section of the temple at Semna,
led to the surmise that there had been two rooms with different types of and restored plans of the first, second, and
third stages.
columns. (fig. 149) .
FARAS. 329 Four temples existed at Faras, only one of which can be studied. This
was built by Tut'ankhamun on a symmetrical plan (N.-S.), consisting of a
square court bordered on either side by a portico ( 2 rows of columns), a
.
hypostyle hall ( 12 columns), and a sanctuary with dependencies (fig. l50) .
n:nl_ __
BuHEN. Apart from the peripteral built by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III
330

within the second fortified line, there was a second temple dedicated by
Amenhotep II to Isis. It was built in brick, except for the stone pillars in the
forecourt. The plan is rectangular, though a few of the walls are laid out
askew. A square court has a transverse row of pillars and two other rows
parallel to the main axis and connected by screen walls. This arrangement can
be regarded as quite original, though it could be part of the first plan. Two
transverse shallow rooms connect this court with the central shrine adjacent to
two others (fig. 151).
 278 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 279

SEMNA. A brick temple of Thutmose I has completely disappeared while is decorated with offering scenes. The two shrines decorated with identical
another dedicated by Thutmose III to the Nubian god Dedun and to the scenes would have served for the cult statues of two forms of Khnum. The
deified Senusert III has left but scanty remains. It was of sandstone, on the wall scenes are derived from the repertory of the daily ritual performed by the
remains of an earlier structure from the Middle Kingdom, near the inner priest: purification, libation, undressing, and embracing the statue. The irregu-
corner of the L-shaped fortress plan, embodied in a mass of brickwork which lar layout of this part of the plan is attributable to the fact that its rear wall
could have been a citadel (according to Borchardt; fig. 152). Syrian fortresses runs parallel to the enclosure wall of the fortress. The plan is unique (fig. l 53) .
as represented on Egyptian monuments often had such massive citadels rising SoLEB. 333 This temple, one of the largest (12r.9 m.) outside Egypt, was built by
high above the stepped fortifications. Amenhotep III for Amun on the west bank, north of the Third Cataract. It is
According to Borchardt,331 Hatshepsut and Thutmose III built a deep on the typical New Kingdom plan (E.-W.). A quay connected by an avenue of
sanctuary (N.-S.) preceded by a transverse pillared portico and flanked by two crio-sphinxes to an entrance-hall with three or four pairs of columns formed
others, the one to the east abutting on massive brickwork (fig. 152:1). Thut- the approach to the temple. A wide pylon formed the actual fa<;ade (fig. 154).
mose III deepened the shrine, perhaps for the bark of Dedun, blocked the
south end of the western portico, and replaced its pillars by a fluted column
and two antae, while the eastern one was connected to a rear corridor (fig. 153. Plan and section of the temple at Kumma.
l52 :II) . A statue representing Senusert III seated as an Osiris was erected at
the rear of the sanctuary. The temple was decorated externally and internally.

KuMMA.332 In the north corner of the fortress are the remains of a temple
(E.-W .), separated from the enclosure walls by the usual land running along
the inner side. On the grounds that both rooms in this corner are low and
_____JI ~~ a I!
roofed over with heavy stone slabs, Borchardt surmises that they could have
supported a tower (cf. the citadel at Semna). The fort was not garrisoned in
0 [ R u !I r
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l I!

0
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the New Kingdom, but it was occupied by a civil community and by the II
priests of the temple "Khnum-'Opponent-of-the-Bows'" (Khnum ltenw
Pedjwt), dedicated to Khnum and Senusert III.
The plan of the temple built by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, enlarged
I
by the viceroys of Amenhotep II, is not strictly symmetrical (20 x ro m.). A 0
court (8.5 x 5 m.) is entered through a lateral doorway (N.) and is connected
to a hypostyle hall (8.5 x 4-4 m.). This part built in brick precedes an irregular
hall in sandstone with a rear portico on one column, connected to an an-
0
techamber bordered on one side (E.) by two contiguous shrines ( r.5 x r.2 m.
each) . The columns of the hypostyle are polygonal and in sandstone. The
pavement is in sandstone but there is an axial alley in pink granite. On the
walls Thutmose III appears seated between Khnum and Senusert III, while 5 R
most of the other scenes feature Dedun. A statuette of Amenhotep II was
found in a walled-up niche of the antechamber, or "offering-table hall," which
 280 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 281
KAwA. 334 It seems that Amenhotep III built a temple at Kawa, probably re-

",,•' constructed by Tut'ankhamun. Although the Egyptian name "Gem-Aten"

(Finding-the-Aten or Meeting-the-Aten) of Kawa would suggest some worship
·: of the Aten, there is no evidence of such.
"..,, The sandstone remains of Tut'ankhamun's temple, dedicated to
r. Amun-Re', consist of the sanctuary and its pronaos and four columns in the
'•
':·• second court. Both rooms were roofed over with a ceiling of deep sandstone
•' slabs, and light could only penetrate the sanctuary through a small aperture
(24 cm.). The columns are fluted, with 27- 32 arrises, and have a flat band
facing the central alley, a type in favor in Nubia during the New Kingdom.
154. Plan of the temple of Amenhotep III at Soleb.
The flutes have been colored red (two flutes) alternating with black (one
flute) (fig. 155).
A square court bordered by a portico on columns along its four sides precedes The low-relief scenes in the pronaos show the bringing of a bull with
a square hypostyle hall (48 columns) connected to a second rectangular hypo- deformed hoofs and horns in the form of human arms beneath a Negro head,
style hall. The rear part of the temple could not be retrieved. The architect and Tut'ankhamun before Amun-Re' or offering incense to Re'Horakhty and
Amenhotep son of Hapu is represented, taking part in the ceremonies of the Atum. In the sanctuary the main scene is that of Min being presented with
first jubilee festival, and was probably the designer of the temple. four calves by Tut'ankhamun.

1 55. Plan of the temple of Amun-Re' at Kawa, and detail of a fluted column. 156. Painting from the tomb of Ipuy representing a peripteral chapel.
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 .1

III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 283

:[] :
157· Sketch on an ostracon representing a peripteral temple, and interpretation.

With Taharqa the site of Kawa knew a new favor and this pharaoh built
a brick temple embodying the earlier remains of the sandstone temple of
Tut'ankhamun.

THE PERIPTERAL TEMPLES

REPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE

Two contemporaneous representations of a peripteral temple are avail- Plate 36. Mural representing a peripteral chapel, from the tomb of Ipuy (No. 217, Thebes,
able. In the tomb of Ipuy (fig. 156),3 35 a sculptor of the reign of Ramses II at Nineteenth Dynasty) .
Deir el Medina, a scene represents a watercourse on whose bank ~ small
peripteral chapel is erected. The entrance fac;:ade is shown : a stairway with a
central ramp and side walls ascends to a socle on which.two bud papyriform
columns and two corner pillars, connected by low parapet-walls, carry an
architrave. Between both columns a doorway with a square ·plate at the top
closes the entrance to the shrine proper, behind the front of the chapel.
According to the setting of the chapel featuring a garden it is assumed that it
served as a landing rest house for the sacred barks, perhaps during their long
journeys in the jubilee festivals (pl. 36).
A second drawing is a mere working sketch from the end of the Eight-
eenth Dynasty, on an ostracon (fig. 157) . The plan, traced hurriedly, is square
(27 cubits, according to the accompanying text), with three pillars on each of
the long sides, a doorway in the front and rear fa\'.ades, and a smaller shrine in
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 285
284

the middle with similar doorways ( 6 x 14 cubits). TYPICAL ExAMPL-Es OF PERIPTERAL TEMPLES
Both drawings show the characteristics that will be found in the actual
Type!
remains of peripteral temples.
Only three examples of the temple preceded by a peristyle with columns and
pillars have yet been recognized.
THE TYPES
WAor HALFA WEsT. 337 This structure stands in the northeast corner of the
Two types of peripteral temples can be differentiated: Middle Kingdom fortified enclosure wall at Buhen, perhaps on the site of an
I. A chapel with numerous rooms, preceded by a portico open on three earlier temple from the Twelfth Dynasty. The various stages through which it
sides with rows of columns and pillars (Temple of 'Amada) which occasion- passed under Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Hatshepsut, and Thutmose III have
ally extends laterally with columns (Temple at Wadi Halfa West). This type been restored. The nucleus consisted probably of the chapel itself: a transverse
of chapel seems to be dedicated to the cult of a deity. vestibule connected to a deep sanctuary set axially and a lateral independent
II. A shrine on a platform, open at the front and the rear and surrounded room. From the sanctuary a side doorway opens into a lateral room connected
on four sides by an ambulatory bordered with pillars and an intercoluri:miation with a second transverse one at the back. Under Hatshepsut a row of columns
parapet to which one stairway ascends at the front (El Kab, 'Amada, Medinet surrounded the chapel and the walls were decorated (fig. 158). Thutmose III
Habu), and often a second one at the rear (Karnak, Elephantine, Kuban). enclosed the structure within walls, erected a transverse festival hall with
It has been assumed that this type of shri,pe would have served for the columns, pillars, and pilasters in front of the temple, and lined the walls with
jubilee festivals of the pharaoh.336 It is clear, however, that the shrine was new decorated slabs. The temple plan is unique. Later some minor changes
designed as a way station or repository for a sacred bark that could be carried were introduced (addition of two portal jambs to two columns ; shifting the
or slid easily up and down through the front and, occasionally, the rear stair- entrance to the portico) . A gateway in the fortified wall and a quay platform
way. on the Nile bank correspond with the temple entrance.
Most of the chapels date from the Eighteenth Dynasty. Similar structures
with a pair of columns flanking the entrance doorway are often represented in CHAPEL OF HATHOR AT DEIR EL MEDINA (fig. 159).338 The remains from the
the tombs at 'Amarna, and the remains of hypaethral kiosks, with open Eighteenth Dynasty under the Ramesside temple are those of a small sanctuary
columnar treatment on the front fa<~:ade only, have been founq in the axis of with a transverse pronaos and three contiguous naoi. An ambulatory sur-
the entrance alley in villas at 'Amarna. They were used as private chapels to rounds the group on three ( ?) of its sides and it could be surmised that this
the Aten and each contained an altar and a stela. had been bounded by a parapet wall with pillars. The temple would then have
The peripteral chapel is not an invention from the New Kingdom. The been of the peripteral type, already known in the Middle Kingdom.
beautiful structure of Senusert I at Karnak shows that it was already known 'AMADA.339 The temple was never completed. It dates from Thutmose III and
and carried out to perfection at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, and Amenhotep II and is of carved stone. The original structure was on a rectangu-
perhaps even earlier (Heb-sed pavilion of Neterikhet Djeser at Saqqara). lar symmetrical plan: a transverse vestibule with three doorways in the rear
For lay purposes, peripteral kiosks with wooden columns or poles were wall, opening onto three contiguous rooms. The central one was the main
erected as shelters against the heat of the sun in estates (granaries, landing sanctuary and was larger, connected with two small lateral rooms. Walls were
quays) or as a ritual shelter (funerals). Such structures were later erected in beautifully carved and painted. A peristyle of four columns preceded the
stone according to a standard type for religious use. entrance fas;ade. Amenhotep II connected the end columns and the torus of
In the Ptolemaic Period a similar type of peripteral temple (called mam- the fas;ade by means of two sculptured slabs (fig. 160). A pillared hall was
misi by Champollion) will be built in front of the main cult-temple to serve for
the ritual ceremonies connected with the begetting of the deity.
 TEMPLE OF ttATtlOR
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159. Plan of the temple of Hathor at Deir el Medina.
@
160. Plan and section of a temple with peristyle at 'Amada.

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158. Temple at Wadi Haifa West: plan and restored fa<;:ade of chapel.
 288 Ill: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 289

erected by Thutmose IV for his second jubilee. The pillars have corresponding 1r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -,

[
r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1 I
antae in the lateral walls, showing on the exterior as pilasters, an unusual I I
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feature in Egyptian architecture. I I
I I
I I m
I I

[]
I I
I I
Type II I I
I I
I I
CHAPEL IN FRONT OF THE SACRED LAKE (KARNAK) .340 This small peripteral I I
I I
chapel abuts on the external face of the wall surrounding the court between Py- I I
I I
lon VII and Pylon VIII at Karnak, with its longitudinal axis (E.-W.) corre- I I
I I
sponding to that of the Sacred Lake, obviously pointing to some symbolic or I
I
ritual connotation. Two stages in the construction can be detected, correspond- I
ing perhaps to the first (Year 30) and second (Year 34) jubilees of Thutmose

0 ::
I I
III (fig. 161:2).
The original project consists of a sandstone platform on which stands an ~~~smi :
I I I I
alabaster shrine open at both ends and surrounded by an ambulatory bordered J L- - - - - - ---\ ~-- - - - - - _J L..

: :· 1 :
with pillars and a parapet rounded at the top. Two stairways ascend at both I __l_ __L-:---- - ---:
end fa~ades to the middle bay, which has a larger span. The repository once r - - - - - - - - - - - - --
i 0
I
roofed consists of two monolithic walls of alabaster carved with few relief scenes.
A later structure covered this one. It has a larger ambulatory with a second
row of pillars. It is noteworthy that the end intercolumniation in the new 5 m
fa~ade is nearly as large as the middle one, owing to its pillars having been set
in a line with those of the earlier fa~ade behind, which probably was still
extant. It was transformed into a repository for the sacred bark. Processions
had access from the east to the central stairway facing the lake. From this 3

kiosk or tribune the god could follow the festival performed on the lake. m cubit
0 0
CHAPEL AT EL KAB NoRTH.341 This chapel, dedicated by Thutmose III to the
vulture goddess Nekhebet, has the peculiarity of a shrine closed at the rear end
and a pillar on the axis in the rear row. The front corner pillars are rectangular
( 66.5 x 79 cm.), all the others being square in plan. In the middle a doorway
abuts on the pillars and a porch projects in front of it, probably on two bud 10
papyriform columns. The stairway leading to the platform is set in front of the
25
porch (fig. l6I:1 ). The whole temple was fronted by a pylon and surrounded
by a rectangular enclosure wall. 16r. Restored plans and elevation of peripteral chapels:
1, El Kab (T hutmose III); 2 , Sacred

CHAPEL AT ELEPHANTINE.342 Amenhotep III built a chapel for his first jubilee, Lake at Karnak (Thutmose III) ;. 3, Elephantine South; 4, Kuban (Amenhotep III).
 III : RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 291
290

dedicated to Khnum , the god of the Cataracts at Elephantine. It has be~n

of
completely destroyed in modern times and is only known from the records
the French Expedition. It was of the usual type with two stairways, two
bundle papyriform columns instead of pillars on the front and the back
entrances, and a parapet wall crowned with a cavetto cornice on the front
fa;:ade, instead of having a rounded coping (fig. 161 :3).

THE NORTH CHAPEL AT ELEPHANTINE.343 This was dedicated by Ramses II and

s,
was similar to the earlier one to the south of the island. It had two stairway
seven pillars on either long side, and two columns at the front and back
entrances. According to the mural representations, it contained the sacred bark
of Khnum .

CHAPEL AT KuBAN.344 Amenh otep III dedicated this chapel to the gods of the
as
nearby temple, probably Amun and others. The structure is of the same type
that of Elephantine: two stairways flanked by two pairs of bundle papyriform TMUTMOJli Ill
columns, five pillars on the long sides, and a cornice crowning the socle (fig.
161 :4) . Llr --- -d
THE SMALL TEMPLE AT MEDINET HABU. Medinet Habu was one of the four
r
345

centers of the cult of Amun in Thebes . Here the god assumed the shape of the ~
"Ancestor of the Eight Primeval Gods," and the place was called Iat-Tjamet,
later deformed into Djamet (Coptic, Djime), perhaps the prototype of the
Greek "Thebes." 0,_._,,_,_......_..........._._.__ _ __,20 CU bit
Hatshepsut had built a structure at the back of an earlier shrine, but she 10 m
later removed it to build the small peripteral temple. Thutmo se III completed
a
the construction with alterations. The project of Hatshe psut consisted of
rectangular building with a peripteros enclosing the smaU shrine, and, at the 0
rear, a transverse hall with four columns connected to a group of six rooms. 0
to
The latter were left by Thutmo se III but the transverse hall was cancelled
allow for a longer peripteros enclosing a longer shrine (fig. 162). 0
The rear part contains a central room, larger and higher than the others
0
flanked by two narrow rooms and a row of three small ones at the back. From
a slit window in the middle of the roof of the large room, or "offering-table
hall," fell the only rays of light allowed in this building, to illuminate the
d by
highly polished black granite statue of Amun and Thutmo se III, seated side by rfo. Small temple at Medinet Habu: restored perspective, plan as complete
Thutmos e III, and project of Hatsheps ut.
side on a throne (pl. 37) . The low reliefs on the walls represent Amun
 292 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 293
worshiped by Pharaoh while those in the north sacristy (per dwat) opening on
the fa~ade show the royal couple worshiped by Iwnmwtef. The two rearmost
rooms were shrines for the standing statue of "Amun, Lord of the Two
Lands" to the north and the ithyphallic Amun-Ipet to the south, each preceded
by its small offering room.
The shrine for the bark was built as an independent structure to the fore,
crowned with torus and cornice and a doorway in the front and rear fa~ades.
An ambulatory 3 meters wide surrounds the shrine and is bordered on three
sides by a row of pillars connected by a low parapet wall (see pl. 38). The
inner sides of the pillars are in low relief while the outer ones are in sunk
relief. The fa~ades of the temple are simple, undecorated, except for the
eastern one. It was in this repository that the bark of Amun of Luxor came to
rest every 10 days.
As in other temples of Amun, the 'Amarna revolution left its traces: the
statues were broken and buried, and the walls were defaced, but were subse-
quently restored in the Nineteenth Dynasty. Ramses III included the temple
within his fortified girdle wall.
Some peculiarities of the construction should be mentioned: the roof of
the peripteros is of thick slabs (52 x 300 cm. long) jointed directly or with a
stone filler set in gypsum in a channel at the top of the joint. The corner slabs
are in two units, each resting on three corners only. An additional column had
to be erected under the fourth corner by Pharaoh Akhoris (390 B.c.).
Various additions were subsequently made in front of the original struc-
ture (Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, Persian Period, Nektanebo I, Ptolemaic Period).

ROCK-CUT TEMPLES

Although the rock-cut tomb is known since the end of the Old Kingdom, the
rock-cut temple does not appear until the Eighteenth Dynasty, in the so-called
Speos Artemidos hewn by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III in the cliffs at Beni
Hassan. It is significant that the mortuary temple of the same Queen Hatshep-
sut was also partly hewn out of the cliff at Deir el Bahari. This fact might even
signify that her famous architect Senmut or perhaps H apuseneb was the initia-
Plate 37. T he south aisle of the peripteros in the small temple of the Eighteenth Dynasty at
tor of such a type of mortuary or cult temple. On the other hand, it has been Medinet Habu.
propounded that the rock-cut temple could have been created in conjunction
 294 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 295

with the nature of the sites located in the cliffs of the mountainous ranges One can but wonder at the momentous achievement in these Ramesside
bordering the Nile. This theory is illustrated by the rock temple of Horemheb temples, cut in the rock in spite of the difficult working conditions, including
(Nineteenth Dynasty) at Gebel Silsila and the numerous temples cut by lack of light and ventilation. They are the same conditions experienced by the
Ramses II and his courtier Setau in the western cliffs in Lower Nubia, where workmen and artists in the rock tombs, but here they are on a larger scale and
the valley narrows practically down to the Nile itself. In some places the cliff are in faraway Nubia. Moreover, statuary was incorporated in the shape of
approaches so close to the waterbank that the usual pylons and forecourts have colossal standing figures of King Ramses II abutting on the pillars in the fore-
been omitted from the layout of the temples (Garf Hussein, Abu Simbel). court, court, or hypostyle hall, or seated colossi flanking the doorway on the
Notwithsta nding their purpose as cult temples, these monuments show a fa;:ade. Similar colossi were also erected in the extensive temples of the same
marked similarity to the contemporaneous rock-cut private tombs at Thebes. pharaoh at Thebes. This style of royal statuary in the temple is not met with
The simplest plan (Hatshepsut, Horemheb at Elesiya, Gebel Dosha) is cruci- for the first time in the New Kingdom, but can be retraced to the mortuary
form and recalls the typical plan of the Theban tomb (Rekhmire' , Ineny, temples in the Old Kingdom. 346 Nowhere, however, are they used on such a
Puyemre'). The rock temples in Nubia usually have a more elaborate plan and large scale, whether in dimension or number, or are they embodied so inti-
can also be compared to more elaborate rock-cut tombs at Thebes with, a mately in the architecture as in the monumenta l temples of Ramses II. In the
forecourt, a court and portico, a broad transverse hall, a deep hall and a rock temples of Lower Nubia architectural statuary forms an integral part of
sanctuary, often flanked by lateral rooms (tombs of Sennufer, Ipy, Tjoy) . This the design and structure, being cut, as were the walls and pillars, out of the
similarity is probably due to the fact that both rock-cut tomb and rock-cut bedrock itself.
temple embody elements of the cult temple, itself an outgrowth of the domes-
tic architectural program.
In the Ramesside rock temple the approach usually features a pylon TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF RocK-Cur TEMPLES
preceding a forecourt with alleys of sphinxes, walled in by an enclosure wall
and followed by a second pylon and a court with a pillared portico. Both THE SPEos ARTEMrnos (BENI HAssAN). 347 This is the earliest rock-cut temple
forecourt and court can be reduplicated (Wadi el Sebu'a), or the court can be yet known, called Speos Artemidos by the Greeks, who thought it was a
partly cut in the rock (Garf Hussein). The pillared hall set transversely as an "Grotto of Artemis." It was dedicated by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III to the
open portico (Speos Artemidos, Horemheb at Gebel Silsila), or on a square lion-goddess Pakhet, Lady of the Desert, and to Thoth. The plan is cruciform,
plan (Ramesside temples in Nubia), represents the hypostyle "hall of appear- similar in general to the typical plan of the rock-cut tombs in the New I I
ance" of the typical cult temple. In the simplest rock temples the sanctuary is Kingdom. A transverse portico with front piers corresponding to four smaller
set in the axis, beyond this hall. In the more elaborate projects a transverse pillars at the rear, with a roof cut into a flat vault, is connected by a short
"hall of offering," sometimes pillared, follows and is connected to one (Beit el corridor to the axial sanctuary (fig. 163). In the rear wall a niche is intended
Wali) or three shrines (Wadi el Sebu'a, Abu Simbel, Garf Hussein, Derr) for a statue of the goddess. The walls and pillars are decorated with religious
opening in the rear wall, and eventually with lateral deep chambers (Garf scenes of Pharaoh and various deities. Seti I inserted his names and representa-
Hussein, Wadi el Sebu'a, Abu Simbel). Although this last part of the rock tions in various parts of the scenes.
temple agrees exactly with the similar one at the rear of the built cult temple it
is often, especially in the temples of Ramses II, a bark-chapel coupled with a THE RocK TEMPLE OF HoREMHEB (GEBEL SILSILA).348 The district of the
cult-statue shrine. The rock temple with its pylon often cut in the cliff faces quarries at Silsila seems to have been regarded as sacred from the earliest
the "local East." In the rock temples of Ramses II in Nubia the subject of the times. The quarries were heavily exploited in the New Kingdom: the cliffs
wall scenes of a room corresponds to its function in the main rooms only facing the river bear numerous memorial inscriptions and scenes of pharaohs
(bark-chapel, offering and feast halls) . and individuals represented in the presence of the gods, mainly Amun. Some-
 T

296 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 297

0 0 c D 0

0 0 c D 0

r65. Plan, section, and perspective of the rock temple at Wadi el Miyah dedicated by
r6 3. Plan and perspective of the Speos Artemidos at Beni Hassan.
Seti I to Min.
I

times, chapel-like recesses containing inscriptions and statues cut in the rock :I
triumph after his military victories in Nubia, in the presence of various deities
were intended as cenotaphs.
or with later memorial tablets, inscriptions, statues in niches of pharaohs or
The rock chapel of Horemheb is a cenotaph on a larger scale, cut perh.aps
individuals (Ramses II, Prince Kha'mwas, Siptah). An ingenious device wa~ to
in a disused quarry (fig. 164) . The plan is similar to that ~f the typical
cut a small shrine with a statue-group in its rear wall in the doorjambs of the
contemporaneous rock-cut tomb, but with several entra~ce bays m. the fa;ade.
two end bays as an ex-voto. The shrine to the north is that of Pesiur from the
Five apertures of various widths, separated by rock piers, open mto a long
reign of Ramses II, while that to the south was cut by Panehsy in the reign of
transverse shallow hall (N.-S.), whose roof is cut into a flat vault. A central
Merneptah.
doorway leads through a short corridor into the axial sanctuary, on whose rear
wall is a statue-group of Amun and six other gods. • . . THE ROCK TEMPLE OF MIN (WADI EL MIYAH OR REDESIYA, EASTERN DESERT). 349
All the walls were covered with low reliefs representmg Horemheb m In the desert to the east of Edfu is a small, well-proportioned rock temple
dedicated by Seti I to Min, the protector of the desert routes. The plan is
symmetrical (S.-N.). The front part abutting on the cliff is constructed of large
r64. Rock temple of Horemheb at Gebel Silsila.
sandstone blocks and consists of a hypostyle hall with open fa;:ade and four
bud papyriform columns (and two pillars added in Ptolemaic times) (fig.
165). The fa;ade, crowned with a cornice, has two columns with two corre-
sponding antae, probably connected by screen walls reaching two-thirds of the
height (according to Belzoni) . Only the interior had been decorated. The
central doorway to the rock-cut hall is flanked on either side by a niche with a
statue representing the pharaoh standing.

[)[][]0
 III : RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III : RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 299
298
0 0
The next hall is the "offering-table hall" square in plan, with four
in
rock pillars, and three shrines, accessible through three steps each, opening
A
the rear wall and containing a statuary group of Pharaoh and two deities.
deep niche opens in each of the side walls, at the rear corners. The decorat ion
consists of colored low-relief scenes of the ritual of offering. T he ceiling above
10

the central nave shows rows of winged disks alternating with cartouches, and
above the aisles the sky pattern . This temple shows a marked affinity with the
© ©
much larger rock temples of Ramses II in Nubia (Derr) .

THE ROCK TEMPLE AT BEITEL W ALI (NuBrA) . This was probably one of the
350

as
numerous rock-cut temples of Ramses II in Nubia where he received a cult
deified pharaoh together with various deities; it is the smallest of the type. The ll

temple is built on a symmetrical cruciform plan (N.-S.), consisting of a deep

m
JO
cubit
hall, a transverse hall with two columns, and a sanctuary (fig. 166). The whole
its
is hewn in the rock, except the front battered wall of the deep hall with
central doorway. The fa\'.ade was perhaps in the shape of a pylon, as at Garf
Hussein and Abu Simbel.
(SJ
In the deep hall only a pathway along both sides was roofed over with a ;I
vault (5.II m. high), the central area being a "feast court" probably left open · · ----~ :--- --· .~
as
to the sky. The low-relief scenes on the walls are of great historical value,
they represent the wars against the Syrians , the Libyans (right wall), the ----------dJt----------U ____\_j \ -
triumph of Ramses II over the Ethiopians (left wall), and the rich tribute 166. Plan of the rock temple at Beitel Wali and perspective of a column.
presented by the latter. The style of the scenes shows a certain freedom in the
of
graphical rendering, featuring some perspective notations and a sense with outstretched :"ings. A central doorway leads into the sanctuary ( 2.8 x 3
.6
n
humor. They are of the highest artistic value, though their technical executio m., r.68- 1.75 m. high), whose rear wall is cut into a niche with three statues
is rather simple and sketchy . representing Ramses II between two gods.
The rear wall of the hall is battered , and a central doorway, to which two Four stages of construction have been recognized, all during the reign of
lateral ones were later added, opens into a transverse hall (4.15 x rn.4 m.; Ramses II, and perhaps three different hands in the sculptures on the walls.
3.02-3,29 m. high) whose rock ceiling is supported by two architraves N
.-S. on
The temple. was tra~~formed into a church by the Copts : the deep hall
two sturdy fluted columns. They are of the so-called "proto-Doric" type, with became a. thre:-a1sled basilica roofed over with three brick vaults on support
s
at
four vertical plane sides, inscribed, having entasis, a blank horizontal fillet and the mche m the sanctuary was further hewn into an altar.
the top, and a square abacus. At each end of the rear wall is a niche containing
THE ROCK TEMPLE OF PT~H (GARF HussEIN) . This temple was built by Prince
351

a statuary group of Pharao h between two deities. The low-relief scenes above
the plinth feature religious subjects . Paint inside a red outline has been applied Se:au, go~ernor of Nubia under Ramses II and dedicated to Ptah of Memphis.
on a thin stucco layer. A frieze of kheker elements crowns the walls, just below It is on a simple symmetrical plan (E.-W.) : a court surrounded on its four sides
g
the ceiling. The middle field of the ceiling is decorated with series of vultures by a portico on stout papyriform columns (east end) and pillars with abuttin
 300 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
1.

[Q] [QJ [g [Q]

lQJ ~ rn !Ql
l9l ~ rn [Q]

167. Section and plan of the rock temple at Garf H ussein.

standing royal, statues (N ., S.). The rear wall of the court is cut to imitate a
pylon with battered faces and cornice (fig. 167) . The pillared hall is on a
square plan, with two rows of pillars with abutting sturdy royal statues and
four niches in each of the lateral walls, containing statuary groups of Pharaoh 11
, 11

between two deities. A transverse "hall of offering" with two pillars, flanked
by two deep rooms, is connected to three shrines opening in its rear wall. The l
central shrine is the sanctuary for the sacred bark of Ptah set on a socle. A
statuary group in a niche of the rear wall represents four seated deities : Ptah,
the deified Ramses II, Ptah-Tatenen, and Hathor. The wall scenes in the
ID[ IOI
bark-chapel depict Pharaoh embraced by Mut, offering before the hawk-
headed bark, embraced by Pakhet, and offering before the bark of Ptah.
The similarity between this temple and the larger temples of Ramses II at
Sebu'a is obvious in the layout of the court, the pillared. hall (twelve pillars,
instead of six at Sebu'a), and the rear apartments.
THE ROCK TEMPLE oF AMuN, RAMSES II AND RE'HoRAKHTY AT WADI EL SE-
Bu'A.352 The site was called El Sebu'a in Arabic, "The Lions," on account of the
sphinx-lined alley in the two forecourts leading to the stairway. The temple
was built by Ramses II and called "House-of-Amun." 353 The whole complex
preceding the rock-hewn chambers is enclosed within a huge brick wall ~~----'" m m:::::::::J
(i.o-i.8 m. thick) on a rectangular plan (35 x So m., N.W.-S.E.), with but-
r68. P_lan of . the rock temple at Wadi el Sebu'a, and perspective of a sphinx and of a
tresses on the north and south external sides (fig. 168) . pillar with statue.
 302 III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 303

A stone gateway, flanked by a statue of Ramses II and a sphinx on either

d
side, forms the entrance to the first forecourt, whose central alley is bordere
by three lion-sphinxes on either side. At the rear of the forecourt a brick pylon
forms the fa~ade to the second forecourt, with a central pathway bordered by 11

two large hawk-headed sphinxes. To the south is a small court with an altar
dedicated to Re'Horakhty. A stairway leads up to the terrace of the section I
built in stone, abutting on the cliff. The part of the temple built in stone and
to
hewn in the cliff is similar to the temple at Garf Hussein and corresponds
the typical tripartite cult temple : court, hypostyle hall, and sanctuary. A stone
pylon (2+5 m. wide, 20 m. high), whose two towers are abutted by four
.
colossi ( 6 m. high) on bases ( l m. high), forms the fa~ade to the court beyond
in front of
On the walls are scenes representing Pharao h sacrificing enemies
Amun-Re' and Re'Hor akhty. Prismatic recesses for the flagstaffs do not occur
in these towers. The "feast court" is square ( 19.8 x 20.6 m.), bordered laterally
A
by two porticoes with five pillars, fronted by standin g statues of Ramses II. [g] [Q] [g] [g]
slaughter court is laid out to the south, between the wall of the court and the
enclosure wall. [CJ [CJ [OJ IQ]
A second stairway leads up to the second terrace running along the
se
rock-cut part. The latter consists of a pillared "hall of appearance," a transver
"chamber of offering" flanked by a room at either end, and three rooms at the
rear. The ceiling of the hall is supported by twelve square pillars, those on
either side of the central alley having statues of Pharao h abutting on them. The 169. Plan of the rock temple at Derr.
in
central rear room is the bark-chapel which contained the sacred bark and
the rear wall of which is a niche with a statuary group of Amun-Re', Ramses II, in
and Re'Horakhty. The wall scenes represent Ramses II embraced by Mut of the .pylon and the court which must have stood in front of the temple cut
and Hathor , the offering of flowers to the royal bark and food to that
of the cliff. The plan (N.-S.) consists of two square pillared halls and three
Amun-Re'. shrines at the rear. The first pillared hall ( 15- 14 x 12 m.) is hewn in the
A church was later made of the pillared hall, transverse chamber, and rock, but masonry seems to have been used for stone roofing slabs. This hall
sanctuary. presents .the parti~ularity of having two front rows of simple pillars ( 1 x 1
The statuary shows a marked trend toward stylization, especially in the m.), while the third row consists of larger pillars ( 1.2 x 1.2 m.) with royal
treatment of the sphinxes in broad planes. The standing figures, recalling by statues abutting against their north side. This arrangement does not conform
of
their stockiness those of Ramses III at Medinet Habu, already clearly express
a to the usual one, where the pillars and adjoining statues face the central axis
debased style which soon declined further, even in Egypt itself. the temple. Low-relief scenes with subjects of war (side walls) and triumph
(rear) cover the walls (fig. 169), identifying the hall as a "feast court."
THE ROCK TEMPLE OF RE'HoRAKHTY AT DERR. Built by Ramses II, this temple
354 !he second pillared hall called "hall of appearance" ( 12 x 13 m. and 5
was called "Templ e-of-Ramses-in-the-House-of-Re'." Nothin g has remaine
355 d m. high) has six tapering pillars (1.4x 1.4 m.) with projecting bases; the
 304 III: RELI GIOU S ARCH ITEC TURE

da, Gebel Adda.

170. Plan of the rock temple of Amun-Re' and That at Abahu

out the plan and

pillars carry architraves set transversely. The process of laying
The stucco-cover ed
th e low-relief work was carried out very inaccurately.
and a frieze of uraei
ceiling is painte d with series of vultur es in the centra l aisle,
walls. The scenes
altern ating with the royal cartou che at the upper part of the
purification, and
are of a religious charac ter (jubilees given to Ramses, his
on the sides of the
recept ion of the bark). Phara oh and a deity are shown
intend ed to contai n
pillars . Three shrines open in the rear wall, the centra l one
the usual statuary
the sacred bark, as is shown on the walls. In its rear wall is
h, and Re'Ho r-
group ; the subjects here are Ptah, Amun-Re', the deified pharao
akhty.
small rock chape l
THE ROCK CHAPEL OF MIN (EL SALAMUNI, AKHMIM). This
356

on a symmetrical
was proba bly cut by Phara oh Ay (Eigh teenth Dynas ty)
. Later additi ons
plan: forecourt, portico, broad h all, and deep hall with shrine
and restorations have altered the origin al project.
.357 This is a small
THE ROCK TEMPLE OF AMuN-RE' AND THoT (GEBEL Aoo:)
narrow doorw ay
rock-c ut chape l of King Horem heb (1342-1314 B.c.) . A
a hypostyle hall
openi ng in the face of the vertically dressed cliff leads into
side chamb ers and a
with four bud papyr iform colum ns off which open two
transf ormed into a
centra l sanctuary to the rear (fig. 170). This templ e was
with scenes and
Christ ian church and the low reliefs were painte d over
patter ns.
358 This large temple
THE GREAT ROCK TEMPLE OF RE'HoRAKHTY AT ABu SiMBEL.
of H eliopolis
dedicated by Ramses II to Amun -Re' of Thebe s and Re'Horakhty
(Ramses II) from
Plate 38. The Great Templ e of Re'Hor akhty at Abu Simbel '
the south ( 1957).
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 307
306

Plate 39. A festival celebrated in the temple of Re'Horakhty at Abu Simbel as restored by 17i. Fa<;:ade and plan of the Great Temple of Re'Horakhty at Abu Simbel.
Takelam (1945).
 308 III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE

is entirely hewn out of the cliff, which was then at some distance from the
contemporary riverbank.
The approach to the tern ple fa;: ade is stepped: a forecourt leveled out of
the rock and bounded to the north and south by brick walls precedes a higher
terrace accessible by a stairway with a central ramp (pl. 38) . At both lower
ends of the stairway two recesses contained perhaps ablution basins and had
st
representations of Ramses II burning incense to the gods. At the northea
s
corner of the terrace is an open court dedicated to Re'Hor akhty which contain
two bases, the south one with a stairway and figures of four worship ing
a
cynocephali (baboons), the north one with a shrine for the sun god Khepri as
scarab and the moon god Thoth as a cynocephalus (pl. 39). This court of the
altar corresponds to that laid out similarly at the northwest corner in the
mortuary temples of the New Kingdo m at Thebes . The terrace is bordered by
a balustrade above a row of falcons and of statues of Pharao h striding, facing
east. Contrasting sharply with these in scale are the four colossal statues (over
65 ft. [ 19.81 m.] high) cut in the rock representing Ramses II seated, abutting
on the battered fa;:ade of a pylon carved in the cliff (fig. 171). The ~hole
Plate 40 . The southern most colossus of Ramses II in the fa~ade of Abu
es Simbel (Great
composition is flanked by the two sides of the cliff cut into slanting buttress
Temple, 1957 ) .
( color plate X). The norther n one was not finished and still shows the steps
that were cut as a means of access during the carving. The sides of the
buttresses do not protrude perpendicularly to the rear wall but they fan out. Plate 4r. North side of the entrance passageway to the Great Temple at Ab
u Simbel. The
The peculiar love of Ramses II for colossi was never more clearly illustrated scene in sunk relief on the socle of the colossus represent s a row of bound

than in this fa~ade. In spite of their scale the statues are well proportioned, prisoners on their knees ( 1957) .

except for the neck, and finely carved, even to representing the characteristic
features of the pharaoh looking down to the crowd of worshipers (pl. 40) . As
in the other architectural statues of the same pharaoh, smaller statues of his
mother, his wife Nefertari, and his children stand betwe$'.n and on both sides
of his legs. Along the bases of the colossi are low reliefs representing chained
to
prisoners kneeling and facing outward, Negroes to the south and Syrians
the north (pl. 41) . It is noteworthy that the front sides of the bases of the
colossi are not on a straight alignment, but rather on a curved one. On the
cornice crowning the pylon is a row of cynocephali, raising both hands and
a
worshiping the rising sun. In a niche above the entrance is a statue of
falcon-headed sun god and other figures representing pictogra phically the
royal praenomen.
 310 III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 311
d
The plan of the temple proper is symmetrical and consists of two pillare
dinal axis
halls, a transverse chamber, and a sanctuary, all set on one longitu
the typical
E.-W. ( 180 ft. [54.86 m.] long) . This arrang ement is akin to that of
ar curving
cult temple in the New Kingd om. Eight deep chambers of irregul
yle hall
shape open on the sides (5 on one; 3 on the other) of the great hypost
re, to be
and were meant to serve as storerooms for the sacred utensils and furnitu
the wall
placed on the stone shelves runnin g along the walls. In one room (II)
wine, and linen, as well
reliefs show seven scenes of provisioning with natron ,
ally "the
as of anoint ing and censing, though an inscription describes specific
filled with all
great splendid treasuries of the inside, of good sandstone,
splendid stones."
m. J)
The great pillared hall is rectangular (54 x 58 ft. [ 16.46 x 17.68
y. Eight
and is entered throug h a central doorway at the top of the stairwa
[9.14 m.]
massive rock piers abutted by Osiride figures of Pharao h (30 ft.
are coyered
high) flank the central nave (pl. 42). The four walls of the hall
us subjects
with vividly colored low-relief scenes depicting military and religio
(north
featuring Ramses II, and among which is the famous battle of Qadesh
es in
wall) . This hall corresponds to the court surrou nded by columned portico
43, 44, 45) and
the typical cult temple. The colossal statues in the hall (pls.
Egyptian
those of the fa;ade are among the most momentous achievements of
receive
architectural sculpture. It has been noticed that the only lightin g they
statues are
comes throug h the eastern doorway, so that the faces of the royal
into stark
brough t to life by the first rays at sunrise but gradually fade
immobility as the rays lower toward the feet.
of
The ceiling of the hall is decorated in the usual way with a series
ry, alterna ting with
vultures with outstretched wings flying toward the sanctua
with stars.
the cartouches containing the royal names, and above .the aisles,
storero oms,
The ingenious planni ng of the lobby set askew in front of the side Plate 42. Hypostyle hall with colossal statues of Ramses II in the
front hypostyle in the
colossus in
to avoid the corners of the second hall, is notewo rthy. The second Great Temple at Abu Simbel ( 1957 ) .
of inserted
the northe rn row shows a restoration at the knee, consisting
like the
patchin g stones coated with a thick layer of plaster modeled to look
rocks are
original carved rock beneath (pl. 46). Cracks and defects of the
usually treated in this way.
"hall
The second pillared hall is smaller (36 x 25 ft. [ 10.97 x 7.62 m.]) a
piers. Three door-
of appearance" set transversely with four rectangular rock
g three
ways open from it into a shallow transverse "hall of offering" frontin
 Plate 45· Photogrammetry of the profile of the head of Ramses II (westernmost colossus in
Plate 43. Colossus of Ramses II in the front hypostyle hall of the Great Temple at Abu
the north row, hypostyle hall of the Great Temple at Abu Simbel) .
Simbel (north row, southernmost pillar).

Plate 46. Patching and correction of the apron and knee of the second colossus in the north
Plate 44. Photogrammetric elevation of the colossus of Ramses II (north row, southernmost
row (hypostyle hall of the Great Temple of Re'Horakhty at Abu Simbel; 1957 ).
pillar, hypostyle hall of the Great Temple at Abu Simbel).
 314 III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 315

for
rooms. The larger one in the middle is the sanctuary, having a rock socle
the sacred boat in its center and four seated statues abuttin g its rear wall: Ptah,
Amun, the deified Ramses II and Re'Hor akhty. The statues of Ramses II and
Amun are located so that they are lighted axially by the sunrise twice a year,
in
on February 20 and October 20. Here again the cult statues and the bark are
y
the same sanctuary, for on the socle still in situ were placed the barks, probabl
of the temple was to
those of Pharaoh and Amun. A special rock chapel south
receive the barks of Re'Hor akhty and Thot, as depicted on its walls.
In the treatme nt of the fa~ade the slanting buttresses which fan out and
to
the curving alignme nt of the bases of the colossi are two features intende d
ize the
create illusions of perspective. The effect is probably designed to emphas
ist
depth of the composition. This is already a manifestation of the manner
ry
trend that pervades the design of the entrance gateways of the mortua
e
temple of Ramses III at Medine t Habu. In the hypostyle hall there is evidenc
the
of the hasty and careless execution, not to mention the debased style, of
architectural statuary .

THE ROCK TEMPLE oF HATHOR AT ABu SrMBEL. At some distance to the north
359

of
of the great temple of Ramses II is the smaller one dedicated to Hathor
Ibeshek and the deified Nefertari, the wife of Ramses II. The buildin g inscrip-
of
tion describes the temples as "a house hewn in the pure mounta in of Nubia,
360 The approac h has
fine, white and endurin g sandstone, as an eternal work."
disappeared. The facrade (pl. 47) in the shape of a pylon (92 x 39
ft.
[28.04 x l l .89 m. ] high), once crowne d with a cornice, shows the unique
feature of two colossi (33 ft. [ 10 m .] high) of Pharao h flanking that of Queen (
Platq7. Fa~ade of the small temple of Hathor and Nefertari at Abu Simbel 1957
).
Nefertari standing on either side of the central doorway, in niche-like pris-
matic recesses. Here also smaller figures of princes a.£company the large
i-
statues. Deep slanting buttresses separate the statues and the whole compos
tion is flanked by one side projecting at right angles to the facrade on the south
al
and by a well-dressed area of rock to the north, covered with the memori
inscriptions of private people. While the nearby temple of Re'-Hor akhty
clearly faces east, this small one of Hathor faces southeast, deviating 45° from
Its
the axis of the larger one and making with its facrade an angle of 135° .
location seems to imply a subordination to the larger one (pl. 48).
The plan of the rock-cu t temple is strictly symmetrical (fig. 172). The
square hypostyle "hall of appearance" has six square pillars flanking the wide
 316 III : RELIGI OUS ARCH ITECTU RE III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 317

Oc :l
Plate 48. The two temples at Abu Simbel, looking southwest ( 1957) .
D D
D D
D D 0
1 72 . Elevation , plan, and perspectives of the small rock temple of Hathor at Abu Simbel.
 318 III: RELI GIOU S ARC HITE CTU RE III: RELI GIOU S ARC HITE CTU RE 319

sistrum on the side

nave. These pillars are decorated in relief with a Hathoric
Hatho ric pillars (pl.
facing the central nave. They are therefore regarded as
wall are covered with
49) . The three other sides of the pillars as well as the
various deities. Three
low-relief scenes of Phara oh and the queen in front of
ber of offering" with a
doorways in the rear wall open into a transverse "cham
small room at either end and a central rear sanctuary.
with a roof sup-
The sanctuary presents the uniqu e feature of a shrine
of the cow Hatho r,
ported on sistra and the representation in high relief
es II and Nefertari.
probably flanked on one side by a statuary group of Rams
cow Hath or protect-
·This is similar, but in rock sculpture, to the statue of the
the chapel of Hatho r
ing a figure of the mona rch which was usually placed in
goddess is worshiped
in mortu ary temples (e.g., Deir el Bahari) , altho ugh the
tion of the deceased.
here as the mother of Horn s rathe r than for her protec
g the Nile bearing
The reliefs on the latera l walls represent a figure symbolizin
receiving incense and
offerings, Ramses II and Nefertari seated on a thron e
or (sout h). Two other
libation (nort h), and Nefertari adori ng Mut and Hath
t ever been com-
rooms were to flank the central sanctuary, had the projec
pleted .
I) .361 Altho ugh not
THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT SERABIT EL KHADEM (SrNA
than to the ordinary
strictly a rock-cut temple, this temple is more akin to it
Dynasty showed
temple built in the valley. The pharaohs of the Eight eenth
dom temple in the
much building activity on the site of the Middle King
Thutm ose III built
minin g district of Serabit el Khad em. Hatshepsut and
their reign stretched
there together from Year 5 to Year 22, and the temple in
ted of a court with
from the sacred cave of Hatho r to the stone pylon. It consis
a large court with
a two-columned portico in front of the cave, a sanctuar~,
a stone pylon fronting
lateral hall dedicated to Hatho r, two pillared halls, and
shrine of the kings,
the monu ment (fig. 173). To the north of this pylon is the
ers abutting on the
in the shape of a portico on fluted columns (four ) and pilast
ohs Snefru and Ame-
rock cliff. The decoration repres ents the earlier phara
r.
nemh at III, and Hatshepsut with the deities Soped and Hatho
ary, owing to
The axis of the plan is sharply bent in front of the sanctu temple at Abu Sim be! ( 1957).
the south side of the Platq 9. The north row of Hathoric pillars in the small
the topography, and the later constructions run along
left in situ by the
earlier approach to the sacred cave. All the old stelae were
connected the earlier
builders of the New Kingd om. A north ern doorway
 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 321
pathway to the court in front of the Eighteenth Dynasty sanctuary.
The pylon (26.5 ft. x 5.67 ft. [8.08 x 1.72 m., 3.96 m. high] 13 ft. high)
consists of an outer casing retaining a rubble core and decorated with a scene
...... of Thutmose III making an offering to Hathor. The two pillared halls behind
0

the pylon are not laid out on its axis, but irregularly to conform with the
curved axis of the layout. The one next to the pylon had two Hathoric pillars,
while the second one had four simple square pillars.
-
-~ To the south of the court is a square Hathor-hall, with four Hathoric
pillars and a central circular basin. Such water basins are to be noticed in every
hall of the complex, numbering four on the way to the shrine, and this fact
points to the importance of ablutions in this particular cult, comparable to its
role in Semitic cults. The Hathoric pillar features at its top a face of the
goddess with curling hair set in high relief on two opposite sides and a smaller
face in low relief on the other two sides, topped with a cavetto-block.
The sanctuary was rebuilt by Ramses IV. The portico in front of the
shrine rests on two fluted columns (tapering, sixteen-sided) of Amenemha t
c IV. The shrine is a deep room cut entirely in the rock with one central rock
a = pillar.
::;;
~

~ The later history of this temple can be traced from the addition by
'.::;
Oo Thutmose III of a court and a two-pillared hall in front of his pylon. No fewer
than ten contiguous chambers or courts were subsequently added to the front
c::i
on the same longitudinal axis (E.-W.) by successive pharaohs (Thutmose IV,
ii~
~

• E":
J :'.3
Amenhotep III, Seti I). Ramses II, Merneptah, Seti II, and Ramses III, IV,
"";:;

\\
0

~\=~ ·~
=
0;;;
and VI rebuilt and added various elements.
The worship in this temple, with its characteristic features of burnt
) ~
'--'
<:t "'
sacrifices, elaborate system of ablutions, dedications of sandstone cones, and
C>
I- sacred sleeping cubicles, shows a Semitic origin or at least marked Semitic
:i:::
'-'
influences.
.c.
0

""
~c

<:t
~

"""
:z:
THE MORTUAR Y TEMPLES

10~0 The separation of the mortuary temple from the tomb itself marks an ultimate
j attempt at insuring security against tomb robbers. Amenhotep I had built his
mortuary temple south of Dra' abul Naga and cut his tomb some little
distance away ( 1 km.) in the cliffs behind. He was followed by all the
\
\ a n

~''i D D
D a
\
l
 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 323
322
pharaohs who cut their tombs in the so-called "Valley of .the Ki~gs" .and built (Thutmose III, IV, Seti I, Merneptah, Siptah). Later, the room of the bark is
their mortuary temples in a row facing southeast, possibly m the direction of the enlarged into a hall with four pillars while the rear room assumes the shape of
temple at Luxor, along the lower ridge of the hills. From north to south there a transverse room, presumably containing a double false-door (Ramses II,
are the temples of Seti, Thutmose III, Amenhotep II, Ramses II, ~hut~ose IV, Tausert, Ramses III). Whether the sanctuary was intended to contain a sacred
Merneptah, and Ramses III at Medinet Habu. Every pharaoh built his temple bark for the whole year or only the bark of Amun when it came to visit the
farther to the north, beyond that of his predecessor, and the phara?hs .of a ne:V western temples is not clear.
dynasty had to squeeze theirs in between the existing temples, begmmng agam The opinion that the temples were oriented toward the temple of Amun
at Luxor is debatable. This orientation would not be accurate for all the
from the south. .
The rock-cut tombs were no longer conspicuous like the royal pyramids temples and it is safer to explain it as a direction perpendicul ar to the river-
of the Old or the Middle Kingdom, but were supposed to be hidden; and there bank.
was no direct connection between the mortuary temple and the tomb. Some THE ROOMS FOR THE MORTUARY CULT. These are set to the left of the sanctuary
of the mortuary temples in Western Thebes, such as that. of Ramses II (Ra- of Amun and quite separate from it. They can be made accessible from the
messeum) or of Ramses III (at Medinet Habu), were m no way a lesser court (Hatshepsu t, Thutmose I), or from a transverse secondary hall (Thut-
achievement than the huge cult temples on the eastern bank, at Karnak or mose III, IV). They consist of two vaulted rooms, the second one having a
Luxor. false-door set in its rear wall. This false-door is the same element as the one
The mortuary temple 362 from the Eighteenth Dynast~ to t h ~ T wentiet
· h
that was set in the offering chapel of the royal or private tombs of the Old
Dynasty was essentially a temple dedicated to Amu~ and m which funerary Kingdom and in the offering chapel of the royal tombs of the Middle King-
ceremonies were performed in an adjacent chapel m honor of the deceased dom.
pharaoh. To these two constituent elements, the sanctuary of Amun and, the Toward the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty this offering chapel was
mortuary chapel, is always added a third one dedicated to the sun god Re Ho- replaced by a suite of one or two halls and a sanctuary of three cellae similar to
rakhty. Various dependencies such as magazines or a sla~ghter court may be but smaller than the main sanctuary suite and set parallel to the main axis,
laid out around the main chapels. The temple resembles m many respects the south of it. This "contiguous temple" is accessible from the court through a
mortuary temple of the pyramid of the Old Kingdom. However, whereas the processional passage, and is intended essentially for the deified pharaoh and
latter was dedicated to the pharaoh alone, the mortuary temple of the. New occasionally for his father (Seti I for his father Ramses I).
Kingdom is a temple of Amun in which a cult for the deceased pharaoh is. a.lso In the Twentieth Dynasty the rooms seem to be intended for the mor-
celebrated. This shows the evolution of the religion ideology about the divme tuary cult of Pharaoh as an Osiris (Ramses III at Medinet Habu).
pharaoh and its clear deterioration. THE ALTAR COURT oF RE'HoRAKHTY. To the right of the sanctuary (N) of Amun
THE SANCTUARY oF AMuN. That the mortuary temple was essentially a temple and independen t from it is a court preceded by, and backed with, a hall, which
of Amun is proved by the fact that the main sanctuary was laid out on t~e contains an altar. This is a platform to which a stairway ascends from the
west so that the ceremonies to the sun could be performed while facing east.
central axis and was dedicated to Amun. It consists of two rooms, one contam-
·n the bark of Amun and fronting the second, which features a double THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE MORTUARY TEMPLE. The three basic elements de-
i g . 1
false-door in its rear wall. In the earliest temple, that of Hatshepsut at Deir e scribed were usually set side by side around a central court (Hatshepsu t) or
Bahari oriented like the nearby temple of Mentuhotep (Eleventh Dynasty) columned hall (Thutmose II, III, IV, Seti I), or at the rear of a series of two
toward Karnak, the two rooms are vaulted and flanked by small niches. On transverse columned halls, preceded by one or more large hypostyle halls
both sides of the room of the bark of Amun are that of Mut and that of Khonsu (Ay-Horem heb, Ramses II, III) .
 III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III : RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 325
324

There were sometimes other elements such as an ambula tory (Thutm ose
II), a treasury (Seti I), magazi nes (Seti I, Ramses II) or a slaught er court (Seti
I, Ramses II [ ?]).Th e outline of the symmetrical plan is rectang ular.
00~01 II II ld~DO
TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF MoRTUARY TEMPLES FROM THE NEw KINGDOM

~0 0 oD ~ 00 0 0~
h of
THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF QuEEN TETISHERI. To the east of the cenotap
363

the queen at Abydos stands the mortua ry temple, built of bricks stamped with
an
the name of Pharaoh Ahmose. The plan is rectang ular, symmetrical about
east side of the enclosu re
E.-W. axis passing through the main entranc e in the
wall (fig. 174, 175). Two wells had been sunk just behind the entranc e on both
sides of this axis. The doorway of the temple proper opens in front of the main
entranc e and leads onto a brick-paved square court. It is surmised that
the
001
I
I 10~ I
sanctuary was to the west of this court, althoug h nothing but four silos have
....___ ____,
__Jl r_ _
actually been found there.
The pyrami d complex of this queen is mention ed on the famous stela 174· Plan of the shrine of Queen Tetisheri at Abydos.
found in the neighbo ring shrine, dedicated by Ahmos e to his grandm other
a
Tetishe ri: "My majesty has desired to have made for her a pyrami d and
be
house in Ta-djeser, as a monum ental donatio n of my majesty. Its lake shall 175· Plan of the mortuary temple of Queen Tetisher i at Abydos.
dug, its trees shall be planted ... " 364
lly
THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF THUTMOSE n. This small temple was origina
365

.-.
asymmetrical. The rectang ular plan consisted of two sections set side by side: '-' :--.::::::::i
0
the wider one having a hypostyle hall on a square plan with four column
s, II,,
;
followed by a transverse hall with two columns and three contiguous chapels
•I

the other having two rooms (right), one behind the other (see fig. 188:1).
Thutmo se III enlarge d this temple and altered its hypostyle hall into a deep
hall and a front room, backed with a staircase. He added a large hypostyle
hall n
,.
, 1
a
with sixteen columns in front and surroun ded the existing structure with
, 1 l I

[----,, ... ·:
•• ••• , I I I I
I I
the
wall, enclosi ng an ambula tory on three sides. The two hypostyle halls in :::.::~-, ~J I I :

original project can be regarde d as the prototypes of those in later mortua

ry ~- ~ :
I
I
I

hall, I
temples . In the second stage the front hypostyle hall preceded a deep
- I I I

0 0 i..i I

l...____f G;;~~~-:~~~~"
probably to contain a bark.
the
THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF HATSHEPSUT (DEIR EL BAHARI). Unlike all
366

it is
other mortua ry temples, this one is terraced and abuts on the cliff in which
 326 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 327

partly hewn (pl. 50) . The three essential groups of elements in the mortuary
temple are recognizable, however : the large open court surrounded by a
columned portico is the protoype of the hypostyle hall, flanked as will be usual
later, by the court of Re'Horakht y (right) and the mortuary chapels of
Hatshepsut and her father Thutmose I (left) . The chapel of Amun-Re' is on
the main axis at the rear of the court and it consists of two deep vaulted rooms,
one behind the other. These are probably the bark-chapel, according to the
evidence of the decoration of the wall in the front one, and the sanctuary
proper for the cult statue. The decoration of the dado in the latter with
representations of gardens and ponds alive with bird and fish is never found in
other sanctuaries. A doorway was later pierced in the rear wall (Ptolemaic
Period) and it cannot be ascertained whether or not a double false-door existed
as at Qurna and Medinet Habu.
That the large altar in the court, north of the colonnade to which a
stairway ascends from the east, is dedicated to Re'Horakht y is proved by an
inscription of Hatshepsut on it. It is preceded, as in later temples, by a small
vestibule with three columns.
The mortuary cult-rooms (S.) consist of two vaulted chambers set side by
side and opening onto a court, the larger dedicated to Hatshepsut, the smaller
to Thutmose I. A false-door was set in the rear wall of each and the vault was
decorated with astronomy scenes relating to the Osirian cult. The scenes on the
walls depict the offering rites.
The temple, named "Most Holy" (lit. "Holy-of-Holies," Djeser Djserw) ,
is one of the most stupendous edifices of Egyptian architecture. The famous
queen's counselor and architect Senmut,367 assisted by Dedia, chief of the
decorators of Amun, is probably responsible for this project begun in the fifth
year or eighth year of the reign of Thutmose III.
Part of the site chosen was the triangular area between the earlier dis-
carded shield-shaped enclosure of Mentuhotep's temple and its actual build-
ings. According to Winlock, one of the latest Egyptologists to excavate the site,
there seems to have been an earlier project which was dropped, as was an
earlier project for the adjacent temple of Mentuhotep (Eleventh Dynasty).
Hatshepsut built her eastern enclosure wall in a line with that of the latter
temple and she used its E.-W. enclosure wall as her own boundary to the south
(fig. 176). From the locations of the foundation deposits uncovered, Win- Plate 50. The mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut, as seen from the top of the northern
lock 368 could deduce that they did not correspond with the actual boundaries,
• cliff at Deir el Bahari.
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 329

=
2 E
=
<l
=
<l
=

e
__,
........
........
=
,__
<l

I
II ~ i 0

~
=>
~ ~
a.
:::;;: :c:
;: ;:: ;:::
~
;;;;: ~

~
:C:·
~

I:
\\,,
~
~
"

:::;;:
~.
=>
~
'""
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I
.....
....
'...."
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s
~
 330 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 331

but rather with a quite different plan copied from that of the temple of by her saddled donkey described humorously as "the ass which carries his wife,"
Mentuhotep, even to the asymmetrical arrangement of the court. He found a and the incense and exotic trees being loaded onto the ships. These scenes are
corroboration of this hypothesis in the fact that the presumed project seems to treated in registers with exactness of detail, and reveal a fondness for curved
have been a copy on a reduced scale (5/7) from the larger nearby temple. This lines and slender figures. 371
sh ratio could have been adapted quite easily when using the cubit and its The lower terrace was planted with palm trees and papyrus. Each of the
subdivision into 7 palms. I have proved, however, that both projects conform to parapet walls bordering the first ramp is decorated in low relief with the
a general modular layout and that they are very similar in harmonic design. figure of a lion guarding the entrance. On the parapet of the ramp to the
Although the plan of the new project did not correspond to that of Mentu- middle terrace a huge cobra topped with a falcon with outstretched wings coils
hotep's temple, many of the elements are similar, such as the terraced layout, and its wavy body upward along the coping. In the lower portico the scenes
the approach by a ramp flanked at its upper end by the two aisles of a pillared of the transport of two obelisks on boats from the quarries at Aswan to Thebes
portico, and the square pillar, not to mention the general setting and the rear and the erection of the obelisks are noteworthy (S.) . They are usually inter-
part hewn out of the cliff. preted as those erected by Hatshepsut in the hypostyle between pylons IV and
From the temple an alley and a causeway, both bordered by sphinxes with V, of pink granite lined with dja'm -gold.
Hatshepsut's head every rn meters, lead down to the valley portal, probably set On the north side of the middle terrace an unfinished lateral portico with
on the quay of a basin and canal near a palace. 369 The court is trapezoidal and fifteen columns of classical aspect (sixteen-sided columns) runs for some
along its axis runs an alley bordered with sphinxes and flanked by two distance, beginning from the corner of the terrace ( color plate XI). The south
T-shaped papyrus pools with flower beds about them.370 The temple is ap- external wall of this terrace acts as a high retaining wall and is decorated with
proached from two terraces at two different levels created by leveling off the a plinth with recessed paneling, surmounted at intervals with rectangular
slope and connected by two axial ramps with central stairways. A portico motifs representing the plan of the palace forming serekh panels topped with a
stretches at the rear of both first and second terraces, and a third portico at a royal falcon and uraeus. At the same level as, and accessible from, the middle
higher level forms the fa~ade to the actual temple. This feature of the portico, terrace are two chapels, one dedicated to Anubis (north) and the other to
whose rear wall acts as a retaining wall for the terrace behind, is characteristic Hathor (south). The chapel of Anubis is preceded by a deep portico with
of this monument, though it occurred once in the rock tombs from the Middle three rows of beautiful polygonal columns, four to each row. The sanctuary is
Kingdom at Qaw. It has been suggested that the stepped terraces and the on a winding plan, similar to that of the chapels in the north and south
vertical elements such as the contiguous bays or the pillars recall aesthetically palace-fa~ades in Neterikhet Djeser's complex (Third Dynasty, Saqqara) . The

the vertical cliffs and deep furrows in the mountain cirque (fig. 177). Each of chapel of Hathor is larger than that of Anubis and consists of two transverse
the three porticoes has a row of piers in front of a row of c,plumns (lower and columned halls "of offering" and "of appearance" connected by a large bay
upper rows), or two rows of piers (middle row). Originally the outer piers in with a row of columns. The middle alley in the front hall is bordered by two
the upper portico had Osiride statues of the queen abutting on them, but they rows of Hathoric columns, the capitals of which have two faces of the goddess
were converted into simple piers by the jealous Thutmose III. The middle with cow's ears and are surmounted by an abacus in the shape of a shrine (pl.
portico is famous for the beautiful colored low-relief scenes of the queen's 51). A small third room with two columns precedes the vaulted sanctuary,
expedition to the country of Punt, now vocalized as Pwene (Somaliland; on deeply cut in the rock (pl. 52), decorated with a scene of Hatshepsut nursing
the left), and the theogamy of the queen's mother or her divine marriage with at the udder of the cow of Hathor. At the base of the lateral walls are niches
Amun (on the right). The scenes of the trade expedition to Punt feature the carved in low relief with pictures of Senmut which would have been hidden
reception of the Egyptian envoy by the native ruler Parohu against a background behind the opening door-leaves of the niches, a clever device of that favorite to
of domed houses set on stilts, the peculiar deformed wife of the ruler followed accompany his queen in Hathor's presence. The cult statue in the shape of

-
 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 333

Plate 5r. Hathoric capital from the Hathor chapel in the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut
at Deir el Bahari (I 952) .

Plate 52. The chapel of Hathor at Deir el Bahari. On the rear wall Hatshepsut is seen
nursing at the udder of the cow of Hathor.

Plate 53· Columns and recesses in the court of the third terrace at Deir el Bahari.
 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 335
334
Hathor's cow stood in one room while the boat-sled for its transport was in the row of Osiride colossi carved from the courses of masonry as a front to the
other, which was accordingly assimilated to the bark-chapel, as deduced from upper portico. In addition, ten tall niches in the rear wall of the upper peristyle
court had contained statues of the queen. A unique feature in the chapel
its wall scenes.
The third uppermost terrace, accessible through an axial ramp, features a consisted of four statues, set as two pairs against the east and west walls of the
third double portico with a front row of square pillars against which stood sanctuary, flanking both doorways. It seems as if the hugh statues, double
large stylized statues of Hatshepsut in the garb of Osiris which formed Osiride life-size, were to guard the sacred bark of Amun-Re' in its sanctuary during
pillars and a rear row of columns. This portico is the fa<;ade of the temple the annual visit of that god at the time of the "Feast of the Valley." 375 It is
proper which consists of a large hypostyle hall372 set transversely (pl. 53) and noteworthy that there were 28 statues of Hatshepsut in hard stone, more than
accessible through a granite doorway (usurped by Thutmose III) and a sanc- roo statues of sphinxes in painted sandstone, 22 granite sphinxes, and about 40
tuary opposite it cut deep in the mountain. Two lateral doorways open from limestone Osiride figures.370
the hypostyle north onto the altar court of Re'Horakhty and south to the The technique of portraiture of the pink heads of the four huge statues,
mortuary suite with a chapel for the queen and a smaller one for her father showing long narrow faces, seems to have still been influenced by the tradi-
Thutmose I. Traces of an inscription on the doorway to the chapel of Re' read tions that preceded those of Hatshepsut's sculptors. Later statues are character-
"Amun is holy in the horizon." 373 The central doorway to the upper terrace ized by round faces with receding chins and high-bridged noses.377
had foundation deposits of beautiful, well-preserved models of tools provided T he temple as an architectural achievement bears testimony to the genius
by Thutmose III. 374 The ceiling of the queen's chapel is decorated with the of the architect, Senmut. Although the aesthetic factor as an intentional
usual astronomical scenes of the hours of the day and the night, while on the element in the design has occasionally not been acknowledged by some non-
walls are represented processions of offering-bearers. The extensive and com- specialist,378 there is no doubt that the project was an artistic success mainly
prehensive use of architectural statuary in this temple is noteworthy. It has because of the entire novelty of the stepped broad terraces in a temple abutting
already been pointed out that the architect bordered both the causeway from on the cliffs and aesthetically related to them, the extreme and refined simplicity
the gate to the temple-court and the alley in the latter with granite sphinxes. of the porticoes with their varied treatment (polygonal columns, square pillars,
He had also erected two standing Osiride colossi representing the queen Osiride pillars) , the sculptured balustrades of both ramps, and the palace-
bearded, abutting on either end of the lowest portico (fig. 178), and a whole fa\'.ade plinth surmounted by the panels and falcons on the south retaining
wall. The axiality of the general layout and its openness, not only in plan but
178. Reconstruction of an Osiride statue of Hatshepsut at the southeast end of the lowest also in perspective, enhanced by the ramps ascending in the middle of the
portico of the mortuary temple. horizontal stretches of porticoes, as well as the axiality of the secondary
structures (chapels of Anubis, of Hathor), surpasses in effect that of the
nearby temple of Mentuhotep with its complex of pyramid and terraces.
Rhythm is everywhere, allied to exactness and harmony in the proportions.
This temple can surely be regarded as one of the best examples of classicism in
Egyptian architecture. 379 There is clear unity in the design, allied to a feeling of
openness and variation with the use of pillars, columns and Osiride statues.
The verticality characterizing the architectural design of the Egyptian
temple is emphasized here by the terraced layout carried to its dramatic climax
at the rear of the upper terrace where the surging movement to heaven is bent
upward by the cliff of the mountain.380 It is a momentous masterpiece where
 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 337

man-made architecture reaches in symbolism and beauty that supreme architec-

ture of nature.

THE TEMPLE OF THUTMOSE III AT DEIR EL BAHARI. 381 Recent excavations have
'"
c::
.... uncovered a temple built by Thutmose III above the upper terrace of that of
;:l
c.? Hatshepsut, behind her chapel for Hathor. A ramp rose to it. Much of the
..., structure stood on a platform of fill but its northern part built on rock and its
'""O
..c
chapel (so-called grotto) of Hathor, just north of, and above the mortuary
~
...c:: temple of Mentuhotep are extant. The Hathor chapel, "Holy Luminous-
...>::
·o:;
...c:: Mountain-H orizon" (Djeser Akhet) has been known for a long time and was
transported to the Cairo Museum, together with its cult statue, the Hathor cow
Cf)
..,
0$

-
::::::::
v
~
in natural size. The name seems to have been applied to the whole complex.

THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF THUTMOSE III (Henqet' ankh). 382 This was built
E
'5 as the second structure in the series of royal mortuary temples from the New
...c::
f:-<
E 4-< Kingdom at Dra' abul Naga, after that of Amenhotep I. It lies on the edge of
0
s v cultivation 400 meters south of the ramp from the Eleventh-Dynasty temple at
Ci...
E Deir el Bahari.
..,v
;>-. A brick enclosure wall (80 x 100 m.) surrounds the grounds, the east area
....
I
0$
2.... being an empty court separated by a transverse wall from the temple area
I
I 0 itself, at a higher level (2.75 m.). The temple is laid out axially at the rear of
I E
I
I v the second court, accessible through a second ramp and abutting on the rear side
I I -5
L.._J
..-----. 4-<
0
of the enclosure wall. It is rectangular in plan (33.6 x 50.92 m. = 64 x 97
cubits) and seems to have consisted of five transverse parts, one beyond the
I I
'i1 c::
,,
II .s
I' ~
_.. other. A portico with Osiride pillars forms the fa;:ade, behind which is a court
ol
II ...,v surrounded by a columned portico, a square hypostyle hall, a small transverse
,,
II

hypostyle hall, and the Amun sanctuary. The sanctuary is a rectangular

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c::
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vaulted room flanked by two side rooms communica ting with it, probably the
II
u c::
0$
'I
sanctuaries of Mut and Khonsu (fig. 179). To the north, as is usual in the
0
1, Ci...
:· '""O
v
.... typical New Kingdom mortuary temple, is the altar court fronted by a col-
B
~
v"' umned vestibule. The mortuary rooms balancing this court on the opposite
side (S.) of the central sanctuary consist of a columned vestibule with three
°'
!'-..
....
rooms. The structure seems to have been entirely of stone, with fluted columns
and corbel vaults, decorated with scenes of astronomy in the mortuary chapel.
At the back of the mortuary chapel there was once a granite false-door of the
same type as that of Thutmose I at Deir el Bahari and dedicated to Thutmose
 338 III: RELIGIO US ARCHIT ECTURE III: RELIGIO US ARCHIT ECTURE 339

III. In the northeast corner of the second court, magazines of the usual type
flank a central alley.
To the south of the temple are various dependencies (magazine s with
altar) and the remains of a Hathor temple with Hathoric columns. Abutting
against the south side of the enclosure wall are remains of priests' houses (Nine-
teenth Dynasty) of the 'Amarna type.

THE TEMPLE OF AMENHOTEP II.383 From the mortuary temple of Amenhot ep II

nothing but scanty remains is known. A court ( 140 x 120 ft. [ 42.67 x 36.58 m. J)
bordered on four sides by a columned portico and presumably preceded by a
front portico (W.) with a row of Osiride pillars and a second of columns are
the only recognizable elements of the plan.

THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF AMENHOTEP Ill.384 Nothing can be derived from

the scanty remains of the temple "House-of-Amun-on-the-West-of-Thebes." It
must have been an extensive structure, well in front of the row of mortuary
temples, on the evidence of the two colossal seated statues of Pharaoh which
fronted it and which still exist, facing east. They are of conglomerate from the
sandstone mountains behind Edfu and represent Pharaoh seated ( 64 ft. [ 19.50
m.]; originally 69 ft. [21.03 m.] high). To the left of the figure of the northern Plate 54· The so-called Memnon colossi: statues of Amenhotep III which fronted his
mortuary temple in Western Thebes.
colossus is his mother Mutemuy a and to his right his wife Tiy. On the sides of
the throne are sunk low reliefs of the Nile genii binding the symbolic sedge
and papyrus plants. The upper part of this colossus, which had fallen to the
ground during the earthquak e of A.D. 27, emitted a musical sound when the
P· 159), and on a stela later usurped by Mernepta h he describes
stone was heated by the early rays of the sunrise. It was recognized as
Memnon who greeted his mother Eos at dawn. Innumera ble Greek and Latin an_ e:erlas~ing fortress of sandstone, embellished with gold throughout , its floor
texts were inscribed by the visitors385 (pl. 54). The southern colossus was shmmg with silve'. and all its doorways with electrum. It is wide and very long,
adorned fo~ etermty, and made festive with this exceptionally large stele. It is
named "Ruler of Rulers" and had its own priests.
~xtended with royal statues of granite, of quartzite and of precious stones, fash-
Fragment s of sculpture were retrieved, some of which could be restored 10ne.d to last forever. They are higher than the rising of the heavens ; their rays
as the huge limestone-statuary-group (6-40 m.) of Amenhot ep III, Tiy, and are m men's faces like the rising sun ... . Its workshops are filled with male
three daughters (now in the Cairo Museum) . It is assumed on this evidence and female slaves, the child.ren of chieftains of all the countries which my maj-
that "the temple formed a culminati ng point in the taste for ostentatious esty conquered. Its m agazmes have stored up uncountable riches. It is sur-
building" 386 at that time. It may well have been, according to the pharaoh's rounded by villages of Syrians, peopled with children of chieftains· its cattle
are like the sands of the shore, totalling millions. '
own inscriptions. He boasts it was built with the help of Libyan prisoners (see
 340 Ill: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE Ill: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 341

THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF THuTMOSE IV.38 7 The importance of the mor- and the rear additions were by Horemheb, who usurped the temple by erasing
tuary temple of Thutmose for the study of this type of structure lies in the fact the name of his predecessor and replacing it with his own.
that it uses the plan of the Eighteenth Dynasty type with additional elements, The plan is strictly symmetrical, laid out with its axis toward the temple
and served subsequently as a model for the temples built by Amenhotep II, of Luxor, on slanting ground (8 m. higher at the rear). It was built of
such as his mortuary temple and the temple at Luxor. 388 sandstone while the dependencies and surrounding walls were of brick. The
.I temple as built by Ay consists of a broad transverse hall, slightly projecting
The plan is similar to that of Thutmose III, laid out symmetrically: a
shallow court and two pylons precede the temple itself (fig. 180). A double I from the rectangular outline at both ends, two transverse similar halls eacB'
'
flanked on both ends by a room, and at the back a sanctuary (fig. 181).
'
portico with one row of pillars and a second row of columns ( cf. the temple of
Hatshepsut and the later temple of Amenhotep II) forms the frontage of the
great court, surrounded by a portico with two or three rows of columns. The
hypostyle hall is followed by a shallow transverse hall, presumably backed by 181. Plan of the mortuary temple of Ay-Horemheb at Medinet Habu, section of the large
the same compound as that of Thutmose Ill: sanctuary, altar court, and lateral hypostyle hall and detail of its column, and capital from the rear hall of Horemheb.
shrines.
THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF AY-HOREMHEB.389 The temple belongs to two H····
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180. Restored plan of the mortuary temple of T hutmose IV.

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 342 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 343

The broad hall ( 42 x 10.5 m. = 80 x 20 cubits) had two rows of ten open whole width of the temple. The central section along the axis consists of a
papyriform columns each, perhaps with antae pilasters. The columns are hypostyle hall with six bud papyriform columns, bordered on each side by
elegant, with the three arrises of the papyrus stem indicated slightly, painted three contiguous rooms, the one to the southwest containing the bark of Seti I.
white, and topped with a delicately decorated capital. Two large standing It is surmised by Arnold that the hypostyle coupled the functions of both an
statues of Pharaoh were set on both sides of the rear doorway. It is noteworthy "appearance hall" (so described in its inscriptions) and an offering hall.
that the central pathway and a secondary one on the axis of the south doorway Beyond the hypostyle hall is a transverse section consisting of the central
to the south apartments have determined a wider spacing in the columns chapel for the bark of Amun flanked by that of Mut (S.) and that of Khonsu
bordering them. (N.). The functions are identified from the wall scenes representing Seti I
Two hypostyle halls, quite similar in plan, are laid out one behind the anointing Amun and the lion-headed Mut, censing Amun and Khonsu, and
other on two levels and connected by axial stairways. Each has eight columns the presentation of unguent before the bark of Mut and incense before that of
of the twelve-stemmed cluster type with closed capital (I.I m. diam.) . To the Khonsu. The rear transverse section is the chapel for the cult on festive days
north of each hypostyle hall is a room with two central columns, perhaps the perhaps carried out only in front of its false-door without cult statue (fig. 182).
private apartments of the god, connected to the group of rooms added by
Horemheb at the back of the temple. To the south of each hypostyle hall is a r 82. Plan of the mortuary temple of Seti I, and double fa lse-door in the sanctuary.
room wider than the one to the north, having four columns and probably used
as a mortuary chapel.
The court in front of the temple was enlarged by Horemheb into an
extensive area (59 x 54-4 m.), surrounded by a portico with two rows of
eight-stemmed papyrus-cluster columns ( I.8 m. diam.). These were later ran-
sacked and probably used in the colonnade of the temple of Khonsu ( Herihor,
Twenty-First Dynasty) at Karnak. A pylon (IV) forms the entrance to the
court.
A huge temenos brick wall (257.7 x 145.5 m.) surrounded the temple and
its dependencies (storehouses), and the area in front of the temple is divided
into three transverse courts by walls, each with a pylon (I, II, III) in its middle
part. It is in the westernmost of these courts (III) that the temple palace stood
to the south of a wooden portico.
The style of the temple is refined and simple, as is shown by the remains
of the fine columns, delicate wall reliefs, and numerous statues that once stood
in the temple. This high standard deteriorated in the buildings of Horemheb.

THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF SETI I (QuRNA).390 This is the best preserved of the
Theban mortuary temples. The plan is divided into three longitudinal sections,
the central one on the longitudinal axis flanked by another on either side.
Behind two square courts with two pylons a portico of cluster papyriform
columns with bud capitals and antae pilasters stretches transversely along the
 344 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 345
The section to the right (N.) is the one dedicated to the sun, as is obvious
from the large court containing an altar of Re'Harakhty, also accessible from
the court.
To the left (S.) is the real mortuary chapel, called "contiguous temple,"
dedicated to Ramses I, father of Seti I. In the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el
Bahari the deceased father Thutmose I partook of the funerary cult, and in the
mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu there is a cult chamber
dedicated to Ramses II. This section consists of a central chapel with two bud
papyriform columns at the rear of which are three contiguous rooms, the
central one or "offering chapel" being larger and having a double false-door in
its rear wall. According to the wall scenes it contained a statue of Ramses I. A
scene on the door represents the Osiris coffin of Pharaoh upon which sits Isis as
a falcon. A second group of three rooms, finished by Ramses, was dedicated to
this Pharaoh and his father Seti. The area at the rear probably served as
treasury and slaughter court.

THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF RAMSES II (RAMESSEUM). 391 The layout of the

whole complex comprising temple, magazines (see pp. 141-143), and palace is
analogous to that of the earlier adjacent small temple of Seti I. The large
temple was built abutting on the small one but the front pylon forming its
fa<;ade was set somewhat askew, probably to face the temple at Luxor. Conse-
quently, the various rooms of the plan were not orthogonal. The temenos wall,
however, was on a rectangular plan (870 x 580 ft. [ 265.18 x 176.78 m.]) (pl.
Plate 55· Bird's-eye view of the mortuary temple of Ramses II (Ramesseum) as seen from
55). The irregular plan of the complex stemmed from two religious considera- the back (west) .
tions: the wish to leave the earlier temple of Seti untouched and the orienta-
tion of the fa\'.ade toward the Luxor temple.
The general plan is a long parallelogram (N.W.-S.E.), with two courts
preceding the temple proper (fig. 183). The first court; fronted by a huge
pylon with scenes of the battle of Qadesh, serves for the temple palace adjoin-
ing it to the south and also for the temple. It is bordered on the south side by two
rows of small columns and antae, behind which opens the window of appear-
ance of the palace, and opposite on the north by a row of Osiride pillars. A
stairway leads up to the second court, the actual forecourt to the temple,
bordered on the shorter sides by double rows of bud columns and on the
longer sides by a row of Osiride pillars (pl. 56) . At the rear the Osiride pillars
and the row of columns running behind are erected on a platform to which
 E
346 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTUR III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTUR
E 347

MAGAZIN E5

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ple of Ramses II (Ra mes seum )
 348 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 349

three stairways ascend from the court. To the south of the court was a
cruciform lake. The large hypostyle hall, probably the "hall of appearance"
behind the second court, is akin to a basilican structure : a central nave
bordered by a row of six large open papyriform columns (pls. 57, 58) is
flanked on either side by an aisle with three rows of smaller bud papyriform
columns, bordered by a series of seven contiguous shrines on a higher floor.
Later, a corridor was cut in the south row of chapels. On the walls are war
scenes such as the attack on the Hittite fortress of Da pur (E.), and a procession
of the sons of Ramses II on the dado (W.).
The part of the temple beyond is divided longitudinally into five sections,
instead of the usual three. The central one consists of three similar broad
halls, each with eight bud papyriform columns, preceding the pillared hall of
the bark of Amun and the transverse sanctuary. The scenes representing the
procession of the barks, which form part of the themes of the hypostyle hall,
were carved in the small columned hall beyond it, which became thus a "hall
of appearance," as was done also at Derr and Abu Simbel (temple of Re'Ho-
rakhty). The barks of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, each decorated with the head
of its god, are carried by the priests (E.) . Part of the coronation themes is
shown in the scene of Ramses II seated beneath the sacred persea tree (ished)
of Heliopolis, on whose leaves Atum writes his titulary. The central blocks of
the ceiling show astronomical representations of the seasons, months, circum-
polar constellations, and Pharaoh before the gods. The second small columned
hall is identified as the "offering-table hall" from the scenes of offering to Ptah
and Re'Horakhty on its walls.
To the north of the second and third broad columned halls are two
groups of two contiguous rooms each. The front rooms opening on the large
hypostyle have wide doorways originally decorated with.. metal sheets. They
were intended as chapels for the barks, one of which was probably dedicated to
Pharaoh. The outer northern section consists of a vestibule with two side
chambers, a court, probably with an altar to Re'Horakhty, and a pillared hall. Plate 57· Central nave in the hypostyle hall of the mortuary temple of Ramses II.
The section to the left ( S.) consists of the "contiguous temple" : a vesti-
bule with two columns and a four-pillared hall with three cellae at the rear. A
wooden screen with a door had been set in grooves between the first pair of
pillars. The importance of this contiguous temple is proved by the larger
intercolumniation between the columns in its axis in the great hypostyle hall
to allow for the processional pathway.
 350 III: RELIGIOUS ARCH ITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 351

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Plate 58. Rows of bud columns in the south aisle of the hypostyle hall (mortuary temple
r84. Plan of the mortuary temple of Merneptah in W estern T hebes. of Ramses II) .

•
 352 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
III : RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 353
The outer section (S.) has two courts, each with two rear rooms, perhaps
service rooms and a slaughter court. The treasury seems to be located in a
group of a vestibule and three adjacent rooms behind the contiguous temple.
THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF MERNEPTAH (MEDINET HABU) .392 The temple was
built in stone with materials from the temple of Amenhotep III. Its plan,
similar to that of the temple of Ramses II (Ramesseum), on a smaller scale,
could only be surmised from foundation-trenches and pits ( 208 x 37 ft.; 13 ft.
deep [63.40 x l r.28 m.; 3.96 m. deep ] for the pylon) . The forecourt had six
columns on either side (fig. 184) . For the second court nothing definite could
be said except that a row of Osiride pillars formed the rear side, with perhaps a
row of columns on the front side. The portico behind the Osiride pillars is
axial with the square pond excavated to the south of the temple. A doorway at
the south end of the portico leads to the stairway of the pond. A similar pond,
though on a cruciform plan, existed south of the mortuary temple of Ramses
II, to the north of its palace.
Two hypostyle halls precede the three contiguous two-roamed sanctuar-
ies. A sun altar forms the central element of a long rectangular court north of
the sanctuaries and it has a ramp rising, as usual, from the west.
The outbuildings are of brickwork and consist of two series of long,
narrow magazines (N.), each with a central hall. The western hall has two
rows of columns (68 in. [r.73 m.] diam.) supporting architraves out of which
spring the vaults of the roof (at least three courses thick, 28 in. [0.71 m .] ).
Plate 59· Bird's-eye view of the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu, as seen
Each group of magazines had a stairway ascending to the terrace. To the south from the north. In the background, the small temple of the Eighteenth Dynasty
the remains are most probably those of the temple palace.393 and the eastern gateway.

THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF RAMSES III NAMED "UNITED-WITH-ETERNITY"

(MEDINET HABu) .394 The importance of this temple exteQded far beyond its
religious significance into domestic and military architecture. The settlement
of thousands of war prisoners around the temple and its magazines (see pp.
142-147) within a huge brick temenos formed a city (see pp. 462-470) which
was inhabited continuously, even after the temple, then known as "The Man-
sion," had dwindled as the center of the administration of the Theban necro-
polis with its own mayor (end of the Twentieth Dynasty), and later through
the Greco-Roman and Coptic periods when it formed the town of Djime.
The temple, the only one from the Twentieth Dynasty, built of sand-
stone, stands in its great brick temenos (313.94 x 209.70 m.) abutting against
 354 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE

that of the temple of Ay-Horemheb (pl. 59), accessible through its east and
west gates of a military character (see pp. 463-470). Although the top of the
walls was not manned by any regular garrison, the girdle wall could withstand
the attacks from the desert marauders. A low crenellated wall surrounded the
temenos. A quay in the axis of the temple formed the approach from the basin
at the end of a canal. The town life with its thousands of artisans and priests
burst to feverish activity during the beautiful Feast of the Valley when the
bark of Amun came on visit from Karnak and Pharaoh resided in his
temple palace. The temple was accessible to the people, however, for on the
south wall of the passage in the gateway a figure of Ptah with hair and beard
inlaid in blue fai:ence is certainly "Ptah of the Great Gate," one of the sacred
figures that appealed so much to popular worship. He is called in the accompa-
nying inscription: "Ptah the Great, South of his Wall, Lord of Life of the Two
Lands, the Great God, who hears prayers, who is in the House of Millions of
Years, 'United-with-Eternity' in the Estate of Amun." 395
The temple itself formed the center of the layout, within its inner
enclosure wall which abuts on its huge pylon (fig. I85). The latter is a massive
structure (66.9 x II.I m.), once presumably 2445 meters high, with two flag-
staffs, about 32- 36 meters high, set in recesses in the battered front fac;:ade on
either side of the portal. This portal (3.9 x 10.8 m. internally) was to be closed
by a two-leaved door and an immense one-leaf door (4.45 x 11.05 m .) that "
turned back into a recessed panel decorated as usual with insignificant patterns.
Later, a second door with two leaves was set in the western bay by the pharaoh
and high priest Pinedjem I (Twenty-First Dynasty). A staircase starting from
the north side of the pylon rises in a narrow passage ( 0.9 x 1.8 m. high) in two
o m
flights, connected above the portal by an open terrace and issuing upon the
terrace of the south tower. A second flight rises from the .portal to the top of
the northern terrace. The walls of the corridor are carved with the royal
titulary on a gigantic scale, and the sun hymns inscribed on the walls of the
portal-terrace lend weight to the assumption that the sun was regularly ob-
served or worshiped from it or from the top terrace.
The similarity between the plan of this temple and that of Ramses II
(Ramesseum) is obvious, particularly in the layout of the two courts. The first
court is bordered on the south side by one row (two rows in the Ramesseum)
of eight thick papyrus columns forming a portico in front of the temple
palace, and on the north side by seven Osiride pillars (9.8 m . high). Here the

185. :'1ortua:y t~mple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu: section of the great pylon, restored
isometnc view of the temple, plan and transverse section of the great hypostyle hall.

.1
 356 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECT URE 357

massive statues have become a functional part of the architectural design. The Its door from the hypostyle hall, cut through a wall scene representing Ramses
pylon and the fas:ade of the temple palace are covered with war and hunt III dedicating precious metalware to the gods, probably shut with a slab carved
scenes. uniformly with the rest of the scene to conceal its opening. To the north and
A second pylon, analogous to the first one but smaller, stands in front of south ends of the rear wall a chapel, parallel to the longitudinal axis, probably
the second court to which a ramp and a granite portal lead. The second court contained a bark dedicated to Montu and to Ramses III.
resembles also the corresponding one in the Ramesseum: a row of bud papyri- To the west end of the row of northern chapels a court with a portico on
form columns, whose smooth shafts are decorated with reliefs, borders each of one pillar and a chamber would have served, according to the reliefs on its
the east and west sides, that of the west wing being set on a platform ( 1.2 m. walls, as a slaughterhouse. It is to be presumed, however, that the joints of
high), topped with a cavetto cornice and doubled with papyriform columns meat were only arranged and prepared there, since the restricted area and the
with antae. Later Ramses III fixed screens of stone slabs (2.38 m. high, 0.38 m. lack of drainage facilities would not have allowed for any slaughtering proper.
thick), decorated externally with low reliefs, between the Osiride pillars. A Pharaoh appears in one scene performing the rite of dedication "Striking the
wide ramp with low steps rises to the central bay of this portico and it is meat pieces four times."
flanked on either side by a colossal seated statue of Pharaoh. The lateral service The second hypostyle hall ( r6.8 x 8.4 m. = 32 x r6 cubits) , transverse to
doorways opened in the north and south walls of the second court. Scenes of the main axis, has eight papyriform columns and a raised platform along its
various feasts such as that of Min (N.) or Sokar (S.), coronation rites (N.W.), rear wall opening through three doorways to which rise three ramps. From
and a procession of the royal princes (W. socle) are represented in the mural this hall a side-doorway gave access to the north onto the sanctuary of Re'Hor-
low reliefs behind the colonnades. akhty and another, to the south, onto the mortuary chapel of Ramses III.
Beyond the portico lies the temple proper. Its central section, strictly The sanctuary of Re'Horakhty consists of a vestibule with a massive table
symmetrical, consists, as in the Ramesseum, of a great hypostyle hall, two at the back and two doorways, one to the staircase leading to the terrace and
smaller ones, the chapel of the bark, and the sanctuary. the second to an open court containing the altar. A portico on one pillar
The great hypostyle hall ( 26.3 x 18.9 m. = 50 x 36 cubits), "of appearance" stretches at the western end, and a small ramp leads into a room. The steps to
( cf. the Ramesseum), has two rows of four large, presumably open papyri- the altar rise from the west as in the other similar courts so that the officiating
form columns (2.2 m. diam.; 9.3 m. high) on the sides of the central nave and priest might face the rising sun. The low reliefs represent Pharaoh with
two rows of smaller bud papyriform columns ( 1.66 m. diam.; 6.95 m. high), various heavenly beings and Re 'I-forakhty and the sun god in his bark.
four on either side. The roof was higher over the central nave, allowing for The mortuary cult-rooms to the south of the second hypostyle hall consist
clerestory lighting. It is noteworthy that the bases of the columns in the nave of a front room with a small statue-cella dedicated to Ramses III, a hypostyle
have been sliced off toward the axis of the plan to allow far the passage of the hall with two columns, and a transverse room with a bark and three niches for
sleds (3.r m. wide; cf. Luxor and elsewhere) that carried the sacred barks. statues or pillars. Beyond this room are two rooms and a larger one dedicated
The sandstone pavement had round and square holes, subsequently to Osiris. The latter room is conspicuous for its false vault decorated with
patched up, which served presumably for constructional scaffolding. A plat- astronomical scenes (similar to those in the second hypostyle hall in the
form ( 0.5 m. high) runs along the rear wall and was accessible through a Ramesseum) , and a double false-door with figures of Osiris and Pharaoh on its
central ramp. The contiguous chapels to the north of the hall are dedicated to rear wall.
Pharaoh, Ptah, Osiris, and Ptah-Tatenen. The chapel of the last-named god The third hypostyle hall, identical in form to the second one, but without
contained the bark of Ptah-Sokar. On the south a lateral chapel dedicated to platform, contained two statuary groups facing each other on both sides of the
Ramses II contained his statue and its bark, while a group of four rooms, some central alley, between the columns and representing Pharaoh, once with Ma't
with stone benches and entered from a common vestibule, served as treasury. and the second with Thot. Several chapels to the north are connected with this
hall.
 358 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE 359
The hall of the bark of Amun (four pillars) had a stone screen with a The purpose of the architect was to provide an adequate wall-area covered
door opened later between the front pillars. The sanctuary at the back is a with mural representations of the cult ritual in connection with the proces-
small transverse room with a double false-door in its rear wall, for the cult of sions and festivals held there. I would add that the general layout conformed
Amun and Pharaoh. in its proportions to the basic rules of harmonic design.
Adjoining the room of Amun are those of Mut and Khonsu on either The massive and colossal monumentality of this temple contrasting with
side, each probably having contained a sacred bark. On both sides of the the earlier temples of Seti I and Ramses II is a sign of a rather decadent
sanctuary and behind it are small shallow rooms, presumably storerooms for striving toward impressive power. The "contiguous temple" of the Nineteenth
the treasury. Dynasty is replaced here with an Osirian sanctuary of Pharaoh with narrow
The terraces forming the roof of the temple were at various levels, rooms and circuitous approach reminiscent of funerary architecture.
according to the heights of the halls, and were surrounded by the outer wall The columns have become mere cylinders, tapering and bulging elements
rising high above (3.35 m. at the rear; 4.64- 4.84 m. in the middle) and without the slightest reminder of the original plant-cluster. They served as an
decorated with representations of Pharaoh worshiping various deities. Ade- excellent area for decoration, being covered, as were the neighboring walls,
quate provision for the drainage of rainwater featured large waterspouts in the with scenes and patterns.
shape of the forepart of a lion projecting at the top of the external faces. The close connection of architecture and architectural statuary is appar-
Although the temple was closely surrounded by outbuildings, leaving ent in the treatment of the Osiride pillars in the second court. Such an
only a narrow street around its walls, they were decorated externally with integration of sculpture into architecture had been initiated in the Eighteenth
elaborate scenes above a battered socle rising in steps toward the rear to Dynasty and in the Ramesside Period. The statues are cut in the masonry of
conform to the rise in the levels of the ground. the pillars and could be intended, according to Holscher, to convey an impres-
sion of power through the rather clumsy stylization and the overdevelopment
THE MORTUARY TEMPLE OF RAMSES III AS AN ARCHITECTURAL ACHIEVEMENT. 396 of the upper part in the mummiform or living figures.
The pylons cannot be considered as the fa<;:ade of the temple proper, but rather The sunk relief, initiated under Seti I and Ramses II, is here deeply cut,
as huge gateways embodied in the surrounding walls. At Medinet Habu the with bold modeling, 397 probably to follow the same scheme of impressing at a
first court is integrated for the first time into the structure, its side colonnades distance. This aim, however, is inadequate for the decoration of small rooms.
being of similar scale to those of the temple (not smaller; and of similar scale Color used lavishly on a white background does not emphasize architectural
to those of the palace in the Ramesseum). In the second court, analogous to treatment.
that of the Ramesseum, the lack of scale between the two colossi (n m . high) The composition of wall scenes on a monumenta l scale reaches its apex
on both sides of the portal of the temple and this portal would have purposely in this temple successfully rendering arrest and movement, achieving depth
aimed at expressing the power of the divine Pharaoh. This is nothing but a with effects of perspective, and using only very subdued, often undulating,
transposition into architecture of the same heroic scale used in graphical groundlines. Such are the scenes of hunt in the desert and in the marshes (west
representations of Pharaoh. face, south tower of Pylon I) in their dynamic realism and even the typical
The gradual rise in the floor levels toward the sanctuary, typical of the triumph scene of Pharaoh (east face, south tower of Pylon I). Mural decora-
cult temple during the Empire, is here more especially emphasized on account tion is closely adapted to the architecture as in the fac;:ade of the temple palace
of the terrace carrying the temple proper built to the rear of the second court. around the window of appearance with its sill carried on a row of heads of
The variation in room proportions is not due to any intentional artistic pro- prisoners in the round as if 1ying prostrate on the ground. F ai:ence tiles of
gram but only to function since the large columns crowding the hypostyle delicate texture and brilliant color depicting bound prisoners or the royal
hall would deprive one of any appreciation of the actual size of these rooms.
 360 III: RELIGIOU S ARCHITE CTURE

griffin enliven the stone doorway of the palace. Nor is the propaganda factor so
dear to the Ramessids ignored, for Ramses III stands forth in majesty in the
scenes on the outer walls.

THE PRIVATE MORTUARY CHAPELS

Besides the numerous mortuary chapels erected on the western bank above the
tombs of individuals and serving as superstructures to these, there were also
398

some private mortuary chapels set independen tly from the tombs, near the
river. They were probably erected through a specific authorization near the
mortuary temples of the pharaohs as a special favor. This would have been
true of such important personages as Amenhotep son of Hapu under Amen-
r86. Plans of the five mortuary temples of the Twentieth D ynasty behind Medinet Habu
hotep III, or Pesiur and Minmose under Ramses III. One could interpret the
and restored isometric view of Chapel V.
building and approach represented in the tomb of Nakhtmin as an example
399

of this independen t type of mortuary complex, fronted by a garden, a long

stairway between the two rows of vessels and shrubs, and an artificial pond. or a statue. In the larger chapels (I, IV, V) the plan is similar, but with a
These elements are described by the texts since the Middle Kingdom as the second set of three rooms ( rn.1 m. and rn.55 m. long in I and V) behind the
most important features of the mortuary complex. The plan, which consists of first one (9.5 m. long). It seems likely that the side walls of the rear central
a sanctuary set at the rear of a court and Banked with lateral chapels, seems to room or sanctuary had been lined with sandstone blocks decorated with scenes
have formed the standard type of such an independen t mortuary chapel for (Pesiur and Minmose, officials of Ramses III). As the walls of the two central
private people (graphical and archaeological evidence). rooms .are much thicker than the others it is presumed that they were roofed
over with a vault and fronted with a pylon.
The similarit~ of these private mortuary chapels to the small temple of
Typical Examples of Mortuary Chapels for Private People Hatshepsut at Medmet Habu is obvious.

MEDINET HABU. 400 Behind the mortuary temple of Ramses.III at Medinet Habu SMALL DOUB.LE TEMPLE OF SETI I (RAMESsEuM). 401 This early structure, which
are five contiguous chapels, with their fa;:ades set on a line, which date from was ~espons1ble for the deviation given to the huge temple of Ramses III, was
the Twentieth Dynasty. They were apparently in relation with the temple of reb~ilt by that pharaoh. It was probably a mortuary temple for two relatives of
Ramses III, since they are on its main longitudina l axis. They were destroyed Seti I. ~he earlier plan featured a court, a hall, and two rear contiguous
with the gate at the end of the Twentieth Dynasty and restored between the sa~ctuanes. The ·temple, as rebuilt by Ramses II, was more elaborate: two
Twenty-Second and Twenty-Fif th dynasties, and shafts were cut from three of stairwa_Y~ led ~o a platform with a front portico (five columns and presumably
the five chapels. five Osmde pillars); two doorways in the axis of the stairways opened onto a
The plan of the smaller chapels (II, III) consists of a forecourt and a square court bordered by a colonnade in whose rear wall two corresponding
central sanctuary Banked by two narrow rooms (fig. 186). Against the rear d~orways each led into a columned hall (four columns), connected at the back
with one (right) or two rooms (fig. 187).
wall of the sanctuary a brick foundation was perhaps used as a socle for a stela
 362 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

~ i>-=--o--=-o=-o---o:. : o
o]. :oio
E
e
0

0 0
I
0 0 I 0
' I
I
:o
I

I
0

187. The small double temple of Seti I as rebuilt by Ramses II at Medinet Habu .

0 AMEN~orn
~~-~~~~_,so m
THE MORTUARY TEMPLE oF AMENHOTEP SON OF HAPU.402 To the east of the
mortuary temple of Ay and Horemheb at Medinet Habu and to the north of
that of Amenhotep III are four mortuary temples in brick, the largest being
that of the architect of Amenhotep III, Amenhotep son of Hapu, also called
Huy. He began it in Year 31 and was the only private person allowed to build
his mortuary temple in the row of the royal temples along the edge of the
cultivation in Western Thebes.4°3 It stands next to the mortuary temple of 3
Thutmose II, enlarged by Thutmose III.
The plan is rectangular (E.-W.) and consists of two sections: a square :----::--
forecourt and the temple proper (fig. 188) . A first pylon fronts the court, 188. Temple of Amenhotep son of Hapu in Western Thebes : l, plan, with that of the
planted with a row of twenty trees in square borders of brick around a huge temple of Thutmose II-III and two anonymous ones; 2, longitudinal section in the
square basin to the bottom of which two stairways descend along the north- rear part ; 3, bird's-eye view restored of the temples of Amenhotep and Thutmose
II-III; 4, cross section of a fluted column from the second court.
west side. A doorway in the north wall leads to the workshops, magazines,
and dwellings of the workmen of Amenhotep III. A terrace with a columned
portico runs along the rear, forming the bottom part of the fa~ade of the
second pylon. Three ramps cut in the rock or built in brick ascend to the chambers, paved in brick and decorated with scenes painted on stucco. Two
terrace. cellars were built in the court, to be closed with trap doors and concealed
The outer face of the huge second pylon was probably only whitewashed, un?er the pavement. From the westernmost room a doorway opens into a
while the inner one as well as the walls of the inner court were lined with senes of long rooms surrounding the rear part of the temple. The latter
decorated sandstone blocks. The pavement of the court is of sandstone slabs. A consists of a high fa~ade behind which is a transverse hall and three contig-
portico of six fluted columns, painted in white with a vertical band of blue uous chapels, the central one larger and probably lined with stone. Roofing
hieroglyphs, runs on either side of the court. It fronts four contiguous vaulted consisted of vaults, painted as were the walls.
 364 III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE III : RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 365
This type of sanctuary resembles that of the Twelfth Dynasty temple at riches, or in ideas as styles and artists, contributing to the glory of the Egyptia
n
Medinet Madi or that of S'ankhk are' Mentuhotep at Qurna.404 The thick walls gods.
and massive proportions would have been excessive, even in a much larger Pharao hs left on the walls of the temples extensive records giving a florid
temple built for a pharaoh . This trend toward the massive and sturdy and presumably exaggerated account of their buildin g activity. Nonetheless
is a
obvious in the official buildings that Amenh otep son of Hapu carried out for glimpse at what must have been the richness of those works in valuabl
e
Amenh otep III at Soleb and in the Mortuary Temple in Western Thebes. Only materials which have long ago been looted can be obtained from this litera-
the two colossi that fronted the latter are still extant. In these examples, we can ture. The names of the temples indicate that they were living entities created
truly speak of a "personal style." The wise man who began his career as Scribe by the pharaohs for the glory of the gods and their personal welfare. Nowhe
re
of the Recruits, worked as Overseer of all the King's works, and as Royal is the notion of buildin g for eternity so vividly asserted as in these temple
Scribe was revered in later times as a healing saint. Pharao h Amenh otep III inscriptions.
had erected a series of statues of Amenh otep son of Hapu in the temple The cult temple, deriving directly from the archaic sanct_uary at Abydos
at
Karnak , and they were later addressed as mediators to Amun by the worship through the more elaborate types of the Middle Kingdo m, attains its plenitud
- e
ers.4os in this period. Its stone structure succeeds in creating the atmosphere
of
intimacy and eternity, mingle d with religious awe, through the gradual de-
Two ANONYM OUS TEMPLE S, NORTH AND SOUTH OF THE TEMPLE OF A MENHOT EP.406 crease in space and light as one proceeds inward . Axiality in the plan is
a
Both these temples are much smaller than that of Amenh otep, directed E.-W. general rule, contributing as it did in the rock tombs of the Middle Kingdo m,
and very similar in plan. This features a tripartite division into a forecourt, and probably also in the temples of the same period, to an emphasis of the
a court with portico, and the sanctuaries (see fig. 188). A whitewashed importance of the god's shrine. In fact, every feature points to the presence
of
brick pylon forms the eastern fa;ade, beyond which is a square court paved the god: the rows of solemn sphinxes guardin g the approach to the buildin
g
with stone and bordered laterally with two contiguous porticoes. A central and forming the "way-of-the-god," the colossi of the pharaohs and the obe-
ramp ascends to the second court paved with stone and fronted by a second lisks flanking both sides of the central portal, the huge masses of the pylons
pylon, lined with limestone and bordered on three sides by a portico barring from the sacred precincts any intrusive lay speculation, even to the
of
columns (north temple) or pillars (south temple) . On the north and on the figures of the god himself represented as if coming out from the gate of the
south sides behind the portico are three contiguous rooms, while a ramp leads pylon, the "Luminous-Mountain-Horizon-of-Heaven" as the sun rises in the
up to the transverse hall connected to the contiguous chapels (three in the East from the mountainous horizon.
norther n and four in the southern temple) . On both sides of this rear part The scale is indeed colossal, being an adequa te expression of the power of
there probably was an outer room entered from the last .of the rooms border- the gods and the gratitude of the pharaohs of the Empire . The whole project
is
ing the second court. The roof could have been of wood (north temple) conceived and carried out for gods. Perhaps the most remarkable elemen
or t
possibly was vaulted (south temple) . featurin g this concept is the hypostyle hall, with scores and occasionally
hundreds of large stone columns with symbolic implication, carrying a two-
level ceiling. Column s and pillars had been used before during the Old and
THE ACHIE VEME NT OF RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE Middle kingdoms, mainly in porticoes and in two rows along the central nave
in the halls, but it was during the New Kingdo m that the architects erected
The bulk of the existing remains in Egypt pertain to religious buildings. The forests of huge plant-columns, probably complying with some symbolic ideol-
flourishing period of the Empire provided Pharao h and the priesthood with ogy. Here again the axial pathwa y is emphasized by being bordered with
new means and access to new lands that sent tribute, in kind as materials and columns taller than those in the aisles. The large columns are of the papyri-
 366 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE III: RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE 367
form type with open capitals, while the other ones have a bundle-shaft with termediate courts of hypostyle halls were added one in front of the other along
bud-shaped capitals. On account of its concept of a nave higher than the aisles the longitudinal axis.
which allowed for clerestory lighting, the hypostyle hall in some of the Another method of emphasizing the approach to the cult temple, which
temples of the New Kingdom is akin to the later basilica, even to be regarded seems to have been invented by the architects of the New Kingdom, was the
as a possible prototype of the latter. Clerestory windows had been known in erection of columns unconnected by any screen wall to border the processional
Egypt since the Third Dynasty (processional hall in the mortuary temple of way i~ front of the entrance pylon (temple of Amun at Luxor, at Karnak), or
Neterikhet Djeser) ,407 but their use to light a basilican hall is not met with even m the forecourt (temple of Mut at Karnak). The device of the screen
before the New Kingdom temples. Vitruvius (VI, III) had noticed the resem- walls to form a winding entrance is regularly used in the sun temples at
blance of these halls to Roman basilicas and it seems hardly questionable that 'Amarna. Elsewhere it seems that a porch of stone or wood is used to this effect
the latter were conceived after the hypostyle hall of a New Kingdom temple, (temple of Amun at Karnak).
possibly that of the temple of Amun at Karnak,408 or the festival hall of Sun temples are known and differ from the standard cult temple by the
Thutmose III at Karnak. It is hardly surprising that the Copts adopted the absence of covered areas. The plan is a long rectangle, axial and oriented to the
basilica as their earliest type of church.409 cardinal points, with open courts containing one main altar and numerous
This elaborate setting for the god had its climax in the shrouding of the r~ws of offering-tables ('Amarna). The latter feature possibly embodies reli-
sanctuary in complete darkness, with its small gilt statue placed in the naos gious symbolism connected with the concept of the solar year of 365 days. The
and illuminated mysteriously by a beam of light falling from a slot in the sun altar is of a special type, in the form of a platform to which rises a stairway
ceiling (temple of Ptah at Karnak, small temple of Amun at Medinet Habu). from the west ('Amarna, Sesebi, courts of Re'Horakhty in the mortuary
There is evidence pointing to two contradictory ways of disposing of old temples in Western Thebes).
tern ples: either the earliest buildings were razed and their materials reused in . The program of the mortuary temple differs from that during the Old
the larger new temples, so that they would impregnate the latter with their Km.gdom. As a result of the new trend which aims at hiding the tomb usually
sanctity; or the temple was rebuilt on the earlier site. Sometimes new buildings ~ut m the rock of the mountains in Western Thebes, the mortuary temple is an
were planned about the earlier ones, respecting their layout even to allow for mdependent building. Royal mortuary temples feature three chapels (Amun,
asymmetry. The cult temple of Thutmose III was thus embodied in the the pharaoh's father, the Sun) set side by side.
forecourt of that of Amun at Luxor, with the result that the forecourt was Although an isolated example, the terraced approach characterizing the
laid out on a curved axis. Abutting on the temple of Seti I at Medinet Habu the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut needs a specific emphasis, for it carried to its
much larger temple of Ramses II was built with its longitudinal axis parallel to summit on a large scale the device already initiated in the mortuary temples
the earlier one, but not perpendicular on the front fac;:ade and different from of the Old Kingdom and in the mortuary temples and rock tombs of the
that of the enclosure wall of the whole complex. In the layout of the mortuary Middle Kingdom (cf. Vol. II, pp. 53- 59, 151- 156; figs. 21- 22, 59- 60; pl. 7).
temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu the earlier one of Ay-Horemheb was The type of peripteral temple which had appeared in the Middle King-
embodied into the brick girdle wall. These unusual examples show the pious dom (cf. Vol. II, pp. 81, 238, 240) becomes a favorite. Its style could have had
respect of the architects for the existing temples, even at the cost of modifying some influence in the development of the classical Greek temple. ·
the layout of their new projects. When enlarging a temple, however, the usual The architects of the New Kingdom were responsible for the invention
method was to preserve the earlier structure, to carry out adequate restora- of the rock-cut temple, intended for cult or mortuary purposes. It seems that
tions, and to add in front of its entrance fac;:ade a forecourt with a pylon and a this invention was the practical solution for a temple located in the cliffs of the
large girdle wall. This accretion process is clearly seen in the layout of the great extremely narrow gorges of the Nile Valley. The type was not restricted to
temple of Amun-Re' at Karnak, where no fewer than five pylons with in- such sites, however, and most of the temples that were partly cut in the cliff
 III : RELIGIOUS ARCHI TECTU RE 369
368 III: RELIGIOUS ARCHI TECTU RE

were fronted with terraced approaches similar to that of the Middle Kingdom
tombs at Qaw.
According to the description of temples in royal inscriptions, rich mate-
rials were used lavishly. Besides wood, mostly imported from Lebanon and
Syria, silver, electrum and gold sheets line wooden doors, stone floors, parts of
low reliefs, and pyramidions. Builders knew how to deal with huge stone
blocks and hoist them into position as columns, lintels, or ceilings. Many
details prove that structural science was maintained at the same high level as
that of the Middle Kingdom . To reduce the bending stresses in the ceiling the
stone slabs of the aisles were carried out as projecting cantilevers beyond the
architrave edge (Festival Hall of Thutmose III at Karnak) . In an artificial
island carrying a heavy pillared hall, thrust beams have been inserted at the
bottom of the water channel surrounding the island, under the line of the piers
between the retaining embankment of the island and the one opposite ( ceno-
taph of Seti I at Abydos) . The cutting of extensive temples into the rock in
poor light and inadequate ventilation allows for the surmise that the technical
methods of cutting stone, not to mention carving colossal statues and extensive
low reliefs and painting them, had attained a high degree of perfection.
Although the Egyptian style could boast several masterpieces in religious
architecture, both during the Old Kingdom and the Middle Kingdom, that of
the New Kingdom is marked by a remarkable versatility. The naturalistic
style, characterized by the plant-column, has lost most of its original connec-
tion with nature, and through the intensive process of stylization it has gradu-
ally produced the hybrid columns, which lose their elegance in the latest
Ramesside times (pl. 60). A brief revival is noticeable as Prince Kha'mwas, the
son of Ramses II, devises a cluster-column with bud-shaped capital having
three bands binding the lower part of the shaft (Memphi~) . Another archaistic
trend, which perhaps derives its inspiration from the Fourth Dynasty mor-
tuary temple of Chephren, is represented by the sturdy monolithic pillars of
granite and short intercolumniations in the unique cenotaph of Seti I at Abydos.
Here, stark simplicity is blended with variety in the materials used (granite,
sandstone, and limestone). But a refined sense of beauty, akin to that of classical
Greek architecture, is also in favor and is perhaps even more conspicuous than Plate 60. Bud columns from the mortuary temple of Ramses II at Ab y d OS.
ever before in the large temples. The characteristic elements are the polygonal
columns erected in long rows in the porticoes (mortuary temple of Hatshepsut
at Deir el Bahari) or halls (Festival Hall of Thutmose III at Karnak) .
 I '

370 III: RELIGIOUS ARCH ITECT URE III: RELIG IOUS ARCH ITECT URE 371
The open papyriform capitals at the top of the tall columns in the nave implication related to the ideology of the sun disk god as Creator. It
of has been
the hypostyle hall retain much of their refined elegance developed recognized that the pylon, which forms the typical entrance fa<;:ade
in the to the
Third Dynasty, now covered with a glamorous geometrized decora temple, symbolizes the two mountains between which the sun rises
tion in on the
conventional color consisting of cartouches arrayed above the triangu horizon. According to Egyptian ideology the god would appear throug
lar leaves h the
(Karna k; color plate Xlla). entrance gateway of the pylon and rise between its towers as did
the sun
This eclectic and mature style is not devoid of inventiveness. Woode between the two mountains. Symbolism plays an essential role even
n in the
elements such as tent-pole columns are successfully adapted to stone, orientation of the layout: the terraced mortuary temple of Hatshepsut
keeping at Deir
their original feature, as in the inverted taper of the shaft and the bell-sh el Bahari and that of Amun at Luxor are oriented with their longitudinal
aped axis
capital (Festival Hall of Thutm ose III). Elements alien to architecture, toward the temple of Amun at Karnak. The isolated rows of pillars
such as erected
the sistrum, are copied in high relief on one face of the pillars (templ along a portico on one side of a forecourt in a mortuary temple, facing
e of the
Amenhotep III at El Kab), which are curiously shaped as an eight-sided entrance to the temple palace, are symbolically intended to greet Pharao
shaft h and
on its front and a sixteen-sided on its rear part. The sistrum grows his suite when they come out ceremonially from the palace gateway
into a (temple
"Hatho ric" column with a two-sided or a four-sided capital, an origina of Kamutef at Karnak, Ramesseum, Ramses III at Medinet Habu) . Symbo
l and lism
aesthetic creation (shrine of Hatho r at Deir el Bahari) . was also the main incentive in the creation of new decorative elements
such as
Antae are set regularly at the ends of rows of pillars or columns. They the cobra ~oiling up along the parapet wall of the ramp to Hatshepsut's
temple,
even show once as pilasters on the external faces of a temple ('Ama and the lion seated in front of it, and the rows of statues of apes above
da). The the
intercolumniation in porticoes and halls can be increased to emphasize cornice at Abu Simbel. The bunches of Rowers and fowl hangin g in
an axis a rather
of the plan, such as that marked by a pathway leading to the portico clumsy way about the upper part of column-shafts at 'Amar na (Maru
(temple -Aten)
of Ay-Horemheb at Medinet Habu) . The bases of the columns can were probably meant to recall the potentiality of the Aten as Creator.
be sliced
off on their side facing the pathway to allow for the passage of
the sleds
carrying the sacred bark (Luxor, Medinet Habu, and others). Amon * * * * *
g the The achievement of religious architecture could therefore be picture
peculiar arrangements of Osiride pillars, appearing for the first time d as
in the analogous to that of domestic architecture, having attained the ideal set
New Kingdom, one can notice a row of Osiride pillars fronting a row of by the
columns pro~rams of .the temple, whethe r as a cult temple or
or set along one side of a court, or an Osiride pillar at an anta at the as a mortuary temple.
end of a While there is a standard typical plan for the cult temple used as
row of plain pillars (Ramesseum, Medinet Habu) . a model
probably owing to its adequate and mature development (small temple
Perhaps the main achievement of religious architecture is its extensi s of
ve Ramses III at Karna k), other types of cult temples or chapels, as
and tasteful use of architectural statuary. Colossal statues.are still erected well as
as in mortuary temples, attain their most elaborate stage (peripteral, rock-cu
earlier periods, abutting on the fa<;ades or between the columns in the t, and
temples; sun temples).
but they are also embodied into the structure and seem even to shape
the T~e achievem~nt could be termed satisfactory with respect
design (rock temples at Abu Simbel). This trend, which seemingly had to efficiency
begun (planning, perspective and cross-sectional design of the interiors), origina
with Hatshepsut and Amenhotep II, became a characteristic feature lity
of reli- (new types such as rock-cut temples, use of architectural statuary), symbo
gious architecture under Ramses II, but soon declined (Ramses III). lism
(Maru-Aten, Osireion, pylon), and beauty (classical beauty in Hatshe
Religious symbolism is exemplified at its best in important structures: psut's
the mo~tuary temple; colossal scale allied to taste at Luxor
Maru-Aten ('Ama rna) and the Osireion (cenotaph of Seti I at Abydo and Karna k). Yet
s), both various aesthetic symptoms, pertaining mainly to architectural elemen
being architectural representations of cosmological ideology. The numer ts (poor
ous proportions in statuary and columns, sketchy decoration of walls
offering-tables in the sun temples at 'Amar na probably have a calend in sunk
rical relief), point to a decline in the style, which is even more appare
nt in the
funerary architecture of the same period.
 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE 373
temple for his grandmother Tetisheri, "who already has a tomb and a mor-
tuary temple on the soil of Thebes and Abydos." 411 This is an instance of the
IV existence of cenotaphs for royalty who were already buried elsewhere.
There is also the architect who boasts about his achievement in construct-
ing a tomb for his pharaoh. lneny reports about the preparation of the cliff
Funerary Architecture tomb of Thutmose I at Thebes: "I inspected the excavation of the cliff-tomb of
his majesty, alone, no one seeing, no one hearing. I sought out the excellent
things upon ... I was vigilant in seeking that which is excellent. I made fields
of clay, in order to plaster their tombs of the necropolis; it was a work such as
the ancestors had not done which I was obliged to do there . .. I sought out
Archaeological evidence about funerary architecture in the New Kingdom,
fo~ those who should be after me. It was a work of my heart, my virtue was
besides being quite rich in itself, is supplemented by texts and representations
wisdom; there was not given to me a command by an elder. I shall be praised
of tomb chapels. The evolution of the superstructure of the mastaba toward a
because of my wisdom after years, by those who shall imitate that which I
series of chambers and the extensive use of rock-cut tombs during the Middle
have done." 4~2 Ineny lays much stress upon the fact that he alone supervised
Kingdom has led to the disappearance of the tomb chapel as a separate unit. It
the construct10n of the tomb, indicative that such a measure had become
has become a part of the superstructure, the most important, and often the
necessary to prevent tomb robberies after various architectural devices had
only one. In fact, the study of the superstructures will be that of the tomb
failed to prove. effective against them. He also points out the novelty of the
chapels themselves. Royal tombs, however, have mortuary temples on the out-
method he devised to plaster the rock walls with mud to hide the roughness of
skirts of the valley in Western Thebes.
the rock face.
A similar duty was carried out by another official, Hapuseneb for Thut-
mose II : "[He appointed me J to conduct the work upon his cliff-tomb, because
EVIDENCE FROM TEXTS
of the great excellence of my plans." 413
Although yielding but meager information regarding architecture proper, the . Restoration of ancient tombs, such as was practiced according to Middle
texts picture an interesting background, throwing light upon the mentality of Kmgdom texts, was also considered a pious duty by New Kingdom rulers. The
those who built the tombs. The usual types already encountered in the Old pr?phet Yuf states that he was charged by Queen Aahhotep to restore the
Kingdom and especially in the Middle Kingdom recur. Thus, there is the rumed "tomb _of her_ ancestor Queen Sebekemsaf (Thirteenth Dynasty) at
~dfu:_ I _repaired this tomb of the king's-daughter, Sebekemsaf, after finding
sovereign who wishes to favor his loyal official. Queen. Aahhotep I erects a
it begmnmg to go to ruin." 414
tomb at Abydos for her herald Keres, a boon that the latter records with joy on
a stela : "The king's-mother has commanded to have made for thee a tomb at . The ~mportance of a tomb to the New Kingdom officials is vividly
illustrated m the remarkable text of Ra'mose, the vizier under Amenhotep IV:
the stairway of the great god, lord of Abydos, confirming thy every office and
"~have arrived in peace at my tomb, possessed of the favor of the Good God. I
every favor. There shall be made for thee thy statues, abiding in the temple.
did the pleasure of the king in my time; I did not disregard a regulation which
... There shall be made for thee mortuary offerings, as the king's-wife does
he.commanded, I practiced no deceit against the people, in order that I might
for the one whom she has loved." 410
gam my t~mb, upon the great West of Thebes." 415 Ra'mose states explicitly
On a famous stela Pharaoh Ahmose I, founder of the Eighteenth Dy-
~h~t the ultimate aim of his ideal behavior was "to gain his tomb," a character-
nasty, records his plan to build a second funerary complex of pyramid and
istic state of mind indeed.
 374 IV : FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE IV : FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE 375
One of the earliest texts (reign of Horemheb) speaking about the viola- Seti, followed by that of Amenhotep III. Records of the restoration of the royal
tion of a royal tomb in the Theban Necropolis is a graffito in the tomb of mummies were written on their coffins in the reigns of Pinedjem I (Twenty-
Thutmose IV stating that the burial of that pharaoh was restored by Meya, First Dynasty) 422 and Pinedjem II. A scribe and chief inspector Nesupeke-
chief of works in the necropolis. 416 The occurrence of this text at so early a date shuti, son of Bakenkhonsu, states how the mummies were taken into the tomb
allows us to surmise that the violation of the Theban tombs began in the of Queen Inhapy : "That which is in good condition before me, no harm shall
anarchy that followed the religious revolution of Amenhotep IV- Akhenaten. befall it, through my bringing them (sic) out from the tomb in which they rest,
The pious regard for the dead and their tombs is well illustrated in the and they shall be taken into the tomb of (Queen) Inhapi, which is in the
dedicatory inscription of Ramses III from the temple at Medinet Habu : "I did 'Great Place,' wherein King Amenhotep rests." 423
not overturn the tombs of the lords of life, the tomb-chambers of the ancestors, According to the Abbott Papyrus it is said of the tomb of Amenhotep I
the glorious place which was at the beginning, of the lord of Rosta, the divine (?) : "The eternal horizon of King Zeserkere, L. P. H ., son of Re, Amenhotep
way of the gods and the cavern-dwellers to the revered dead." 417 Ramses III (I), L. P. H ., which is 120 cubits deep (measured) from its superstructure,
wishes to state very clearly that he did not appropriate the ground of the earlier which is called : 'The-HighTAscent""""\' north of the 'House-
tombs when locating his temple in the ancient Theban necropolis. of-Amenhotep,-L.-P.-H .,-of-the-Garden.' " 424 This statement concerning the
The construction of a royal tomb was accompanied by the establishment depth of 120 cubits was verified by the discoverer of the tomb, Carter, who
of a new title to land for the benefit of the gods of the necropolis. Such is the gave 62.8 meters, which is equivalent to 120 cubits, o palm, i.5 digits,4 25 a
meaning conveyed by the dedication in the tomb of Ramses V at Thebes : "He record of extreme precision, provided the identification of the tomb be true
made (it) as his monument for his fathers, the gods of the Nether World, (doubted by Peet). Such precision had already been noticed in the text of
making for them a new title, in order that their names might be renewed ; that Khnumhotep describing his rock-cut tomb 426- further evidence in favor of the
they may give very many jubilees upon the Horns-throne of the living, every credibility of Egyptian accounts about architectural monuments.
country beneath his feet, like Re, forever." 41 8
A penetrating light is thrown on the administration of the royal necro-
polis at Thebes by the official papyrus records of tomb robberies from the time REPRESENT ATIONAL EVIDENCE 421
of Ramses IX. 419 Several officials seem to have been involved in the violation.
The inspection of the tombs of the pharaohs from the Eleventh to the Thir- Among the scenes painted on the walls of private tombs at Thebes in the
teenth Dynasty in the western plain of Thebes and of the royal rock-cut tombs Eighteenth Dynasty, there appear representations of the chapel of the tomb
of the Valley of the Kings yields valuable information, corroborated by ar- itself. The funeral procession is seen reaching it, and various funerary rites are
chaeological data from the tombs themselves. • performed upon the mummy set in front of the chapel. Such a representation
The commission sent to inspect the tombs visited the part of the royal is more or less stylized, but it nevertheless shows the characteristic architec-
cemetery at Dra' abul Naga dating back to the Eleventh, Thirteenth, Seven- tural features of the superstructures. It is not until the end of the Eighteenth
teenth, and Eighteenth dynasties. The next year the violation of the tomb of Dynasty and often in the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties that this type of
Queen Isis, wife of Ramses Ill, was discovered : "They opened her tomb, they representation assumes its fullest development. Three types can be differen-
found the granite block, the eight thieves having done damage in the (- -) . tiated: a rectangular or vaulted fa\ade, a pyramid sometimes upon a base or a
They had wrought evil destruction on all that was therein; and they had building, and a pyramid with portico. As it would be awkward to try to
damaged [its] owner." 420 In the nineteenth year of Ramses IX (Year l of dissociate the mortuary chapel that forms the superstructure of the tomb from
Ramses X) the robbery of the tombs of Seti I and Ramses II was discovered its other parts, these chapels will be considered here, although this may be
and soon thereafter that of Queen Nesimut and of Queen Bekurel,421 wife of regarded as an encroachment upon the study of religious architecture.
 376 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV : FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 377

TYPE I. A rectangular facrade, crowned with a cornice and having a central or

side door, similar to the representation of the tomb in the vignettes of the Book
of the Dead, is found in the tombs from the beginning of the Eighteenth
Dynasty. It is of the type of the traditional facrade of the archaic shrine
(hieroglyph seh ), with battered sides surrounded by a torus-molding (Khaem-
hat, Amenemhat), and sometimes topped just beneath the cornice with three
or four horizontal rows of circles (Neferhotep, Ra'mose). It has been proved
that these circles are the representations of the circular inscribed bases of
earthenware cones inserted into the masonry.428 A more developed facrade
shows a high structure roofed over with a flat vault, under which runs a frieze
of four rows of circles and a rounded niche (Nebamun, Ipuky). This latter
treatment has been identified in the eastern face of the pyramidal superstruc-
tures of tombs at Deir el Medina.
The rectangular or rounded facrade (fig. 189) can be restored, on the basis
of traces found in the actual superstructures of tombs, as entrance porches
projecting from the back wall of a court cut in the cliff.

189. Restored perspective of an entrance to the chapel of a Theban private tomb, after a
representation in an Egyptian mural.

190. Restored perspective of the superstructure of the tomb of Nakhtamun, after the mural
in his tomb.

TYPE II. The main feature of most of the Theban paintings representing tomb
chapels is a pyramidal structure. It has a high triangular face with a steep
angle of incline, a doorway, simple or topped with a cornice, and a rounded
niche just below the top (fig. 190) . This is shown as a triangle, colored dark to
indicate a stone pyramidion. At the base a stripe of color represents a stone
course (Deir el Medina, Nakhtamun), probably a socle or platform.
 --~~- - ----
I ._

I
. ~~lllllll!~ll,;~:~~~~i~fl ''[
t~=:·-~-;i __l(,~:::m:!--s,
f.-..-.L. ,, , ---. ' - ~
' A/ T' ".\~).:-·plllj'\

1,;
i:
!J'1~/~r~~1, ,
·~·-. I ', :"'" :· ~
r9r. Representatio n of the superstructure of the tomb of Neferhotep from his tomb murals.

r93. Representation of the funerary chapel of Khonsmose from his tomb murals.
Sometimes the pyramid is erected upon a base of varying height,
crowned with a cornice. The base can be very low and without any apparent
entrance (Userhat). Usually, however, it assumes the shape of a high rectangu- r94. Restored view of the funerary chapel of Khonsmose.
lar fa<;:ade with battered sides, cornice, and door, precisely similar to the
superstructure imitating the fa<;:ade of an archaic shrine (Amenmose, Ra'mose,
Nedjemger, Nakhtamun ) .
A further development of this type consists of a double base, the lower
step being very large, probably to be interpreted as a stepped base, surmounted
by a pyramid (Neferhotep ) (figs. 191, 192) . In another example (Khons-
mose) a flat curve tops the cornice of the doorway, an indication that this
doorway protrudes as a porch and is covered with a dome (figs. 193, 194).
When compared to the superstructure actually found at Deir el Medina
(Eighteenth to Nineteenth dynasties), the paintings representing a pyramid in
its various forms prove to correspond exactly and can be used in architectural

r92 . Restored perspective of the superstructure of Neferhotep's tomb.

 I ~ 5

/'
I \
I \
I \

195· Superstructure of a tomb in the form of a pyramid

,__ ___ ....
I \

I '
\
at Deir el Medina. I \

II " \
I \

c\~~~=-::_=_~~~~ ~~}~
'f-- r - - - - - 1- -1\
/1 I I I \
/ I I _____ J.J : \
: :----- I:
I I
I
' .:r'-

198. Restored perspective of an entrance to a private tomb with a porch surmounted by

a pyramid.

0 3 restoration. Thus the pyramid of Kha' (reign of Amenhotep III at Deir el

Medina) has an angle of incline of 75 °, with a corniced doorway on the east
196. Front elevation of the superstructure of the chapel of Kha'.
face, and contains a vaulted chamber. It rises from a low platform, shown as a
stripe on the paintings (figs. 195, 196) . It had, most probably, an arched niche
high up in the east face, containing either a stela held by a statue of the
deceased kneeling, or a statue of the deceased kneeling and adoring the sun
with both arms raised (fig. 197). Numerous examples of these have been
found in this necropolis. The pyramidion is actually of dark hard stone-
granite, sandstone, or limestone.
Certain adjustments have been introduced in the interpretations of the
fac;ade by the Egyptian painter: the width of the chapel has been considerably
reduced and the dimensions of the funerary stela have been increased m
accordance with the scale of the personages shown in front of the chapel.
TYPE III. A final development of the superstructure, as represented in contem-
poraneous tomb paintings, is the occurrence of a portico on two or more columns
or pillars in front of the entrance fac;ade (fig. 198) . This portico is usually

197. Two types of statues of the deceased kneeling and set in

the eastern niche at the top of the pyramid.
 382 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 383
PAPYRUS oF NEBQED (fig. 200) .4 20 A unique drawing shows the elevation of a
chapel, the section through its shaft, and the plan of the burial apartment in
one compound . The chapel is of the simple rectangular type, erected upon a
low base with two rows of funerary cones and a doorway with a cornice and
two leaves. The shaft is vertical with horizontal joints indicating the courses of
the lining, and down it the soul of the deceased, depicted as a human-headed
bird, flutters to meet the body lying on a bier. The burial apartment consists of
three main chambers, full of funerary furniture, communicating by means of
doorways shown rabatted .

200. Drawing from the Papyrus of Nebqed representing a complete tomb.

199. Restored perspective of an entrance to a private tomb featuring a front portico.

painted as a frame to the fas:ade ( Amenemhab, Khans), but is sometimes

shown in side view (Neferrenpet) . The pyramid appears above the cornice of
the chapel and is of the same width or narrower than th<;_ chapel itself. When
the pyramid is narrower than the chapel it can be surmised that the pyramid
was erected on the ground and that its upper part only was shown. Some
paintings represent a pyramid with a porticoed entrance and another portico
2or. Sketch on an ostracon representing
of four columns beside it, drawn on a larger scale (Amenemopet, Tjonufer,
the cross section of a tomb.
Tjoy ) . This is obviously an attempt to represent in perspective a portico
running along both sides of the court (fig. 199) . At Deir el Medina and at Dra'
abul Naga remains of porticoes on two bundle papyriform columns sur-
mounted by a hollow pyramid have actually been identified. The stela is
erected, as it is shown in the paintings, to the left of the entrance.
 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 385
384 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE
stja netjer (lit. "way of god"), containing a descending ramp and a recess
SKETCH oN AN osTRACON (Eighteenth Dynasty, fig. 201) .430 A true section,
labeled "room" ('at) in the text, on either wall. The four central doors
hurriedly drawn in ink, shows a vertical shaft and its burial apartment. At
between the main sections are said to be "closed," probably with the two leaves
ground level four women are weeping and wailing, while a priest pours a
as actually indicated in the drawing.
libation and burns incense in a censer. A man is seen descending the shaft,
The hall (X) next to the corridor has a wide recess on either side. The
using the alternating recesses cut specially in the opposite faces of the shaft for
texts describe it as "The waiting-room (wsekhet iseq) of 9 cubits, width 8
this purpose. Two underground rooms and a third at a lower level, accessible
cubits, height 9 cubits, drawn in contours, engraved with the chisel, filled in
by stairs, form the burial apartment. In the small chamber two mummies are
with colors and completed." Its name stems from its use as a waiting room
already resting, while in the main one the mummy that has just been lowered
either by the relatives before they enter the sarcophagus hall, or by the
down is being attended by two priests.
deceased himself during the funeral. The "negative confession" written on its
ToMB oF RAMSES IV (fig. 202) ."'1 The plan of the tomb of Ramses IV had been right wall, in which the deceased is made to deny having committed any of the
drawn in ink and color wash on a papyrus, probably as a record for subsequent sins mentioned in a lengthy list, would have been recited while the mummy
reference. This drawing uses conventional indications such as hatching for waited to be admitted into the sarcophagus chamber.
sections, scale ( 1:28), double lines for sections in walls and single lines for This sarcophagus hall (Y) bears the name of "House of Gold" (per
differences in pavement levels, and it notes the dimensions as do our modern nebw). It contains the golden sarcophagus and shrines covering it, clearly
working drawings. It compares favorably with a modern sketch plan. All indicated in the drawing and characterized by the golden color of its walls.
doorways are rabatted. The drawing agrees with the actual tomb except in Gold was supposed to help the rebirth of the deceased pharaoh, identified with
certain details, and fifteen of the dimensions are generally the same and eight the sun.43 ~ It is said to be "provided with the equipment of H is Majesty," a
somewhat different. denomination for the four n aoi and the baldachino sheltering the sarcophagus,
The main interest of this document is that it gives the names of the as shown in the plan, examples of which have been discovered in the tomb of
various parts of a royal rock-cut tomb from the New Kingdom. The drawing Tut'ankhamun.
is complete, except to the right where it begins with the fourth corridor (W.) The corridor (Z) is called "the place of shabtis," which are the small
statuettes representing laborers intended to do the fieldwork instead of the
deceased in the Netherworld. The statuettes were actually represented on the
202. Ancient plan of the tomb of Ramses IV on papyrus.
walls of the two side. chambers. The wide recessed shelf in the wall ( 1 m . from
the floor) is called "The place of rest of the deities" (ta set ~etep en na
netjerw), its walls being decorated with the paintings of naoi sheltering
various deities. It could have been used as a shelf for wooden naoi containing
such statues.
Y. The rear room is named "The Treasury of the Interior" ( per hedj en pa
·l neferw), and was used as a m agazine for funerary equipment, as is proved by
the paintings on its walls.

THE DIMENSIONS OF A ROYAL TOMB. On the recto of the same papyrus is the
description with dimensions of a royal tomb. Beside giving various technical
terms, this text describes the corridors as "second, third and fourth" and the
 386 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE 387
sarcophagus hall as the "Hall of the Chariot." A chariot was actually found
near the sarcophagus in the tombs of Iuya and Thutmose IV. ...•
ToMB oF RAMSES IX (fig. 203).'" On a limestone flake found in the Valley of
3
.,.,.,_
the Kings the plan of the tomb of Ramses IX is drawn in red ink, probably as a -
s .,.,
sketch plan to be used by the workmen. The scale is small ( r :270) and the ••.....•....,
distorted proportions of the rear hall and lateral niches point to a certain /

neglect. The plan is symmetrical and shows one of the rare indications of the
axis of symmetry. Some additional names of parts of tombs are given. The
entrance passage with its stairway is "The corridor of the Path of Shu,"
pointing to a relation with Shu, god of the atmosphere; so called because it is
open to the sky and the rays of the sun. The following section is "The corridor
of the Sun,'' it being the only covered part of the tomb which the sun's rays
can enter. On t'1e walls are scenes from the "Book of the Sun's Journey
0 =
204. Sketch of a corridor and chambers in the tomb of Senmut.
Through the Netherworld."
The two following corridors were probably called the "second" and
I
"third,'' as in the drawing of the tomb of Ramses IV. In the second corridor two other drawings. The "House of Gold" (the sarcophagus hall) is shown as
the wide niches are "the shrines in which rest the deities of the West," which being much larger than it actually is.
are actually painted with mythological figures.
The square hall is the "waiting hall," as in the two other drawings, PLAN OF A TOMB (Senmut's tomb ). 434 A hasty sketch represents a corridor
which is separated from the sarcophagus hall by a large hall with four pillars, ending in a shaft and three side chambers with the dimensions marked (fig.
set two on each side of the central descending ramp called "descent." This 204).
pillared hall is the "Treasury,'' which is set beyond the sarcophagus hall in the

Examples of Representations of Funerary Chapels in the Necropolis

203. Plan on an ostracon of the tomb of Ramses IX, compared to the actual plan.
THUTMOSE III (from the tomb of Khons) .435 The painting is a compound of a
T-shaped stretch of water and a rectangular enclosure with two entrances
forming the waterfront (figs. 205, 206). This is adjacent to a painting of the
elevation of the portal, turned through 90 °. The portal assumes the shape of a
high pylon and a central door with a tablet. Such water portals were built on
the border of the Valley, at the end of the pathways descending from the cliff
tombs.

FuNERARY CHAPEL OF NAKHTMIN. 436 This seems to be a large central room,

flanked by two side rooms and a tree on either side, and surrounded by a high
wall with a central pylon and doorway (figs. 207, 208). A long stairway
bordered by two rows of vases and plants ascends from a pond to the entrance.
 388 IV : FUNERAR Y ARCHITECTURE IV : FUNERAR Y ARCHITECTURE 389

I
--·---------------
207. Mural representing the funerary chapel of Nakhtmin .

205. Representation of a quay and the chapel of Thutmose III from a mural in the tomb 208. Restored perspective of the chapel of Nakhtmin and its garden .
of Khans .

206. Restored perspective of the entrance to the chapel of Thutmose Ill.

 390 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 391

A Description of the Typical Funerary Complex of a Private Tomb

.I
In the light of the valuable information derived from the study of contempora-
neous representations of chapels a clear description of the funerary complex of 11
a private tomb can be restored. A comparison of the various types of chapels i
pictured on the tomb walls with the actual remains proves the correspondence I
of both data. Architectural as well as religious information can therefore be
safely deduced.
For large tombs a valley portal marked the lower end of the pathway
leading up to a valley temple. Several examples are extant, such as the mor-
tuary valley temples of Amenhotep II, Siptah (Nineteenth Dynasty), Amen-
·--·
I ,'··. I

hotep I (Qurna), Seti I (Qurna), Thutmose IV, Wedjmose (Eighteenth

Dynasty), Queen Tawosert, wife of Siptah, Merneptah, and Ramses II (Ra-
messeum). These structures, independent of the tomb, replaced the valley
temple and the funerary temple of the Old Kingdom pyramid complex.
Osirian and sun myths have become united in certain areas of the Theban 209. Plan and section of the superstructure of a tomb at Deir el Medina.
necropolis, while they remain separate in others (Dra' abul Naga, tomb of
Bakenkhonsu). The Osirian tomb is cut deep into the cliff, and its fa~ade can should take over such an architectural element as the pyramid, which had
be restored at the rear of a court, partly hewn in the rock. The wall is either been the prerogative of the Egyptian pharaoh even as late as the beginning of
plane or cut with palace-fa~ade recessed paneling (Amen user). Usually a the Eighteenth Dynasty, is quite in accordance with the development of the
columned portico runs along it and shelters the funerary stela erected to the Egyptian democratization process. At the same time the persistence of the
left of the central entrance. Here were performed the rites during the funeral, pyramidal superstructure in this particular necropolis could have been due to
as the mummy stood near the stela, ready to be introduced to its final resting the pyramid-shaped apex of the western mountain, deified under various
place. A pyramid of brick can be built above the central part of the portico or names ( cf. Vol. II, pp. 156--157, The Theban Necropolis in the Middle King-
porch. A shaft or ramp descends from the court or chapel to the burial dom).
apartment. This was the type of family tomb commonly used at the end of the
Eighteenth Dynasty and during the Nineteenth Dynasty .at Thebes (fig. 209).
The tombs of private people consisted of a chapel, covered with a pyr- TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF ROYAL TOMBS IN THE NEW KINGDOM
amid and having sometimes on its east side a portico or an awning sheltering
the funerary stela. An arched niche in the face of the pyramid contained the CENOTAPH OF AHMOSE AT ABYDOS. 437 The actual tomb of Ahmose was presuma-
statue, or stela and statue of the deceased. A shaft descended to the tomb bly at Thebes. At Abydos this pharaoh caused a cenotaph tomb to be built
chamber below. underground, at some distance south of that of Senusert III (Twelfth Dy-
It is quite probable, on textual and graphical evidence, that in front of the nasty). The plan is a long corridor, with an S-shaped covered part and a large
chapels on the border of the valley some kind of funerary garden was laid out, hypostyle hall (fig. 210). A shallow well descends vertically to a horizontal
to which a landing place on a waterway served as approach. corridor of low ceiling which runs directly north. Two small side rooms open
That the Theban tombs of the Eighteenth to the Nineteenth dynasties off this straight stretch. The curved stretch, somewhat larger in section, opens

-
 J

392 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE 393

,--- --, ... ,

,
1._..,-- - -"'
'
C----::-:-:~\
---·.___ ,,:
\[(T ION

2ro. Layout, plan, and section of the cenotaph of Ahmose at Abydos.

D I
___ J

I
at right angles in the middle of the long side of a large rectangular hall with \ i
three rows of six square pillars each. The corridor continues from the opposite
side of the hall and runs deeper along a curved plan into a rounded room, left \I ~--~~--~20cubit

unfinished, as was the last part of the corridor itself.

The general layout of the corridor shows a vague resemblance to that of
the cenotaph of Senusert III, the latter, however, having been well finished 2 r r. Plan and section of a royal tomb.
and provided with a double wall with horizontal passages at its top and
bottom, and an inclined passage blocked with granite plugs- both being
devices to lead the thieves astray.'138 ·
"She has already a tomb and a mortuary temple on the soil of Thebes and
To the west of this substructure and at the foot of the sand hill stand the Abydos."
remains of its terraced temple with a retaining wall of brick and a second one
in stone, along a terrace at a higher level. Almost nothing could be made out ToMB OF AMENHOTEP I ( ?).441 Here the architect innovated two main ele-
of the paved court, the various rooms, and the silo at the southern corner of the ments in royal funerary architecture. He was the first to separate the tomb
terraces. from its mortuary temple and to sink a large shaft at the end of the first part of
It might be surmised, on the evidence of the nearby pyramidal cenotaph the underground passage of the tomb to delude the thieves. This was a
that Ahmose built for his grandmother Tetisheri, that his own cenotaph also simplification of the devices already elaborated by Senusert III in the under-
had a pyramid as superstructure. ground passage and double shaft of his cenotaph at Abydos. The location of
t~e mortuary temple at some distance from the tomb was also a precaution to
CENOTAPH OF QuEEN TETISHERI.439 To the east of the cenotaph of Ahmose and hide the latter. It had become obvious, even at the beginning of the Eighteenth
on a line with it and with the shrine of Tetisheri are the remains of a pyramid, Dynasty, that neither the technical skill of the Old Kingdom nor the architec-
once coated with stone at an angle of incline of 60 °. The entrance was not tu:al devices so ingeniously invented by the Middle Kingdom engineers could
found and the interior has never been visited. The tomb of the queen is said by withstand the malicious enterprises of the robbers in connivance with responsi-
the text on the dedicatory stela of Ahmose 440 to have been built at Thebes: ble officials.
 394 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV : FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 395

The tomb, south of Dra' abul Naga, consists of a vertical shaft leading
down to a horizontal N .-S. corridor, with a small room at one side and a deep
niche on the other (fig. 2n). A large square shaft ending this first part of the
corridor goes down deep, while diminishing in section, to two rooms probably
intended as a false burial apartment. At the southeast corner of the shaft the
corridor continues on the same level as before, but in a somewhat different
direction, to a rectangular hall enlarged westward. Each of the two parts of
this hall has a square pillar to support the rock ceiling. It has been surmised
that the enlargement of this hall intended for the burial of Amenhotep had
been planned to permit the burial of his mother, Queen Ahmes Nefertari.
Numerous fragments of vases with the name of this queen were discovered in
the hall, and the mortuary chapels of both Amenhotep I and Ahmes Nefertari
were found side by side, as was described upon the stela.
If the identification of this tomb as Amenhotep's is correct,442 it affords an
extremely interesting corroboration of the exactness of ancient Egyptian texts
describing monuments.
No causeway connects the tomb to the remains of the neighboring chapels
of Amenhotep I and Ahmes Nefertari.

THE VALLEY OF THE KINGS (Arabic, Biban el Moluk, lit. "Doorways of the
Kings") . The successor of Amenhotep I, Pharaoh Thutmose I, was the first to
have his tomb cut in the cliffs of the desert valley to the northwest of Deir el
Bahari now known as Valley of the Kings (pl. 61). It is clear that pharaohs
and responsible officials had become at a loss to insure the security of the royal
tombs. The rock-cut tomb was to be completely hidden, and the work on its Plate 6r. The desert Valley of the Kings in Western Thebes.
preparation was to be kept secret. The architect lneny boasts that he supervised
the work at the tomb of Thutmose I, being alone without "anyone seeing or
hearing." It has been surmised that the laborers employed at this work were
prisoners of war who were killed as soon as the project had been completed.443
What was the main incentive that led to the choice of this valley as the
place of burial for Thutmose I? The pharaohs of the latter part of the Eleventh
Dynasty had already established their mortuary complexes at the front of the
cliff, between 'Assassif and Qurnet Mar'i. The Twelfth and Thirteenth dynas-
ties and finally Amenhotep I gradually shifted northward, approaching the
entrance to the Valley of the Kings. The approach to the valley cirque is
dominated in the background by a mountain curiously shaped like an Egyp-
 396 IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE
IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE 397
tian pyramid ( color plate XIII). This is known now as El Qurn, "The Ho:n,"
entrance fac;:ade and turns counterclockwise to the left at a right angle (Thut-
in modern Arabic, and was called "The Front" or "Peak" by the a~cient
mose I, III, IV, Amenhotep II). In the tomb of Thutmose IV the corridor
Egyptians, who had dedicated it to the serpe~t goddess Meryt ~~ger, _The-
turns twice to the left at a right angle, while in that of Amenhotep III it turns
One-loving-Silence." Could this concept have mfluenced the traditi~n-mmded
first to the left, then to the right, both at right-angle turns. Such right-angle
Egyptians? m Pharaoh would have therefore ren.ounced the pyramidal super-
turns in corridors had been in common use in Middle Kingdom pyramids,
structure that had formed the main feature of his tomb even up to the early
where they could have afforded intermediate rooms at every change of direc-
Eighteenth Dynasty in favor of this pyramid embodied in the mountain it~elf.
tion, with sliding portcullises carefully concealed in the ceiling, bringing the
It is a fact that nearly all the pharaohs between the Eighteenth and Twen~ieth
sarcophagus chamber back under the apex of the pyramid (so-called dou-
dynasties had their tombs cut in the cliffs of this valley. In several ~nva_te
bling-back). No such aim is apparent, however, in the royal tombs of the
tombs there are lists of these "Lords of the West," or pharaohs buned m
Eighteenth and Nineteenth dynasties. A protective device already initiated by
Western Thebes.
Senusert III in his cenotaph at A by dos comes into use: a shaft ends the
TYPES AND EVOLUTION OF ROYAL TOMBS entrance corridor, and a blocked-up doorway in the opposite wall, concealed
under a layer of plaster painted with scenes, leads to the second part of the
The scheme of a royal tomb consists basically of an inclined corridor in three
funerary apartment (Amenhotep I, Thutmose III, Amenhotep II, Thutmose
sections, passing through an antechamber and ending in a sarc?ph~gus cham-
IV, Amenhotep III, Horemheb ). This shaft again disappears with Seti I, who
ber. various characteristics, such as a 90 ° change in the direction of the
replaces it with an antechamber. The axis of the part beyond this point is
corridor or the addition of a protective shaft or false burial chamber, can be
sometimes slightly offset from that of the front part (Seti I, Ramses III).
discerned, serving to picture the evolution of the tomb. Taking thi~ plan ~s a
The sarcophagus chamber in the tombs of Thutmose I and II assumes a
basic criterion and following a chronological evolution, we can differentiate
plan of rectangular shape with rounded corners and a ceiling imitating a blue
three main types.
sky with yellow stars, perhaps picturing the oval shape of the world as in the
TYPE I. After running at a right angle to the entrance fa;ade, the corridor hieroglyph C)shen, or that of the cartouche enclosing the royal name. 445 One
turns to the right usually at a right angle. Such are the plans of the tomb of side chamber (to develop into four side chambers) was intended for the
Amenhotep I, bo~h tombs of Hatshepsut, and that of Ramses II. This right statues. Later it becomes a rectangular room with six pillars, preceded by a
turn is already featured in the undergroun d cenotaph of Senusert III a~d the vestibule with two pillars and connected by a short corridor ( Amenhotep II,
neighboring one of Ahmose at Abydos. The corridor can be hon~ontal Thutmose IV, Amenhotep III, Horemheb ). These are occasionally enlarged
(Amenhote p I), or with inclined stretches (tomb I of Hatshepsut) as m the into a vestibule (four pillars) and a sarcophagus chamber (six to eight pillars;
cenotaphs of Senusert III and Ahmose at Abydos. A •new feat~re appea~s, Ramses II, Seti I, Setnakht, Ramses III).
however, in the shape of stairways cut in the floor of rooms, which are axial A subsidiary room appears behind the sarcophagus chamber in the tomb
enlargements of the corridor, in the middle or in a_ corner. (tomb II of of Amenhotep III. This, later, assumes the shape of a deep recess in the rear
Hatshepsut, Ramses II). This new feature is often used m the Eighteenth and wall of the sarcophagus chamber, recalling the plan of the funerary apartment
Nineteenth dynasties (Thutmose I, III, Amenhotep II, Thutm~se IV, A~en­ in the rock-cut tomb of the Middle Kingdom in Upper Egypt.
hotep III, Amenhotep IV, Ay, Horemheb, Seti I, Mernept~h). I_t is no.t until the
last pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty that the corridor is agam free of TYPE III. The corridor is straight and usually at a right angle to the entrance
stairways (Ramses II, Amenemet, Seti II, Ramses III, IV, IX, X, XI, Setnakht). fac;:ade. The first to initiate this simple plan was Amenhotep IV-Akhenaten in
his tomb at 'Amarna, probably to let the rays of the sun disk illuminate the
TYPE II. The corridor penetrates for some distance at a right angle to the
whole length of the corridor. The shaft also disappears. It is this straightness in
 398 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE 399

the corridor which induced the Greeks who visited these tombs at the begin-
ning of our era to call them "syringes" or "shepherd's pipes." This straight
plan was retained even after Horemheb had returned to the old traditional
type (Ay, Ramses I, Merneptah, Siptah, Seti II, Ramses IV, VI, VII, Setnakht,
Ramses IX, X, XI) (pl. 62).
Closely related to this plan, but with a slight shift in the axis of the
corridor, are the tombs of Horemheb, Seti I (copied from it), and Ramses III.
It has been propounded that the first part of the corridor was dedicated to the
sun god, on the grounds that the sun's rays enter the first part, that it seems to
represent the course of the sun in daytime, and that this part was named
"Corridor of the way of (the sun god) Shu." 446

THE DECORATION OF THE RoYAL ToMB, hs EvoLUTION AN D STYLE 447

The scenes on the walls of the corridor and rooms are almost exclusively
religious. Only rarely do such scenes as that of the hunt for birds (Ay) or those
representing the royal armory, treasury, and the sacred fields (Ramses III,
three sides, chamber near entrance), appear. The scenes show Pharaoh with
the gods and illustrate three main groups of texts or "books," and at least two
minor ones. In no tomb, however, are all the books pictured completely.
In the tomb of Thutmose I appears the "Book of what is in the Nether-
world" (Amdwat), representing the Netherworld as twelve regions, corre-
sponding to the twelve hours of the night. In each of these the sun god is
depicted as a ram-headed deity standing in his boat and sailing on the river of Plate 62. Tomb of Ramses IX.
the underworld, bordered with genii and monsters.
Beginning with Thutmose III the "Sun Litany" ocairs in the first corri-
dors. In the Nineteenth Dynasty appears the "Book of Gates," a collection of
texts and scenes depicting the journey of the sun through the twelve regions of
the Underworld, each represented as separated from the next one by gates
guarded by serpents.
At the same period and together with all the other texts appears the
"Book of Opening the Mouth," which gives the ritual performed before the
deceased so that he may regain the use of his senses. The "Sun's Journey
through the Underworld," a book that is in use in the Nineteenth Dynasty,
 400 IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE 401
represents the sun addressing the genii of the Underworld . The old "Book of square chamber (fig. 212). The sarcophagus found there was still to be low-
the Dead" is also made use of. ered down a ramp to a sarcophagus chamber. The work was left unfinished.
The distribution of these various books on the walls follows some specific The second tomb (No. 20) was prepared in the Valley of Kings and
rules. The "Sun Litany" occurs in the Nineteenth Dynasty tombs in the first or consists of a long inclined corridor ( 700 ft. [212.96 m.], descending 318 ft.
second part of the corridor. On the four faces of the pillars Pharaoh is [96.93 m. J deep) on a semioval course. It passes through two halls with axial
represented before a deity. The "Book of What is in the Netherworl d" is on stairways and a third one with a stairway at an angle, descending into the
the walls of the sarcophagus chamber during the Eighteenth Dynasty, but no sarcophagus chamber. This is a rectangular hall directed N.-S., with three
longer has a fixed place during the Nineteenth Dynasty. It is to be noticed that pillars and three side chambers. The sarcophagi of Hatshepsut and of her
neither this book nor the "Book of Gates" and the "Book of Opening the father Thutmose I had been placed in it.
Mouth" ever occurs near the entrance. THUTMOSE III (No. 24) . With the tomb of Thutmose III appears the regular
In the Eighteenth Dynasty the scenes are only drawn in outline on a
type of plan in the Eighteenth Dynasty, embodying an axial change of direc-
white or yellow ground as if the walls were enlarged from the illuminated
tion at a right angle, a shaft for protection against robbers, and four side
sheets of a funerary papyrus. Beginning with Amenhotep III the scenes, and
chambers adjoining the sarcophagus chamber. The three-part corridors end in
from Horemheb, both scenes and texts are treated as murals finished in a style
a shaft and on the opposite wall opens the antechamber, irregular in plan with
akin to that of the wall reliefs (pl. 62). There are besides some exceptional lay
two pillars and a stairway descending to the sarcophagus chamber (N.-S.),
subjects represented in the murals of royal tombs in Western Thebes such as
similar in shape to that of Thtitmose I, but having two pillars instead of one,
bird hunt ( Ay) and royal kitchens, workshops, treasuries, and armories ( lat-
and four side chambers. On the walls are texts from the "Book of What is in
eral chambers Ramses III). the Netherworld," and on the pillars representations of the pharaoh with his
mother Eset in a boat, or with his wives (fig. 212).
DESCRIPTION OF RoYAL ToMBS AMENHOTEP II (No. 35) . This plan is similar to that of Thutmose III, but
more regular, with truly rectangular rooms and a right-angle change of direc-
Eighteenth Dynasty tion. A room opens from the bottom of the shaft. Could it have been intended
as a false burial chamber? The sarcophagus chamber (N.-S.) has six pillars,
THUTMOSE I (No. 38). The architect Ineny boasts about having directed the
and a kind of crypt cut in its rear contains the sandstone sarcophagus .
work on the tomb of Thutmose I. It is the earliest and smallest in the
necropolis, consisting of an antechamber from which a stairway descends to a THuTMOSE IV (No. 43) . The right-angle turns are here twice to the left, so
hall with rounded corners, perhaps representing the worla, and with a ceiling that the plan recalls the "doubling-back" plan of funerary apartments in some
supported by a central pillar. The sarcophagus was put in this hall, while the of the pyramids in the Middle Kingdom.
canopic jars had a special small recess cut in the side wall. The walls were The shaft is at the end of the first part of the corridor, and the second
stuccoed and painted (fig. 212). part joins the vestibule or antechamber, with two pillars, to a second smaller
one, itself connected to the sarcophagus chamber (fig. 212).
HATSHEPSUT . This queen had two tombs, the first one presumably pre-
pared while she had not yet attained the uncontested sovereignty of Egypt. AMENHOTEP III (No . 22) . This tomb is located in the Western Valley of the
This is a small tomb cut high in the cliff in a lonely valley and is practically tombs. The plan shows two turns at a right angle, the first to the left, then to
inaccessible. The plan is simple, with one sloping corridor turning from a the right. The first part of the corridor, as far as the shaft, is divided by
square chamber at right angles into a short and steep passage leading to a doorways into three sections (fig. 212). The second part of the plan is similar
 402 IV : FUNERARY ARCH ITECT URE

to that of Thutmose IV, having an antechamber with two pillars, two stair-
ways, and a second antechamber. A new feature, which occurs here for the
first time and which becomes a customary one in the Ramesside type of tomb,
is the room with one pillar placed behind the sarcophagus chamber. T~UTMOH I

AMENHOTEP IV.:._AKHENATEN. W ith this pharaoh, who changed his religion

and built a new capital in the desert, came a radical change in the plan of his
tomb at 'Amarna (East) . The corridor runs along a straight axis directly to the
sarcophagus chamber, without any shaft. It seems that the pharaoh, who had
raised the sun disk to the place of the Only God, wished to benefit, even after ~-----]
death, from the rays he used to worship. This straightness of the plan is
henceforth a constant feature of the royal tombs. Two subsidiary apartments ~ATJNEPJ UT
open on one side of the corridor. The first is an undecorated corridor, divided
into six parts and following a turn along a quarter of a circle (fig. 212). The
second is a group of rooms, two of which are decorated with realistic scenes,
some showing the pharaoh and the queen mourning at the death couch of
their little daughter Mekitaten, who was buried in this apartment. The
mummy of the pharaoh, however, was found in the tomb of his mother Tiy
(No. 55).
TuT'ANKHAMUN (No . 58) . This rock-cut apartment in the Valley of the Kings,
famous for its rich funerary equipment, was nothing but a cachette, probably T~UTMOH IV

hastily prepared, and was hardly a tomb. Its plan has nothing to do with the
traditional program, consisting of a corridor leading to a large transverse room
(N.-S.), connected at its north end with a second large room containing the
four huge shrines of gilded wood set over the sandstone sarcophagus, which
contained two wooden coffins and a gold one with the mummy. A wall was 212. Plans of royal tombs of the Eighteenth
Dynasty at Thebes West (Valley of the
built between the two main rooms. A square subsidiary. room branches off
Kings), and at 'Amarna.
from each of them. The walls are decorated with hastily painted scenes of
funerary purport (fig. 212) .

AY (No . 23). The plan of this tomb in the Western Valley shows the influence
of 'Amarna in having a straight axis, no shaft, a sarcophagus chamber set
transversely, and a rear chamber behind it (fig. 213).

HoREMHEB (No . 57). Although retaining the straight axis, the tomb differs
owing to the shaft sunk in the corridor, which proceeds along an axis parallel
to the first one, but offset. Three stairways intercept the corridor, and the

AKNNAHN
C'AMARNAl
 AY MtRNlPT A ~

RAMHl I

CoLOR PLATE x na. Papyri/arm capital from the hypostyle

hall of the Great Temple of Amun-Re' at K arnak (see
p. 370 ) . Nothing from the earlier type of plant column
subsists except the outline. T he elements of the origina l
open papyrus flower are strongly stylized in the shape of
triangular leaves striped in fancifu l colors allied to lotuses
and cartouches. The fi ve bands beneath the capital are

D borrowed from the column of bundle type.

![ Tiii HTNAK NT QAMHl lll

CoLoR P LATE x n b. Engaged cluster column from the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet
RA MHlVll
H abu (see p. 470) . This type of cluster column in imitation of wooden ones consists of a bundle
213 . P lans of the royal tombs of the Nineteenth and Twentieth d ynasties at T h ebes West. shaft surmounted by a capital of half-blown lotus, out of which rises a smaller capital of open
papyrus, surmounted by an iris or lily capital with two volutes. Such columns in wood with staged
capitals, stuccoed and painted, which formed elegant kiosks, are commonly represented in the mu-
rals of Theban tomb chapels.

(
CoLOR PLATE x 111. View of the Ramesseum in W estern Thebes (see p. 394). In the left foreground
are the bud columns still standing in the north colonnade of the second court, and opposite the
fou r Osiride pi llars. Beyond are the great hyposty le hall with some of its clerestory windows, and
w hat remai ns of the smaller colum ned h alls. In the d istance the pyramid-shape d peak E l Qurn,
w hich was worshiped, was probably imitated in the pyramid-toppe d m ortuary temple of Men tu-
hotep at D eir e1 Bahari and in the sm aller pyramid chapels of the Empire.
CoLOR PLHE XIV. Murals in the southwest half of the broad hall in the tom b-chapel of N akht
(No. 52) tn Western Th ebes (seep. 409). Nakht, a priest of Am un and official who lived at the
beginning of the Eigh teenth D ynasty, has a sm all tomb chapel consisting of the typical broad
hall and deep hall from w hich a shaft descends to the burial chamber. All the walls cut from
the rock are p lastered and pain ted. The sma ll end of the broad hall is half covered with the
painting of a fa lse-door imitating pink granite. On its tablet are depicted Nakh t and h is wife at
m eal. O n either side of the fa lse-door are three figures on
CoLOR PLATE xv. R estored copy of the entrance to the their knees m aking an offering. Benea th is a heap of of-
north chamber from the hall of t he tomb chapel of ferings Ranked by a tree goddess and a servant. On the
Puyemre' ( No . 39) in W estt'"!'n T hebes (see p. 4rn) . south wall left of the en trance are scenes in four r egisters
Puyemre', a priest of Amun in the reign of Thutmose III, representing work in the fie lds and the deceased and his
has left a tomb chapel with ma ny fine pain ted reliefs that wife on a heroic scale, sacrificing. A band of colored
could be restored. This interesting painting by N . de G. recta ngles deri ved from the torus molding fra mes each
Davies shows a treatment of the typical door way painted wall composi tion , surmounted bv a frieze of kheker
in imitation of black granite with the traditional tracery running just beneath the ceiling: itself decorated with
of the dj ed-sign for "stability" and the double papyrus geometric patterns.
stems for " unification" in the transom.
 IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE 405
typical features of the pillared antechamber, the second antechamber, the
sarcophagus chamber with six pillars and a crypt, .backed by a subsidiary rear
chamber, all reappear. The upper part of the shaft is entirely covered with
decoration, even that area occupied by the blocked-up doorway to the an-
techamber, obviously to hide it from robbers.

Nineteenth Dynasty

RAMSES I (Na. 16). During his short reign of two years this pharaoh could not
prepare an elaborate tomb. This has only a corridor, intercepted by two flights
of steps, leading to a sarcophagus chamber set axially and having a room at
either end (fig. 213). The painted scenes represent various episodes from the
funerary books.
SETI I (Na. 17). The plan is remarkably similar to that of Horemheb, but
without the shaft and with the addition of a hall behind the pillared ante-
chamber. Among the characteristics are the large pillared room, set as a
substitute to one of the four angular rooms branching off the sarcophagus
chamber, and the transverse hall with four pillars instead of the rear room in
the typical plan. The decoration shows scenes from the Netherworl d in the
same fine style of low relief apparent on the other monuments of that reign
(fig. 213). The vault above the crypt is decorated with astronomical scenes.
Some of the drawings on the pillars in the hall have never been finished and
show corrections in black.
RAMsEs II (Na. 7). The plan is of the Eighteenth Dynasty type, turning at
right angles just before the eight-pillared hall. The corridor is divided into six
parts by doorways and passes through a four-pillared antechamber, from
which a four-pillared square chamber branches off. The crypt seems to have
been separated from the sarcophagus chamber.
MERNEPTAH (No. 8). The planning of this tomb shows a remarkable mastery.
It is nearly symmetrical, with a straight corridor running in the form of a
stairway through a first room, the antechamber, and opening axially into a
transverse sarcophagus chamber (N .-S.) with eight pillars separating the nave
from the two aisles. The nave is roofed over with a flat vault and the aisles are
covered with ceilings. There is a small room at each of the four corners. The
G
lid of the sarcophagus is in the shape of a cartouche. The crypt assumes here a
CoLOR PLATE xvi. Patterns of ceiling paintings from tomb chapels in Western Thebes (see P·
4 rn). To the repertory of ceiling patterns in use durin~ the Middle Kingdom new forms were
added, being either (a) derivatives from the earlier lmked spirals with rosettes (Huy)~ _(b)
spirals enclosing rosettes with groups of hieroglyphs (Huy), (c) squares, or (d) ongmal
designs such as the rayed flowers, (e) the quatrefoils in kaleidoscopic array (Amenemhat) , and
(/) the zigzags (Amenemhat) . In all cases, however, the composition is based as before on a
square grid superimposed on a diagonal o.ne. Over the nave. m hypostyle halls and tombs the
motif consists of (g) a row of vultures with outstretched wmgs.
 406 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 407
cruciform shape, having a central hall with two side chambers and a small RAMsEs VII (Na. 1) AND RAMSES X (No. 18). These are only small projects
room opening from the rear wall (fig. 213). The simplicity and symmetry of featuring a corridor and a small sarcophagus chamber each (fig. 213).
the plan must surely have inspired the plans of later Ramesside tombs.
RAMSEs XI (Na. 4). The plan has kept only some of the elements of the usual
AMENMES (No. 10 ). The tomb was never completed, and the plan consists of a program: a short corridor leads to a transverse room, a hall with four pillars,
straight corridor, a small antechamber, and a hall with four pillars (fig. 213). and a second hall with two pillars and two pilasters. The project was never
S1PTAH (No. 47) . The plan is a straight corridor, sloping in certain parts, completed and a shaft was sunk in the floor of the rear hall.
running through the pillared hall to a second incomplete chamber. THE TOMBS OF THE QUEENS. The queens had their tombs in a separate valley
SETI II. The plan is similar, but incomplete. It features a straight corridor called by the Egyptians "The Place of Beauty" (ta set neferw) , now known as
divided by several doorways which runs to a small antechamber and a pillared Biban el Hareem, to the southwest of that of the pharaohs and about 2
hall (fig. 213). kilometers northwest of the temple of Medinet Habu. Members of the royal
family were buried there ever since the Seventeenth Dynasty, but the most
SETNAKHT (No. 14). This was to be the tomb of Queen Tausert, and the plan, important tombs are the Ramesside. The tomb of Queen Nefertari, wife of
which was complete with the usual corridor, a chamber, hall, antechamber, Ramses II, is famous for its magnificent paintings. The typical plan is a
sarcophagus chamber with eight pillars and four subsidiary rooms, and a simplified version of that of the tombs of the pharaohs, showing an antecham-
transverse chamber, was enlarged by the addition of a second sarcophagus ber and a sarcophagus chamber with two (tomb of Dwatenopet) or four
chamber identical to the first one, with a niche in its rear wall (fig. 213). pillars (tomb of Nefertari), and sometimes two subsidiary chambers, with
very short corridors between the chambers.
The decoration upon stucco has kept its brilliant colors and shows the
Twentieth Dynasty deceased in the presence of deities, or sacred cows and bulls, as well as chapters
from the Book of the Dead.
RAMSEs III (Na. n). This important tomb shows two main characteristics: the
entrance corridor has five niches for funerary furniture in either side wall, and
the axis is shifted to the side beyond this first part (fig. 213). The refined THE PRIVATE TOMBS
architectural treatment of the butt end is noteworthy: the corridor continues
for a certain length in its first direction and is then rounded off into some kind The tendency toward the general use of the rock-cut tomb, which had origi-
of semicircular niche, covered with a vault. The plan presents the usual nated at the end of the Old Kingdom and had developed in the Middle
sequence of chambers: chamber, hall with four pillars and a side chamber, two Kingdom, now reaches its height. The inadequacy of the isolated tomb with a
transverse rooms, a large sarcophagus chamber with eight pillars and four superstructure to be guarded against tomb robbers had long since been proved.
subsidiary rooms, and a short corridor leading into a rear chamber. Rock-cut tombs could only be entered through the front entrance and were
RAMSES V (usurped by Ramses VI; No. 9). The plan shows the complete not exposed to the harmful effects of atmospheric factors.
sequence of rooms set axially. In the sarcophagus chamber the four subsidiary The decentralization of rule in the early Middle Kingdom had led to a
rooms are lacking, but in the rear wall are cut one large central niche and four growth of provincial necropolises, consisting mostly of tombs of nomarchs cut
small ones. The scenes in sunk relief, which represent elements from the in the cliffs above their own city. It was only the establishment of a centralized
funerary books, are well preserved but are not so beautiful as those of the government at Thebes that could induce the grandees to make their last
Nineteenth Dynasty. resting-place in the Theban necropolis. The pharaohs had decided in favor of
 408 IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE
IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE 409
the western bank, and their courtiers followed. flanking the doorway, and frieze of cones and pyramid, can be pictured from
The type with the mastaba superstructure was maintained in flat country,
the numerous representations found in the tombs themselves. Directly con-
as at Abydos and Qaw. It occurred together with the isolated pyramid at nected to the broad hall, a long, of ten narrow, hall runs axially deep into the
'Aniba (Nubia). But the rock-cut tomb was universally favored even in pro- rock. At the rear of this deep hall is a small shrine or naos having at its back a
vincial necropolises (El Kab, Korn el Ahmar) and as far south as Lower niche for the statue of the deceased. This element, already known in the
Nubia (tomb of Nakhtmin) . Certain tombs have no superstructure and are
Middle Kingdom rock tomb, was the place where the funerary cults were
cut as undergroun d apartments (Gurob, Sedment) . The ephemeral 'Amarna performed and corresponds to the dining room or private apartment in the
era also favored rock chapels similar to those at Thebes. private house.
In the rock tombs there is no more need for the ingenious and sometimes
As in earlier tomb chapels the walls are covered with scenes, some in
extremely intricate architectural devices used against tomb robbers in the pyr- relief but most in painting, contributing to the double function: providing
amids of the Middle Kingdom. Some new devices occur, however, in royal accommoda tion for the mummy correlated to the funerary ritual performed,
tombs in the form of false pits and false chambers. Simple devices such as and provisioning the everlasting entity of the deceased so that he may relive
blocking the bottom of the shafts in undergroun d apartments are still current the best spells of his earthly life. The distribution of the two groups of scenes
at Abydos and 'Aniba. follows a certain pattern : worldly themes in the broad hall, and religious ones
in the deep hall and shrine. The tomb of Nakht (No. 52) from the reign of
Thutmose IV may be regarded as a specimen for the thematic distribution of
THEBES 448
scenes. On one entrance doorjamb the deceased stands, directed toward the
east, worshiping the rising sun, and on the opposite jamb he strides west
It was natural that the capital Thebes would have the most important necro-
praying to the setting sun. On the east wall of the broad hall, south of the
polis of that period. It lay opposite the city, on the western bank and fronting
entrance doorway, are scenes of the funerary banquet (Rekhmire', Amene-
the cliff. There the grandees prepared their eternal resting-places in the form
mopet), or work in the fields (Nakht) . On the same wall, north of the
of elaborate and well-decorated tombs and chapels cut in the rock. Com-
doorway, appear workshops with craftsmen in metals and chariots (Puy-
mon people were buried in modest graves amid the larger tombs, down
emre'), jewelry and carpentry (Nebamun and Ipuky), painting and carving,
to the valley. brewery and bakery, or ceramics and leatherwork .
Six main groups can be noticed in the necropolis: Dra' abul Naga,
On one end wall of the broad hall there is a false-door (Nakht; see
'Assassif, El Kokha, Sheikh 'Abd el Gurna, Qurnet Mar'i, and Deir el Medina,
color plate XIV), and on the opposite wall, a stela (' aba) with a biographi-
the cemetery of the artisans of the royal tombs. Most of !he tombs date from
cal inscription.
the Eighteenth to the Twentieth dynasties. On the west wall of the broad hall there appears on either side of the
The typical Theban tomb for private citizens, except at Deir el Medina,
door to the deep hall a scene of the pharaoh seated in state receiving the tribute
consists of a rock-cut chapel and an undergroun d chamber, much like the rock
brought by the various peoples of the Empire accurately depicted with their
tombs of the Middle Kingdom. ethnic characteristics and exotic garb (Puyemre') , or the pharaoh or the de-
The chapel reproduces the main elements of the contemporaneous house.
ceased supervising a troup parade (Userhat), or fishing and hunting scenes
At the rear of a court, partly cut in the rock on a square plan, a central
(Menna), or vine growing.
doorway opens onto a transverse hall imitating the "broad hall" ( wse khet) or
The religious wall scenes in the deep hall represent on the south the
hall of audience in the palace, or the reception room in the private house. The
pilgrimage to Abydos (Menna), the funeral and offering, and on the north the
external aspect of the superstructure of the tomb, with its portico, stelae
rite of "opening the mouth" of the mummy (Khons), the funerary repast, and
 410 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 411
occasionally hunt scenes (Kenamun). doorways opening in the nave and the two aisles, could have been to stress the
The walls of the shrine depict funerary rites and lists of offerings, except longitudinal axis ending at the main element of the chapel, which was the
for the west rear wall where the deceased is represented in painting or sculp- shrine at the rear. Such a purpose is obvious in the Middle Kingdom rock-cut
ture, accompanied by the deities of the necropolis. tombs where it had been carried out quite skillfully through several devices :
The ceilings ( color plate XV) are painted like those of the houses with the rows of columns on both sides of the longitudinal axis, the direction of the
geometric patterns of an extravagant richness featuring rosettes, quatrefoils, architraves parallel to the latter, and the central pathway sunk in the floor.
and spirals combining with the grids and zigzags derived from mat-, textile-, The imitation of features from the royal monuments was not limited to the use
or leatherwork within a frame of balks (Nakht). Doorways form other of columned porticoes (Hapuseneb, Ineny, Ahmose) or the pyramid, which
pretexts for painting elaborate frame and transom windows (Puyemre'; color had fallen into disuse in royal tombs since the end of the Middle Kingdom, but
plate XVI). was also reflected in the plan of a terrace at the rear of the court to which a
These colored murals covering all the walls and ceilings of a relatively stairway ascends (Amenhotep, Senmut, and his brother Senmen). This was
small chapel convey a forceful impression. Their style evolves in its design and doubtless inspired by the terraces in the temple of Queen Hatshepsut.
colors from registers of independent figures in a clear outline filled in with flat The underground apartment consists of one or more chambers beneath
spreads of bright colors on a light ground during the early Eighteenth Dy- the chapel, accessible through a ramp or a shaft opening in the court.
nasty, to a composition in groups of related figures in dazzling colors modeled
with hatching about the middle of the dynasty, and finally to a more refined
composition with emphasis on movement and third dimension in flamboyant Typical Examples of Private Tombs at Thebes (fig. 214)
colors on a whitish ground.
Murals of Ramesside tombs deal increasingly with themes of the Nether- REKHMIRE' (No. 100 ) . A central doorway opens in the fa~ade of the court into
world treated at first with a repertory of forms enriched from 'Amarna, but a broad shallow transverse hall, itself connected by a second doorway opposite
soon debased as to technique, design, and composition to an unsystematic the first with a deep narrow hall in the nature of a passage. Its ceiling is
composition with profuse detail on a dull yellow ground. sloping so that it attains a considerable height at the rear wall · and a niche
Several individual changes in the typical layout of the chapel occur from once blocked up with a granite false-door and containing the' statue, opens'
the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Dynasty. Large massive columns may carry about r8 feet [5.49 m. J above the floor. In the remarkable painted decoration,
the roof of both halls (Ra'mose, Serer), and a square room may be introduced Rekhmire' aimed at representing his various activities during his successful life
between the deep hall and the shrine (Tjoy), sometimes with columns as vizier under Thutmose III and Amenhotep II. In the transverse hall he is
( Serer). This square room with four pillars occasionally.. replaces the shrine, seen receiving petitions and tribute from foreign people from Punt Crete,
which is then reduced to one or more niches in the rear wall ( Sennufer), or to Nubia, Syria, and the South. In the deep hall he supervises the rec~of the
a naos (Huy, Userhat), while the deep hall is reduced to a short passageway or temple income, artisans, and builders, or sits eating a meal and listening to
even disappears. musicians and singers.
Later, during the Nineteenth Dynasty, this square room assumes again
the shape of the deep hall with pillars and a shrine opening at its back (Pesiur, RA'MosE (No. 55) . The plan is of the simple type, but both the broad hall and
Pennesuttawy, Nebunenef). Another new feature of the Nineteenth Dynasty deep hall have massive columns cut from the rock. In the broad hall sixteen
type is the setting of two side porticoes running along the sides of the court columns rise in four rows on either side of the central pathway, while eight
(Ipy, Tjoy). The purpose of such side porticoes, allied to that of the rows of papyriform bundle columns in two rows rise along the deep hall. At the end is
columns or pillars in the deep hall, sometimes enhanced by the series of a small unfinished room with a niche in each of the three walls. The decora-
100 55 48 Rll IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE 413

0 0 tion consists of scenes in beautiful low relief in the style of Amenhotep III and
0 0 other scenes in the realistic style initiated by Amenhotep IV (scenes of the
0 0
0 0 ~ pharaoh and queen at the window of appearance; mourning women). A shaft
descends from a corner of the broad hall to the sarcophagus chamber. Ra'mose
never finished this huge tomb and had another prepared near the new capital
0000 0000 of 'Amarna.
0000 0000 The central pathway flanked by rows of columns emphasizes the longitu-
0000 0000 dinal axis passing through the shrine ( cf. the design of Middle Kingdom
0000 0000 private rock tombs, Vol. II, p. 195).
SERER (No. 48). Architecturally, this is the most important private tomb at
Thebes and possibly in the whole of Egypt. It dates from the reign of Amen-
hotep III. Its plan features a squarish hall added between the deep hall and the
shrine. The broad hall has two rows of ten fluted columns each, while the deep
hall has two rows of ten bundle papyriform columns each. It is thus divided
into a vaulted nave and two aisles, each of the side walls having six niches. It is
D D D D noteworthy that three doorways open between the broad hall and the deep
hall, corresponding to the nave and the two aisles. The squarish hall also has
D D columns (24 in four rows) of the so-called tent-pole type, known only in the
D D Festival Hall of Thutmose III at Karnak, perhaps recalling some jubilee festival ~
of the pharaoh.
The rear chamber has two rows of three pillars, set in a line with the
columns in both the squarish and the deep hall. The emphasis on the longitu-
dinal axis is carried out by extensive use of rows of columns and the three sets
of doorways opening transversely in a line between the various halls, thus
affording an impressive perspective along the three axes.
CJ a
~
23 SENNUFER (No. 96). The Mayor of Thebes and Overseer of the gardens of
96 a -b Amun under Amenhotep II was the first to introduce a new feature in the
shape of a square hall with four pillars at the end of the deep hall. Three
niches open in the back wall while a small room is connected by a doorway
with the northeast corner of the square hall. The decoration represents the
40 gardens of Amenhotep II and the deceased in a pavilion with his brother, the
D C
Vizier Amenemopet.
D D
The substructure (96b) is reached through a steep stairway and consists
of a square antechamber and a square hall (four pillars) . The decoration is
extremely interesting, being characterized by the use of vine branches and

214. Plans of private tombs at Thebes West.

 414 IV : FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 415
grapes or network patterns to cover the ceiling left as undressed rock. Scenes DEIR EL MEDINA
represent the erection of obelisks, the pilgrimage to Abydos, and often the
deceased with his wife and daughter. Although located on the western bank of Thebes this cemetery contains tombs
AMENHOTEP CALLED Huy (No. 40). This Governor of Kush during the of a peculiar type, both as to the superstructure and the substructure. This type
reign of Tu'~nkhamun left a tomb that shows a further evolution in the plan. of program probably resulted from the social conditions prevailing in this
The broad hall is connected to the square hall with four pillars by a short settlement of artisans and builders, "Servants in the Place of Truth" as they
called themselves, in the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties.
passage, while the deep hall and the rear shrine have disappeared. A niche is
cut in the back wall. The decoration is interesting, with numerous scenes of Two very similar types of superstructures can be differentiated : a pyra-
mid chapel and a rock-cut chapel with pyramid.
Nubian chiefs, landscapes, tribute, a princess in a chariot drawn by oxen, vessels,
and the fortress of Paras. THE PYRAMID CHAPEL. On the outskirts of the valley or the lowest ranges of the
TJoY (No. 23). In the reign of Merneptah the Archivist Tjoy had a tomb cliff the typical chapel consists of a doorway and pylon, enclosed within some
built which embodied certain new features. The plan consists of a broad hall kind of funerary garden, such as is usually mentioned by the formula found at
with two subsidiary rooms opening in its rear wall, a deep hall, a rectangular that period in the Book of the Dead. The deceased expresses the wish: "that I
room evolved from the additional square hall, and a shrine with three half-
statues of Osiris, Isis, and Horns in its rear wall. The court shows also an
come in and go out of my tomb, that I drink water from my pond daily, that I
walk around my pond daily, that my soul may rest on the branches of the trees
that I have planted, that I may refresh myself under my sycamore-trees." 449
I
elaborate plan of a main portico with four massive pillars and antae along the
front fa;ade, and two side porticoes on a row of five columns along the_small Vignettes from the papyri show the soul on the branches of the tree or the
deceased walking around the pond.
sides. Side porticoes in the court had already appeared during the reign of
Ramses I, in the tomb of Ipy (No. 41), and formed a feature perhaps inspired At the back of the court on a leveled area of the rock or on a brick
podium rises a small brick pyramid with hollow interior roofed over by
from similar ones in the courts of the temples, aiming at emphasizing the
central axis. The decoration contains some important scenes, particularly in corbeling courses, with a steep angle of incline and a stone pyramidion, such as
the court: the royal chancery, the bandaging of mummies, and an ape attack- is commonly represented in contemporaneous Theban tomb scenes. On the
eastern face a stela is set in an arched niche.
ing a goose.
The interior of the superstructure consists of a vaulted chapel, the walls
NEBUNENEF (No. 157). The First Prophet of Amun in the time of Ramses II of which are decorated with paintings representing scenes of funeral ceremo-
prepared a beautiful tomb showing the new feature, common under the nies or the future life. In the rear wall a niche contains the statue of the
Ramessids, of a central row of twelve pillars running in •the broad hall. The deceased. The substructure, reached through a shaft or a stairway opening to
deep hall is divided into three aisles by two rows of six pillars and is connected the north of the court, consists of two or three rooms cut in the rock. The last
at its back to a rectangular chamber having a naos and two lateral cachettes. one, set at a lower level, is roofed over with a brick vault and its walls lined
AMENHOTEP (No . 73). This Chief Steward of Hatshepsut imitated in his tomb, with brick, plastered and painted with scenes of funeral ceremonies and
as did the famous architect Senmut (No. 71) and his brother Senmen (No. vignettes from the Book of the Dead. This contains the sarcophagi of the
family.
252), the terraces of the funerary temple of the queen at Deir el Bahari. A
terrace occupies the back of the court, and a central stairway leads to a short THE ROCK TOMB WITH PYRAMID. At the back of a court surrounded by a wall
passage opening into a broad hall with four columns and a shallow niche in the fas:ade of the tomb features a dressed rock wall, often shaded by a col-
the rear wall. umned portico crowned with a cavetto cornice. A small brick pyramid with
 416 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 360

hollow interior rises above the entrance doorway. A short corridor leads into a
transverse hall connected with a second smaller room. In the rear wall a niche
contains the statue or high-relief figure of the deceased.
The rooms of the superstructure, cut in the rock, form a more pretentious
program than that of the pyramid chapel, and are similar to that of tombs in A-B
Qurna.
The substructure is identical with that of the pyramid-chapel type but is
usually accessible through a shaft opening in the rear room.
359

Typical Tombs at Deir el Medina

PYRAMID CHAPEL AND TOMB OF THE ARCHITECT ANHORKHAWY (No . 359).450 This
tomb is closely connected to those of Qaha (No. 360) and Huy (No. 361), as
their chapels are contiguous and their substructures intersect. The three chap-
els are set on a line N.E.-S.W. and each has a court to the east on a common
artificial terrace surrounded by a stone retaining wall. They belong to three
members of the same family: Huy (No. 361), his son Qaha (No. 36o), who
seems to be responsible for the building of chapel No. 359, and his grandson
Anhorkhawy (No. 359). The last-named possesses a second tomb which he
prepared after he had already finished the substructure in the grounds belong-
ing to the family, presumably after being appointed to a higher post under
Ramses III.
The earliest chapel, that of Huy (No. 361), is also the smallest. It consists
of a pyramid rising from the ground and enclosing a narrow vaulted room,
opening to the east and containing a stela on the western rear wall. The walls
are painted with scenes (figs. 215, 216).
The chapel of Qaha (No. 360), contiguous to the south wall of that of
Huy, is in the form of a pyramid rising from a high base, embodying the
vaulted hall (4.1 x2.05 m.), opening east through a doorway and two small
windows. Two stelae probably flanked the doorway. The chapel is in brick-

<
work, except for its western wall which serves as a retaining wall to the rock
cliff and the pyramid above, which was also in stone (5 x 7 m. high) and had
a niche in its eastern face containing a statue of Qaha kneeling and holding a
stela in front of him. The walls of the hall were decorated with painted scenes
of daily life (construction of a boat, gathering flax), or of a religious and
o.___..__.___.~...___._~~~~~--'10 m

215. Plans and sections of tombs Nos. 359 and 360 at Deir el Medina.

-
 IV: FUNERARY ARCHIT ECTURE 419
funerary nature. A naos cut deeply into the cliff in the main axis contained a
stela and was decorated with funerary scenes. The plan is of the Theban type.
The chapel (No. 359), to the north of that of Huy, has a portico on three
pillars with antae and two rooms opening at its rear. Two large stelae in
painted limestone, one having a shelf on two front pillars, were set on the rear
wall of the portico. No shrine or naos can be recognized in either room, but in
the largest one a shaft opens to the tomb of Anhorkha wy.
The undergrou nd apartments are on an irregular plan. A vertical shaft
opening in the court or in a room (No. 359) descends for 3- 4 meters to a
corridor leading into a vaulted room, connected by a few steps with a second
one cut at a lower level. In the tomb of Anhorkha wy a third room is connected
by a stairway with the second. All the rooms are lined with brick walls and
covered with vaults ( 1 brick thick) . A mud mortar covered with plaster and
painted forms the finishing of the walls. The tomb of Qaha had been burned,
but that of Anhorkha wy shows a well-preserved magnificent painting. No
fewer than eight panels decorating the vaults have different patterns, some
showing Cretan influences . The scenes represent the deceased and his wife
adoring various deities, and a group of deified pharaohs and queens sailing to
Elephantine, at a game of chess, receiving various offerings or mcense, or
listening to the songs of a harper.

THE ROCK-CUT CHAPEL AND TOMB (No. 217) .451 A court surrounded by a rough
wall precedes the fa\'.ade of the chapel hewn in the rock. A stela was set on the
south side of the entrance doorway. The chapel is not axial with the court and
consists of three rooms laid out on an axis perpendicular to the fa\'.ade (figs.
217, 218) . The walls and vaults were lined with brick, plastered and white-
washed. No trace of painting was found. In the rear wall of the third chamber,
set transversely to the axis of the entrance, a small niche is cut at some height
359
( o.86 m.) above the Roar. It seems that a shaft opened in the southwest corner
of the Boor.
A pyramid rose above the portico in front of the fa\'.ade.
The substructure features nine chambers, probably the result of two or
three burial apartments connected at some later date.

THE VOTIVE CHAPELS. 452 About twenty chapels, built as independent structures
in brick or stone, opening east or south, were found in one group. They
21 6. Plans, sections, and restored perspective of the superstructures of tombs Nos. 359 and
360.
420 IV: FUNER ARY ARCH ITECT URE IV: FUNER ARY ARCH ITECT URE 421
present a strange resemblance to the votive chapels at 'Amarn a. It seems,
~ROCK-CUT CHAP[l
.. .J'~ - .
however, that most of the chapels at Deir el Medina date from the Ninetee
-
I nth
'- :· and Twenti eth dynasties and were dedicated to the cult of popular deities such
- .... ,...-... i,'
I
I as Taurt, the goddess of woman hood, Meryt Seger, the goddess of the Theban
I
I Mounta in, and the deified Amenh otep I.
,'COURT
The chapel consists of one or two courts, sometimes with a portico at the
back support ed on column s or pillars, and a sanctuary composed of a pronaos
and one or more naoi, to which ascends a stairway. The facrade of these rooms
is of the open type: column s or pillars with screen walls crowne d with
a
cornice. Purification basins of various forms in stone or brick were set in
the
wall of the court in front of the sanctuary. A row of brick benches lined
the
second court. Priests' dwellings and magazi nes stood near the chapels.
They were constructed in stone or brick, whitew ashed in the court and
portico but decorated with paintin gs in the sanctuary. Column s were of wood
21 7. Plan of the substruc ture of tomb No. 217 at Deir el Medina.
or brick, upon stone bases. Vaults were in brick and flat ceilings in wood
and
mats. Stairways were either in stone or brick, while a layer of ramme d earth,
218. Plan and section of the rock-cut chapel No. 217. sometimes covered with stucco colored red, formed the floor.

VonvE CHAPEL (Na. 1213).453 The brickwo rk structur e abuttin g on the cliff
1\ is
I \ directed S.-N. and consists of a court with benches (east and west) and
I
I \
\
a
I \ raised sanctuary with open facrade on two column s which contains three
\
\
contiguous shrines (fig. 219). On both sides of the stairway ascending to
\ 1- -l the
- - -'-;1
~ II 'I
- -1 I I ~
,. - - ~ ... - - - - - - - - - - - ,- i
1 I I .-~· 219. Plan and restored perspective of the votive chapel No.
: I f~
1213 at Deir el Medina.
I: 1\
I I
I

I I
L--'
COURT
SHP.FT
BASIN Ql
o_ _,____,____.,__....._.....s m
 422 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 423
sanctuary were two large jars, perhaps for ablution water or trees. The naoi
were raised on a platform, and one might have been dedicated to Taurt, the
hippopotamus goddess so important in the popular religion at that time. It is
surmised that a pyramid surmounted the central part of the portico.

'AMARNA 454

A necropolis of courtiers' tombs cut in the encircling cliffs adjoined the

ephemeral capital of 'Amarna. Apart from the Theban necropolis this is the
only New Kingdom agglomeration of tombs (numbering 25) that can be
called a necropolis. Some of the most important personages who had already
begun to prepare their tombs at Thebes caused new ones to be cut at 'Amarna.
Many of the tombs, however, were left unfinished when Tut'ankhamun re-
turned to Thebes. Two of these (Nos. 12, 13) show the method followed by
the rock-cutters.
The tombs are grouped in two stretches of the curved escarpment border-
ing the 'Amarna plain, at the beginning of two mountain tracks, to the north
and to the southeast ( 22 tombs). A few tombs, on e of them being the royal
tomb, lie in a ravine to the east.

General Description

The type of tomb is very similar to that at Thebes during the Eighteenth
Dynasty. A court, surrounded on three sides by a brick wall, fronts the
rock-cut entrance fa<rade of the tomb. The cruciform plan has a deep hall
preceding the broad hall (Nos. 3, 5, II), both more or less rectangular with
rows of columns (pl. 63). The true Theban plan, where the broad hall
precedes the deep hall, occurs twice (Nos. 8, 9). In nearly all the tombs a deep
statue-niche is cut in the axis in the rear wall. It is sometimes replaced by a
simple niche. On one side of the first or second hall a shaft or stairway opens in
the floor and leads down to the burial chamber. Many of the tombs were left
unfinished.
The decoration of the tombs consists of scenes in sunk relief. But whereas
the Theban scenes show activities of the owners, those at 'Amarna are always
Plate 63. Rock tomb of Ay at 'Amarna.
 424 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE

D ~
~
~
~
....

0..
blJ

"QJ
u
4-;
0
c:
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-0
"'v
,,;.
"'@
..c:
c:0
4-;
....
I

I
I
I I
I .s
c:

KD ;~;)'
I
I 8;:l
'I I I I 0u
I I I I
I I
-~~ L-'
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L, I 1'- I I ..c:
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0 L, I I
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220. Plan and section of the rock-cut chapel of Ahmose at 'Amarna.

.-
I
I
I ;.-. .-: -+
I I 0
.,......!...._:..--,.---r-....;~'i-----,,-..---- .g
c:
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in conjunction with Pharaoh, the master of the owners and the prophet of the 11
J
'1 I E
~ ~ <1l
new religion. The scenes accordingly feature the Aten and Pharaoh 455 as the 'L. - - _/ ....<1lc:
central personages about whom everything revolves. 8
~
~
<1l
;>-.
..c:"'v
Typical Examples of Tombs at 'Amarna c:
<1l
p...
4-;
0
THE FAN-BEARER AHMOSE (No. 3).456 The symmetrical plan is quite simple, ~

cruciform, laid out very accurately and consisting of a deep, corridor-like hall 6
0
connected to a broad hall containing a statue-shrine. This is one of the earliest E-<
,..;
tombs of the group (Year 9). The roof of the deep hall is vaulted at the <'I
<'I

beginning but flattens out to a ceiling at the end. On the walls of this hall are

0
 426 IV : FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE IV: FUNERAR Y ARCHITE CTURE 427
scenes showing a royal visit to the temple, with an escort of armed mixed
troops and the royal family at a banquet in the hall of the palace.
A short passage leads into the broad hall with a shaft opening at either
end, surmounted by a door-shaped stela carved in the eastern and western
walls (fig. 220). The shrine opens through a doorway with rows of uraei above
the transom. The statue, cut in the rear wall, represents Ahmose seated. A
libation basin had been cut in the Boor in front of it. The roof is vaulted. A
door with two leaves closed the shrine. It is noteworthy that the side wall of
the shrine is a perfect square and that the harmonic analysis reveals a real
mastery in the design.
PANEHSY, PRIEST AND SUPERINTENDENT OF THE GRANARY OF THE ATEN (No.
6) _4 57 The two halls are rectangular, nearly of the same dimensions. This plan
seems to have been used as a model for the unfinished tomb of Meryre'. The
front hall, irregular in plan, has four bundle papyriform columns carrying
architraves parallel to the main axis. The column is squat and the eight
original bundles break above the sheathing leaves into thirty-two stems. A
blank unsculptured area at mid-height of the shaft was filled with the names
of Pharaoh and a representation of the unification of both South and North
kingdoms. The decoration of the hall shows sculptured scenes, once brilliantly
/~._ ""' I
colored, representing among others Panehsy rewarded with gold necklaces by
Pharaoh from the window of appearance in the palace, the royal family present-
@ Q/&' @ ing offerings at an altar in the temple of the Aten, and the royal family driving
out (fig. 221) .
The inner hall, similar to the front hall, has four bundle papyriform
columns. A stairway of forty-three steps descends from the Boor, turns sharply,
and continues as a spiral to the burial cachette under the shrine. Curved
stairways are also known from other tombs (No. 9) and in wells at 'Amarna.
The shrine opening in the center of the rear wall contained a seated
222. Plan, section, and detail of column from the tomb of Tutu at 'Amarna.
statue and was inscribed. The tomb was transformed by the Copts into a
church, with considerable alterations carried out in the front hall.

THE CHIEF SERVANT TuTu (No . 8) .458 The plan of this tomb is of the usual
Theban type, with a broad hall and a deep corridor-like chamber. The broad
hall has two rows of six columns each, set transversely to the entrance axis, and
antae pilasters at both ends. The papyriform columns were decorated with
 428 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE 429

D D

D D

@ D D

223. Plan of the chapel of the tomb of Nefersekheru at Korn el Ahmar.

bands inspired from jewelry design, perhaps in imitation of the fai:ence inlay 224. Plan of the chapel of Tutu at Deir Rifa.
in the columns of the palace.
The third innermost N.-S. aisle, the floor of which is slightly raised, is
screened off by a low corniced wall decorated with scenes of the worship of the . In the side wall of the court is a chapel featuring a naos with an ape in a
Aten which runs between the columns, except for the central passage. A ~1Ch:. Th~ decoration of the walls shows the usual funeral scenes: mummy on
stairway starting at the northern columns descends in two flights to a small its bier with mourning processions, view of tomb, bearers bringing offerings
chamber, from which it turns again at a right angle to a rough excavation (fig. and funerary equipment, and funeral feast.
222).
The decoration shows the stereotyped scene of the rewarding by Pharaoh
and his wife, seated in the courtyard of the palace or standing at the window z a 4so
D ezr· R·f
of appearance. The corridor was left unfinished.
Besides the rock tombs from the Middle Kingdom at Deir Rifa there are a few
tombs of grandees from the New Kingdom.
PROVINCIAL CEMETERIES
TuTu. The King's Son Tutu, Commander of the Troops, had a tomb cut on
Kamel Ahmar (near Minya): Tomb of Nefersekheru 459 the same plan as those of the Middle Kingdom. It is similar to the tomb of
Khne_mu'a. :wo feat.ures a~e new, however: the entrance passage is longer
than 1t was m the ne1ghbonng tombs from the Middle Kingdom and resem-
The Royal Scribe and Great Steward Nefersekheru (Nineteenth Dynasty)
caused a tomb to be cut at Korn el Ahmar, in the vicinity of the rock-cut tombs bles that.of the Theban tombs; and there is no niche in the rear wall. This may
of the Old Kingdom. Its plan resembles that of the latter type, with a square be explamed by the fact that the niche developed into the shrine which is
hall separated from an inner transverse room by two pillars to which corre- quite small, while the outer hall assumed the shape of the wide' and long
passage (fig. 224).
spond two pilasters (fig. 223). Three niches with statues open in the rear wall.
 2== = ==

Q __p ~·
IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE __ ____: L::J :
~-
430
rHi----,'

Nag' el Mashayekh (north of Abydos) 461

----~ ---J
! _ _ _ __ , I

'------

The Overseer of the prophets, Inhertmosi (reign of Merneptah), left a rock ~

tomb of the type encountered at Deir Rifa or Thebes (No. 178). The outer
hall, set transversely, has four pillars supporting two architraves running
parallel to the longitudinal axis (as in the Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni
Hassan or the New Kingdom tombs at Thebes), and a niche in the center of
each of the side walls. The chapel, in which the shaft to the underground
apartment opens, has two niches in the rear wall.

El 'Amra (Abydos) 462

I '
._, rJ

This is one of the few New Kingdom cemeteries having tombs of the mastaba

~
I '
I I
LJ
type. The brick superstructure (Eighteenth Dynasty) has an elaborate plan,
sometimes resembling that of small temples. Some mastabas, however, are
quite simple, with a court and a room at its rear, connected by three doorways 4,___
3 _ ___,
(D. 9).
In the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties the simple type is still used 225. Plans of chapels D. 9 (1 ), D. 8 (2), D. 24 (3) at El 'Amra.
unchanged, or with the back chamber divided into three contiguous shrines. A
massive block of brickwork, sometimes embodying a small cachette (D. 28) , is
added on the outside at the back of the central shrine. with four courts separated by thick transverse walls. In the middle of the last
The shaft, bricked to within 4-5 feet of its depth, opens its rectangular court the pit opens transverse! y (fig. 225 :2). At the rear of this court three
mouth in the middle of the court and leads down to the burial apartment. This arched doorways lead onto a transverse chamber. Behind the central doorway
consists of four or five rooms on an irregular plan. In some tombs a stone slab the pavement level is higher by one brick, probably as a coping around the
was let down from above and blocked the doorway to the funerary apartment, place of offering.
being kept in position by two grooved stone blocks (D. 5G, I I). The shaft opening is bordered with a wall rising above the desert level
and surrounded by another lower wall. The funerary apartment consists of
TYPICAL ExAMPLEs : EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY SIMPLE TYPE: D. 9. A rectangular two rooms at either end of the shaft and connected by a passage adjacent to the
brick enclosure with a court entered from a central doorway has at its back a shaft wall.
long transverse room, probably vaulted, in which three arched doorways open.
The rectangular shaft opens transversely in the middle of the court and leads NINETEENTH-TWENTIETH DYNASTIES: D. 24. The plan is rectangular and con-
down to a chamber on either side (fig. 225 :I) . The largest contains two pillars sists of three courts having three contiguous vaulted shrines at the rear (fig.
cut from the rock, and its pavement is higher at its rear. It is connected with a 225:3). In the back wall of each shrine a niche containing a stela opens. In
small recess for a sarcophagus let into the floor. front of the court stretches a transverse forecourt with a brick pavement (7 in.
[ o.18m.] high) before the entrance door. The shaft opens in a corner of the
LARGER TYPE: D. 8. This assumes the pretentious rectangular plan of a temple, court and leads down into a small chamber at either end.
 2

432 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE

El 'Araba (Abydos) 463

These tombs are also of the mastaba type, with a shaft leading down to a
substructure, either cut or built in the subsoil under the chapel. Rooms are
roofed over with vaults (E. rn). The superstructure has evolved from the ---------i
simple Middle Kingdom type into three rooms roofed over with vaults.
The substructure can be extremely elaborate, with vaulted rooms built in
brick in three stories (Anhorauf'ankh, Twenty-Second Dynasty).
TYPICAL EXAMPLES: E. rn (EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY). This consists of two contig-
uous structures, one with two vaulted rooms and the second with three,
ftn=l II
surrounding a shaft.
KHNUMY AND M1NMOSE (NINETEENTH DYNASTY). The substructure, reached
through a vertical shaft lined with brick, consists of a first chamber connected
to a second one, from which a passage leads at right angles to the first direction
into an antechamber (fig. 226). In its rear wall are the openings to the burial
3
0
0
chamber containing a sarcophagus and to the sloping constructional passage
ascending to ground level. This last feature, already known in archaic masta-
bas, recurs here after having been used only sporadically in the Middle King-
dom (Qatta, Lisht; cf. Vol. II, pp. 170-'177).

Esna -·
'- ---- --r..,•---- _,,-,_ --- -~ ..!·
.-- - 1
1 : I I :
/
/ : I I: I
In the cemetery 4 kilometers northwest of Esna there are tombs of an unusual /
/ 1
I
I I
I
I

type dating from the Twentieth Dynasty. 464 They are similar to one another in --- - ------, ..... / I I
I I
I I
the shape of a two-storied superstructure in mud brick q.80 meters square, ' I I

7.80 meters high, oriented to the cardinal points, accessibre from a doorway in '' I I
I I
'' I I
the east side of the first floor. A staircase starting in the vicinity of the doorway '' I I
'' I I
descends in the northeast corner in three counterclockwise flights passing a ''
I I
I I

northwest chamber to a room on the lower floor sunk about 2 meters below : I

ground level. The main burial chamber opens axially to the rear, is lined
with stone and roofed with a stone ceiling above which rises a brick vault
similar to those in the other chambers. Two recesses in the floor provided for
stone sarcophagi. Traces of sacrifices of oxen, goats, and rams before a stone 2 26. Tombs at EI 'Araba: r, plan and section of a tomb from the Eighteenth Dynasty· 2
slab carved in high relief with the head of the cow of Hathor and gilded plan ~f a tomb ~rom the Eighteenth Dynasty; 3, plan and section of the substruct~r~
of Mmmose (Nmeteenth Dynasty).
pointed to a funerary cult to Hathor as described in the inscription "An
 434 IV: FUNER ARY ARCHI TECTU RE IV: FUNER ARY ARCHI TECTU RE 435

L Z5 I
flRIT FlOOR

J
2 J

228. Rock tombs of Ahmose Pennekhe bet (2), Ahmose son of Ibana (5), and Paheri (3 ) at
El Kab.

New Kingdom . The latter are on a sm all plan, already met with in the tomb
of Sebekna kht (Elevent h Dynasty ), and con sist of a deep hall (N.-S.) with
GROUN p PlAN an adjacent small room in the floor of which a shaft opens. This room is set at
227. Plans of two tomb shrines (E. 250, E. 251) from the Twentieth Dynasty at Esna, and a right angle to the main hall and opens from a door at the end of the east
detail of the slab representi ng the cow of Hathor, and a pointed arch. wall. The decoratio n in fine colored low relief shows scenes from the lives of
the deceased .
offering to Hathor, Lady of Ta Djeser, and to Meryt Seger, Mistress of the TYPICAL EXAMPLES: AHMOSE PENNEKHEBET (FROM THE REIGN OF AHMOSE TO
West." The scene in sunken low relief dated by the cartouche to Ramses IV THAT OF HATSHEPSUT). This is a single vaulted deep hall (S.-N .), whose walls
represents the deceased and his wife drinking from two streams on either side were covered with fine reliefs (fig. 228 :2) .
of the muzzle of the cow (fig. 227). As to construction this type of tomb shrine
AHMOSE soN OF lBANA (REIGN OF AHMOSE To T HuTMOSE I) . This tomb was
at Esna exemplifies the early use of the pointed arch and vault, truly an
prepared for Admiral Ahmose, who was instrume ntal in the liberation of
Egyptian invention.
Egypt from the Hyksos, by his grandson the Painter Paheri. The fa~ade on the
This unique type of superstru cture combini ng tomb and chapel is impor-
court has a central doorway opening into a large hall connected by a door at
tant because it imitates the typical multisto ried house of the Empire ( cf. house
the end of the east wall to a small room, in the floor of which the shaft opens
of Thutnef er, see fig. 1), as maintain ed in the Late and Greco-R oman periods
( cf. houses at Medinet Habu) 465 when it serves also as mortuary chapels and (fig. 228 :5).

tombs at Hermup o11s w

. est.466 PAHERI (EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY) . This tomb of the Nomarc h Paheri from the
reign of Thutmos e III is the largest of this group ; its plan is developed from
that of h is grandfat her Ahmose (fig. 228 :3). In the rear wall of the vaulted
El Kab 461 hall the statues of the deceased, his wife, and his mother are set in a deep
recess. The door in the east wall leads to an antecham ber having a shaft and
The small rock tombs date from the Middle Kingdom or the beginnin g of the two side rooms. Scenes with well-preserved colors represent daily life.
 ,.

436 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECT URE

Hierakonpolis (Arabic: Kamel Ahmar)

A few of the rock tombs date from the New Kingdom and are either of the
simple type, with a deep hall (E.-W.), a deep recess in the rear, and a side
chamber (Djehut), or of the Theban type (Harmose).
HARMOSE (REIGN OF THUTMOSE III). Harmose, High Priest of Nekhen, built a
tomb on a symmetrical plan, with a transverse broad hall, a deep hall
(E.-W.), and a deep recess in the back wall containing his statue and that of - - -u-

his wife. (
CJ

CJ '
'Aniba (Egyptian: Mi'm) 468
' ·- ---- ''
L------- ---' '
-- - J

--i=r=._~~1..::i.__1~11~---=-
4~s=-m is -
-:. _ __JI
Two forms of superstructures can be differentiated in the New Kingdom
0
necropolis at 'Aniba (Nubia): chapels in the shape of vaulted houses
(Twelfth- Eighteenth Dynasty) and pyramids (Nineteenth- Twentieth Dy- tW-1=:::::::::11 ~ ::<
1!!
nasty), the latter being probably influenced by Thebes.
A vertical shaft or stairway descends from this superstructure to the 229. Plans and sections of tombs Nos. 3 and 5 at 'Aniba.
burial apartment.
CHAPEL TYPE I. The superstructure in the form of a house has a rectangular 230. Plan, sections, and restored axonometric view of tomb No. 66 at 'Aniba.
room ( 2.0-2.9 x 2.5- rn.o m.), roofed over with a barrel or catenary vault,
abutting on a rectangular wall at both ends. A door opens in the east wall, often
preceded by a portico. The mouth of the shaft opens in the brick floor. In front
of the structure is a rectangular court, wider than the room and surrounded by
a wall. The court may surround the structure and form a narrow passage ( S. 5,
I 3; fig. 229). Two or four pillars in two rows on bo.th sides of a central

pathway in the court probably supported a pergola, imitating rows of columns

along the processional ways in the large temples of the New Kingdom (Luxor,
Mut at Karnak). /·--- ---rt-7-===:::=::;----,
One superstructure (S. 66) even has a broad hall set in between the court
·t L
1 1 J I
I
'~-- 1- ~~-L.~----
and the chapel, which reminds one of the typical plan of the house imitated in
the Theban rock-cut tomb chapels (52, 53, 56, rno) (fig. 230).
A similar superstructure of the simplest type occurs also in the Eight-
' --8·------·-,
,-----
\
-~-----

:_ _- i
L-- -- --1 I
I
eenth Dynasty tombs at Buhen.469
r---1----- ---1 ·---:..
- -

I
I
r
-
I

.___ _ __,~

" - - - - - - - - J ' " -I - J

I

,_I I
....... ... I
-.J
 1
r----- -- - - - - -
I
I
438 IV : FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE I
I
I
I

CHAPEL TYPE II. A brick pyramid (S. A 35 : 7.7 x 7.9 m., 8.4 m. high) with an

I
angle of incline of 60 °, crowned with a sandstone pyramidion, stands on a
brick or stone square platform ( 0.5 m . high) . A vaulted room is built inside,
accessible through a door in the east face ( S. A 35: 2.6 x 3.7 m .). In the west
wall one to three niches contain stelae or offering-tables. Walls are decorated ~-~
I I

with paintings of religious scenes (as at Deir el Medina and Dra' abul N aga) I
I
I
I I
1--- - --~~~----
I
I
and the vault, with a vine or mat pattern. I
I
I
I
The mouth of the shaft ( I.9-3·3 m. deep) opens in the court preceding

0
I

the pyramid, and is blocked with stone slabs laid on a groove and is plastered
over to conceal it.
The burial chambers are accessible through a doorway from the bottom
of the shaft and are hewn with horizontal ceilings and floors, undecorated
walls, sometimes with one or two pillars, with abacus left to support the roof
(fig. 231) . The doorway to the burial apartment can be blocked up by a
portcullis sliding down in grooves (S. 75) , or simply with a stone slab.
Devices to guard against tomb robberies consisted of false bottoms in
shafts (S. 91), the blocking of the subsidiary burial chambers (S. 66) , and a
burial chamber set under the stairway (S. 3).

RocK TOMB OF PENNUT (RAMSES VI) .470 This consists of a transverse hall 23r. Plan, restored elevation, and two axonometric views of chapels S. A 35, and
axonometric view of S. 56 at 'Aniba.
( 6.5 x 2.8 m.) with colored low reliefs (earthly scenes on the east; underworld
on the west) . A shaft opens in the middle of the floor just in front of a deep
recess in the rear wall, in which three statues are cut. 232. Plan of the catacombs for animals at Dendera (Eighteenth Dynasty), and sketch of a
blue-glazed pottery stand in the shape of a papyriform column from a shrine.
CATACOMBS OF ANIMALS (EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY, DENDERA) .471 To the southwest
of the cemetery from the Old Kingdom at Dendera, catacombs are dug for the
burial of animals of sacred species (fig. 232) . Mumfi2ies of gazelles, cats,
ichneumons, birds, and snakes were found there. Petrie suggested a date of
the Eighteenth Dynasty, in view of the cult objects found dumped from the
temple into the catacombs.
The catacombs are in the shape of an underground vaulted gallery
r
(E.-W.) of brick built at the bottom of an excavation and covered with gravel
and sand. Along the south wall are seven adjacent chambers separated by
partition walls. The entrance doorway opens east. Later, a second gallery
stretched northward and was flanked with rooms on both sides (Twenty-
Second-Twenty-Third dynasties) . The floor was unpaved.
 440 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 441
Among the interesting objects found here are some blue glazed pottery almost entirely earlier ingenious devices, such as portcullises and the dou-
stands in the shape of papyrus stems of triangular section on a cruciform bling-back layout, which had formed such marked characteristics of the pyr-
base,472 a type of ceremonial stand later worked in bronze by the Etruscans and amids and tombs in the Middle Kingdom. The tombs of the nobles are on a
the Romans.473 symmetrical plan, featuring the two essential elements of domestic architec-
ture : the broad hall and the deep hall. The tombs of the pharaohs, however,
are not laid out symmetrically, but their long corridors turn right and later left
THE ACHIEVEMENT OF FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE beyond the false shaft, in an attempt, probably futile, to delude the robbers by
concealing the doorway to the apartment opening on the farther side of the
The characteristic feature of funerary architecture in the New Kingdom is the false shaft, under a layer of painted plaster. The futility of this shrewd plan
preponderance of rock-cut tombs. Already in the Middle Kingdom there had must have soon been proved, as all royal tombs became strictly symmetrical in
been a marked development in the use of rock-cut tombs, probably a result of the shape of a long straight corridor where the sun's rays could penetrate, at
the new trend initiated by the nomarchs who preferred to be buried in the cliffs least in the outermost section. This important change dates from Akhenaten's
above their city. It seems that the type appealed to pharaohs as well as to tomb at 'Amarna.
private citizens, not for the same reason of individual freedom as during the The decoration of a royal tomb was strictly of religious character with
Middle Kingdom, but rather for security against tomb robbers. The violation texts and innumerable representations of deities and genii. The tombs of the
of the tombs, which had occurred ever since the First Intermediate Period, had nobles followed more or less the same pattern as those of the Old Kingdom,
become a permanent danger on account of the regular activity of robbers with scenes usually in painting only.
helped by corrupt officials. It has been surmised that this sad state of affairs, Besides this new type another one, already found in the Middle King-
pointing to social degeneration, was well established after the religious reform dom, was still in use. Here the funerary chapel formed part of the superstruc-
of Akhenaten, or even before. ture from which a well was sunk to a burial chamber, a program already
The unfavorable picture of tomb robberies drawn by the official records is appearing in the Old Kingdom. The pyramid, which had been discarded by
counterbalanced to a certain extent by the records of pharaohs (Ramses III) the pharaohs, was added above the columned porch or portico already front-
stating that they left the earlier tombs undisturbed when they had to build in ing Middle Kingdom private tombs. That architects did not innovate this
their vicinity. Such a pious respect for earlier buildings is also expressed by the second type of tomb is probably an effect of social conditions influenced by
royal inscriptions and the layout of those temples where a new building had to tradition. Such is the aspect of the typical tomb at Deir el Medina, the
embody or abut on an earlier sanctuary. settlement of "The Servants in the Place of Truth." These artisans of the royal
Accordingly, architects devised for pharaohs and. nobles long narrow necropolis could have hewn their tombs in the cliffs surrounding their valley,
corridors that extended deeply into the cliffs of the hills on the west of Thebes. but they seem to have preferred the old type of tomb consecrated by tradition,
A valley portal and a valley temple were built in front of, but not directly adding to its superstructure the pyramid, once a royal prerogative, and occa-
connected to, these tombs- both elements being remnants from the layout of sionally engaging part of the tomb in the rock. The typical tomb layout must
the mortuary temples in the Old Kingdom. The tombs had no other means of have embodied a funerary garden on a waterway. Archaic traditional survivals
access than one doorway, blocked with masonry and carefully concealed. This are still encountered, such as constructional sloping corridors (Mastaba of
new type of tomb shows certain elements already used in the Middle King- Khnumy and Minmose at 'Araba, Nineteenth Dynasty), besides the usual
dom, such as false burial chambers and false corridors and shafts. The ap- features (battered walls, cornice, torus) . A minor element that seems to have
proach to the treatment of the program was quite new, being based primarily been attested until now only in New Kingdom tomb superstructures is one or
on hiding the only entrance doorway to a rock-cut apartment and disregarding more rows of cones set at the top of the fac;:ade of the chapel, probably

1l_
 442 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 443
('
representing the stylized ends of the reeds that roofed archaic huts. Such an
element is met with in Babylonian terraces.
Symbolism, which played so prominent a role in religious architecture,
also marked funerary architecture. It is difficult to account for the disappear-
ance of the pyramid from the mortuary complex, although the royal tomb still
displays Osirian as well as sun symbols. It has been surmised, quite plausibly,
that the pyramid did not really disappear from royal tombs but was symboli-
cally replaced by the pyramid-shaped apex of El Qurn (Egyptian "The
Front"), which surmounts the mountainous range containing the royal tombs.
In the tomb itself two elements might show some influence of symbolism. The
sarcophagus chambers of Thutmose I and III are on an oval-shaped plan,
perhaps symbolizing the oval shape of the world as pictured by Egyptian texts.
The outer part of the corridor of a royal tomb is open to the sun's rays,
probably representing the course of the sun, an explanation corroborated by its
name "Corridor of the Way of (the sun god) Shu." The lavish use of gold is
certainly connected with its symbolical implication regarding the life of the
deceased in the Netherworld.
In construction a few innovations can be detected. The paintings in
private tombs often show a picture of a house owned by the deceased, and
from those representations much information about the technical achievement
of the architectural draftsman can be derived. Many of the conventions still
used today were already known : hatching, scale, double lines for walls in
section, axis of symmetry (drawing of the tomb of Ramses IX). Although the
Plate 64. Capital of a bud column from a rock tomb at 'Amarna ; the column to the rear
notion of scale in the documents available does not seem to be rigorous, it is no was left unfinished.
mere coincidence that in the few cases where the tombs represented do exist,
the dimensions marked out on the Egyptian plans correspond to a large extent
(tombs of Amenhotep I, Ramses IV and IX). This enhq,nces the reliability of
Egyptian architectural drawings. (Of course, the actual technical plans, proba-
bly on papyrus, have long disappeared.)
Regarding elements and methods of construction, the use of domes to
cover tomb chapels, already ascertained in the Old Kingdom, seems to be
general. A spiral staircase descends to the lower burial chambers in 'Amarna
tombs and wells. Walls hewn in the rock, often of poor quality, are plastered
over with clay and lime, a process apparently invented by Ineny, who used it
for the first time in the tomb of Thutmose I.

ll
 444 IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE IV: FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE 445
One would think that funerary architecture in the New Kingdom could
not achieve monumentality since the tombs were concealed. Yet their interior
does so, to a certain extent, and the style is impressive by virtue of the scale,
though usually quite simple as regards elements and decoration. Private tombs
imitate royal ones, and we find in the superstructures of those of Senmut,
Semen, and Amenhotep a terraced layout recalling that of Hatshepsut's mor-
tuary temple. Supports for the rock ceiling are in the shape of pillars, although
columns occur (pl. 64), occasionally with screen walls running between them
(tomb of Tutu at 'Amarna) - a treatment also used in peripteral temples and
domestic architecture.
Shifts in the plan of the corridor are sometimes dealt with most ingen-
ious! y: in the tomb of Ramses III a vaulted niche, semicircular in plan, forms
the butt end of the first section of the corridor, a planning device characteristic
of Renaissance architecture about three millennia later. Su~erstructures of pri-
vate tombs featuring a pyramid are well balanced, and the mass of the rather
pointed pyramid is adequately set upon a step or a rectangular fa\=ade, some-
times fronted by a columned portico.
In the decoration an extensive use is made of painting for mural scenes as
a substitute for low relief. Colar is no longer used in Bat spread only but in
different shades and brushstrokes in an attempt to render modeling and shades
as well as the transparency of textiles. Cretan influences in the decoration are
obvious (Tomb of Qaha at Deir el Medina)- a manifestation quite under-
standable in view of the wide range of the Empire relations- a trend paral-
leled by the Mesopotamian and Cretan influences found in the palaces at
'Amarna and the Cretan influences in the Theban palaces (pl. 65).
In retrospect, funerary architecture in the New Kingdom does not show
much ingenuity, and the new type of rock-cut tomb did.not ultimately fulfill
the aim for which it had been devised. The mummies of the pharaohs had to
be gathered and transferred, first to the tomb of Seti I, later to that of Queen
Inhapy at Deir el Bahari, and finally to a third cachette under the High Priest
Psusennes (Twenty-First Dynasty). Perhaps better than other types, funerary
architecture shows that architecture, following Egyptian culture in general,
had already reached its apex in the Empire period and was on the verge of
decline.

Plate 65. Painted decoration: (upper), ceiling of a temple; (middle), tomb of Neferhotep
(Nineteenth Dynasty); (lower), tomb at Thebes (Twenty-First Dynasty).

-
 V: MILITA RY ARCHI TECTU RE 447
Often, however, the custom known since the Old Kingdom of giving
v strongholds compound names emphasizing some aspect of the courage and
military valor of the pharaoh is still followed: the fortress built by Thutmose I
at Tombos (Nubia) was "None-Faces-Him-Among-the-Nine-Bows-T o-
Mili tary Architecture gether," 479 and the fortress built by Thutmo se III in the Lebanon,
"Menkheperre-Is-the-Binder-of-the-Barbarians." 480 There is no doubt that
these qualities implied some event connected with the history of the expedition
during which the structure was built.
It seems to have been customary to have the war-captives settled in
With the New Kingdom begins an era of Egyptian expansion in Asia. Some fortresses bordering the country, as well as near or inside the mortuar y temples
record of the momentous expeditions is to be found in the contemporaneous at Thebes. It is said of Ramses II, on the occasion of his victories over the
literature and in the extensive low-relief representations of Syrian fortresses on Libyans, that "he has settled the Tehenu [Libyans] on the heights, filling the
the walls of Egyptian temples and private tombs. strongholds, which he built, with the captivity of his mighty sword." 481
A brief record of the construction of a fortification around the city of
Megiddo (Palestine), preceding its siege by the army of Thutmose III, is
EVIDEN CE FROM TEXTS found in the famous military annals of that pharaoh in the temple at Karnak:
"They measured this city, [1 surround ing it'] with an inclosure, walled about
In spite of the abundan t military scenes on temple walls, not much can be with green timber of all their fruit-trees. His majesty himself was upon the
derived from texts about military architecture. Almost all the fortresses repre- fortification east of this city, [ 1 inspect]ing . . . . It was [ wa ]lled about with a
sented were located in Syria, being either Syrian structures or Egyptian ones thick wall . . . with its thick wall. Its name was made: 'Menkheperre
built by Pharaoh to control his Asiatic possessions. They are rarely accompa- (Thutmo se III)-is-the-Surrounder-of-the-Asiatics'." 482 An interesting corrob-
nied by more than a mere mention of their name. oration of the desperate attempt of the enemy to find refuge inside their
Various terms could be used to designate a fortified structure, correspond- fortress, as illustrated with much realism in the scenes on the walls of Egyptian
ing to various types: the stronghold (bekhen , "tower" ), the fortress (nekhetw , temples, is to be found in this text about the same siege of Megiddo: "They
from nekhet, "strong" ), the frontier post (khetem , "seal") and the simple Bed headlong to Megiddo in fear, abandoning their horses and their chariots of
tower, probably the same structure as the one represented ever since the Old gold and silver. The people hauled them (up), pulling (them) by their
Kingdom by models and drawings. It is noteworthy tpat the etymological clothing, into this city; the people of this city having closed (it) against them
value of these names corresponds precisely to the special character of each one. [and 1 lowered l] clothing to pull them up into this city." 483
The proper names of fortresses are interestin g, if not very informative. As more extensive countries were to be controlled by Egyptian garrisons
They may imply some connection to the location: the fortresses of Beki (near during the Empire, more strongholds had to be built, even in the far-off
Kubban ) and Taroy (near Ibrim) in Nubia,474 the fortified "Town of Peka- districts of Asia. Ramses III records on the walls of his mortuary temple at
nan" ("The-C anaan") 475 under Seti, or the "Fortress of the West" 476 under Medinet Habu: "I built strongholds [be k henw] in thy name in Egypt and
Merneptah and Ramses III. They can also be related to the name of the pharaoh [ 1 all1 ] lands, likewise the land of Asia." 484
who built them: the "Tower of Menmare' " 477 under Seti I, or the "Stronghold The fortified residence of a Syrian prince is visited and described by
. ,, 478
of Merneptah-H oteph irma. Unamun in his report about his voyage to Byblos, in the reign of Ramses XI:
 448 V: MILITARY ARCHITECTURE

"When morning came he sent and had me brought up, while the god was
reposing in the tent where he was on the shore of the sea. I found him sitting
in his upper chamber, with his back against a window, while the waves of the
great Sea of Syria beat behind his head." 4 85

REPRESENTATIONAL EVIDENCE 486 (fig. 233)

The military victories of the Egyptian armies in Syria formed a favorite theme
of the contemporaneous artists who soon included them in their official reper-
toire for the decoration of temples. With Seti I begins the fashion of represent-
ing Syrian fortresses and fortified towns, a fashion that was to flourish for
about one century and a half, until the reign of Ramses III. These stylized
representations, however, are intended merely as illustrations of the texts that
,.
( ttll
..
"'
boast, more or less trustworthily, of deeds of valor. They never afford an exact
representation of a structure, though they do provide extremely interesting
and useful material for the comparative architectural study of Syrian fortifica-
tion during the Empire.
Naumann 4 87 has classified the representations into three chronological
groups: from the time of Seti I (1312-1298 B.c.), Ramses II (1301-1235 B.c.),
and Ramses III (n98- rr66 B.c.). The low reliefs of the earliest group represent
fortresses in South Palestine of a uniform, presumably simplified type, charac-
terized by an enclosure with four bastions and one or two doorways. Above the
wall rises a second similar but smaller one, perhaps a citadel. The bastion
seems to be crowned with a balcony with machicolations, possibly built on
corbeling balks (fig. 234). The second group shows more types, varying
according to the sites. The fortresses in Palestine are of thJ:: former simple type,
with windows, whereas those in North Syria occupied by the Hittites are more
complex and are characterized by lofty towers. The latest representations show
both simple and complex types used by the Hittites all over Syria and Pales-
tine.
.
(IJI)

For the purpose of architectural study a classification of the various

examples of forts into groups of types according to their enclosure walls can
prove of some help:
Type la: Simple battlemented enclosure.
lb: Simple battlemented enclosure with citadel.

2 33· ~estored types of fortresses in Syria during the Empire after Egyptian representa-
t10ns on temples.

-
 450 V : MILITARY ARCHITECTURE

235. Simple type of stronghold represented on Egyptian temples .

234. Restored perspective of a machicolated balcony in a Syrian fort.

./
Type Ila: Double enclosure with one doorway.
Ilb : Double enclosure with two doorways.
Type Illa: Double enclosure with towers.
IIIb: Double enclosure with towers and citadel.
Type IV : Many enclosures. 236. Representation of the Syrian fortified town of Qadesh from the temple at Abu Simbel.
TYPE IA (fig . 235) . The simplest type of fort features a single vertical enclosure
battlemented and opening through a central or side doorway. The top of the 237. Representation of a fortified simple enclosure with citadel.
wall runs at one straight horizontal level, with semicircular, triangular, or
rectangular ('Amarna) battlements, while bastions, probably rising at the ~· ~
•• i·
..
•11, ,: r ---- ,,
...
----;- . :.-'
corners, have caatilever machicolation similar to those represented in the ~ '.... . ': .... ·~"... j i ' .'
"' .,.. •~ ~- f I I
paintings of Egyptian forts from the Middle Kingdom at Beni Hassan (see Vol. I .
I
II, p. 199) . The police posts and keeps at 'Amarna or the Libyan forts
(Ramses III) are of this type. From three concordant representations the
fortified circular enclosure of the famous Syrian town of Qadesh (fig. 236)
would have been of the same type, with bastions crowned with balconies and I. I

machicolations and carried higher than the enclosure. hc_d

T YPE IB. SIMPLE ENCLOSURE WITH CITADEL (fig. 237) . The fortification is
I
,_J
similar to the preceding type, having a battlemented vertical wall with high
machicolated bastions, two of which flank the doorway and a central tower.
This isolated structure, the highest in the whole fort, seems to have formed a
kind of citadel, perhaps built on some knoll of the rock.
 . 240. Representation of a fort with double enclosures and towers : town of Ascalon, from
238. Representation of a double enclosure in a Syrian fort. the Ramesseum low reliefs.

TYPE llA. DouBLE ENCLOSURE WITH ONE DOORWAY (fig. 238) . Above the external TYPE IllA. DouBLE ENCLOSURE WITH TOWERS. In the representation of a Libyan
wall of the preceding type appears the top part of an internal similar enclo- fort three small towers rise above each of the outer and inner enclosures. They
sure, which is narrower, battlemented, and provided with bastions. Such ~eem to have served as observation posts. In the town of Ascalon, represented
double enclosures, separated by a dry moat, formed a usual feature of the m the Ramesseum scenes (fig. 240 ), one single tower rises above the outer
Egyptian fortresses from the Middle Kingdom in Nubia. The Syrian forts and enclosure, while the balconies of the inner enclosure are enlarged to small
migdols were erected upon a battered terrace or a hill. cantilever chambers provided with windows, resembling the turrets in mediae-
val military architecture.
TYPE IlB. DouBLE ENCLOSURE WITH Two DOORWAYS (fig. 239). In the outer
enclosure a doorway flanked by two machicolated bastions opens at either end TYPE IIIB. DoUBLE ENCLOSURE WITH TOWERS AND CITADEL (fig. 241). Most of the
of the fa~ade. The number of bastions on the inner enclosure can accordingly large Syrian towns are represented with two enclosures, the inner one being
be different from those on the outer one.
24r. Representation of a fort with double enclosures and citadel: town of Dapur.
239. Representation of a fort with double enclosure and two gateways
 454 V: MILITA RY ARCHI TECTU RE V: MILITA RY ARCHI TECTU RE 455
structure. Towers are occasionally erected on the citadel, topped with the
emblem of the city.

THE FRONTIER POST AT TJALU (fig. 242). Frontier posts manned by garrisons
were erected between Egypt and Asia. An interesting example thereof is that
at Tjalu (Sile). A canal bordered with reeds and lively with crocodile s marks
the boundary, and the structures stretch on both banks connected by a bridge.
On the Egyptian side a court surrounded by a wall and having two portals,
one toward the land and the other to the bridge, is flanked by two series of
three rooms each. A portal at the opposite end of the bridge opens onto the
remainin g part of the buildings, consisting mainly of a court opening on the
Asiatic side through a gateway topped by a window of appearance such as that
at Medinet Habu. The frontier post of Tjalu was probably the one through
which the armies passed on their way to fight the Mitanni and the H ittites
during the expansion of the Egyptian Empire.488

Comparison of the Representational Evidence with the Contemp oraneous

Oriental Fortification

Egyptian drawings of Syrian or Libyan fortresses show a striking resemblance

to those of the Late Assyrian Period ( Assurnazirpal II, ninth century B.c.), or
even the fortresses represented earlier on the boundary stones, kudurru (Mel-
ishipak, 1200 B.c.) 489 from the Kassite Period. There are four main characteris-
tic features that both sources of representations have in common:
242. Represent ation in plan and rabatted elevation of the frontier post at Tjalu.
1. A base, sometimes a huge serpent, probably some hill
or artificial
platform with a rounded profile.
2. An enclosure wall topped with rounded battlements (Egyptia
surmoun ted by several towers and a central citadel. At least three battlemented n repre-
walls rise at different levels, indicating presumably as many stories. The upper sentation) or stepped crestings characteristic of brickwork (Kassite and Assyr-
one is provided with towers similar to those of the enclosure wall itself. A ian), or triangular (Assyrian). Bastions, with projectin g balcony or machicola-
curious feature is shown by some of the towers: projectin g alternate horizontal tion at the top, flank the gateways and corners of the structure. They usually
courses, possibly an indication of masonry reinforced with wooden beams. rise high above the enclosure (Egyptia n and Mesopotamian). In Assyrian
representations the gates are always arched.
TYPE IV. MANY ENCLOSURES. Usually, three enclosures of the same width are 3. A second battlemented enclosure, with high rounded bastions, may be
shown, suggesting that they rose on a slope and were terraced like a step indicated within the outer enclosure.
pyramid. Windows open in the upper enclosure or in the citadel crownin g the + A citadel may rise at one end above the second enclosure. All the walls
 V: MIL ITA RY ARC HIT ECT URE
457
are vertical and no openings are shown. Othe
r examples feature man y enclo-
sures and windows opening in the bastions.
A bronze model from U rartu
shows clearly that the balconies were carried
upon wooden baulks.490
Most of the fortresses represented on Mesopot
amian mon ume nts existed
in the country itself, far from Syria. The resem
}------\\--J\_Jl,
)TON( BAltM(Nl \ \!1' 1 r
n· Egyptian representations, altho ugh about four
to poin t to a similarity of the types in both land
blance of Mesopotamian and
or more centuries apart, seems
s, and in Syria. The gateways at
Medinet Hab u may well have been copies
in stone of the typical fortified
structure form ing the gateway to Oriental forts
, in Asia as well as in Egypt, at
that time. Archaeological evidence seems to corro
borate this assumption.

DES CRI PTI ON OF FOR TIFI ED STR UCT

URE S

The Fort ified City of Mi'm ('An iba in Nub

ia) 491

The city of the Middle King dom was enlarged

into a rectangle ( 200 x 400 m.)
by the addition of an area of 20,000 square
meters enclosed with in a simple
wall (5 m. thick ), with slanting base ( l : 7) ,
to the nort h of the existing layout
(figs. 243, 244). A dry moat (2.75 m. wide
) lined with brick on a stone
foundation surrounds the wall. The latter seem
s to have been battlemented on
both faces. A large gateway opens in the west
ern side (7.5 m. wide, 10 m.
deep ), flanked by two high towers and fron
ted by a bridge (3.5 m. wide )
Nil[ span ning the moat. The land ing quay of the
harb or was heightened on ac-
coun t of the high er levels of the Nile. A stone
temple dedicated to Horn s of
Mi'm and datin g from Thu tmos e I or III was
erected in the northeast corner
of the new area. In the northeast corner of the
Middle King dom city were the
remains of some large mansions of the 'Am arna
type.

The Fort ified City of Buh en (Nub ia) 492

The Middle King dom fortress, whic h had

been abandoned ea. 1675 B.c., was
reoccupied in the New King dom (afte r 1580
B.c.). The city enclosed with in
Middle King dom bastioned walls on a recta
ngular plan along the Nile bank
expanded in the New King dom , especially to
the nort h and the south. A new
243 . Restored plan of the fortified city of Mi'm ('Ani ba in Nubi a),
and detailed section
throu gh the harbor.
 V: MILITAR Y ARCHIT ECTURE 459
perimeter wall showing remarkab le features was built, probably by Ahmose I,
around the fortress, the township, and its cemetery (W.). It assumes a rectan-
gular outline (200 x 500 m.) along the riverbank, with a slightly convex west
side, and it embodies the Middle Kingdom wall on the east side (fig. 245).
The perimeter wall, more than r mile long, consists of a buttressed and
steeply battered brick wall (3.5 m. deep x 6 m. wide), bordered on both edges
by a low thin wall. The rock-cut moat has slanting sides and a flat bottom, and
at various points assumes irregular salients, enclosing slight eminences on
which towers on heavy stone foundations were probably erected, abutting on the
wall. Along the north and south sides of the fortifications the moat could not
be cut deep in the sand but was nevertheless continued as an empty level
"obstacle," bordered by the walls. A gateway near the river opened at the
north and south ends of the wall.
The wall was no massive structure but consisted of a framework of brick
compartments, some of these used as magazines, others filled in as caissons
with sand. Near the bank, sandstone foundations supported the brickwork.
Buttresses (2 m. thick) reinforced the outer face, perhaps also occasionally the
inner one. There seem to have been wooden balks inserted through the
thickness of the walls, as in the Middle Kingdom fortresses, and also set

245. General plan of the fortifications from the New Kingdom at Buhen, and detail of the
north side.

&

~ \ \. \.

1
1l

244. Restored plan of the city of Mi'm during the New Kingdom, and perspective of the
western gateway.
 Q.)

460 V: MILITARY ARCHITECTURE -s......

0
Q.)
u
JS
-s....
0
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......
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.8
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-;
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.g
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246. Plan of entrance fa~ade and restored perspective of the fortress at Buhen during the µ

"'
o;
Q.)
New Kingdom. Q.)

-s
0
8 u; Q.)

vertically in the external face on the west side ( cf. Hittite forts). .......... ::l"'....
0
ii: u
An interesting feature occurs in the northeast corner in the shape of a ·;;:
Q.)
~bi)

sinusoidal wall ( 0.2 m. thick), bordered ext~rnall y (at a distance of r.9 m .) by Q.)
c::
;;.... "5b
'\' c::
three rows of brick ( 0.1 m . thick) separated by one brick ( 0.3 m.) placed at "'
o;
~
.... t='
intervals of 0.3 meter to form two series of caissons which are filled with sand. :.0 ....0
It has been computed that such a retaining wall would require only half the '""O
µ
Q.)

u c::
- ~
usual quantities of material and labor. ::l 0
.... .::l
µ

Recent excavations by Professor W. Emery (winter 1958- 59) 493 have "'c:: ..c:0....

~f]
0
u
disclosed that the walls of the fortress itself were rebuilt over the Middle ~
~
Q.)
.... -s-~
Kingdom ones, on a simpler and stronger design (fig. 246) . On the western ""=>
;::; - "'
3
.._, ::l
z ...c ~
o; ....
fa;ade (147 m. long, ea. IO m. high) the bastions were ei;ilarged, the two main ::> ~

::c 0
~
""
a:
0 ii:
towers of the gateway were cut back, and circular bastions of the Middle -
~ ~ "' µ ~

c:: - ....
~
Q.)
~
;;:
~
~
"
Kingdom fortifications partly demolished and built over. The earlier ditch was 0
~ 0
:-a ...c
" 0 I-
Q.) ......0
~
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.._,
partly filled as a sunken road. A new rock-cut dry ditch (9 m. deep) ran at the ~
~
"' :::8
z
~

:::;: " µ ·;
o;
foot of the wall. The eastern wall followed the alignment of the riverbank. z .._, t>
'""O
.... -; '""O
In the northwest corner were large public buildings such as the com- 0 ii: o;
c::
mander's headquarters, a two-storied structure abutting on the wall of the for- Q.)

::a.... ~
o;
tress, with direct access to the stairway of the ram part. It seems that this was "5b ii:
~
the same structure dating from the Middle Kingdom. Doorways had inscribed ~
Q.)
o;
bi)
.... c::
wooden jambs and lintels, pavements were of brick covered with plaster, and bi) ....
Q.) ~
..c: "'o;
E-< Q.)

t-'..
v
"'
 462 V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE 463
wooden ceilings were supported on wooden octagonal pillars painted red and THE GREAT GIRDLE WALL. This is very thick, in brick ( 10-11 m. [ 20 cubits] thick)'
set on stone bases. In the small rooms a new pavement was laid on the debris on a rectangular plan with rounded corners on the rear and set on a socle ( r.5
0-45- r.o meters above the Middle Kingdom pavement. m. high, 50° slope), with sides slanting both externally and internally. It has
This extensive fortified town, a strong military outpost of the Egyptian been surmised that at its top was a pathway (at 16.43 m. height) and a higher
Empire in the Sudan, was probably destroyed by the Kushite armies toward edge bordered with a crenellated parapet ( 17.2 m.) for defense purposes. It has
the end of the Twentieth Dynasty ( 1085 B.c.) also been assumed that there were small towers, "cavaliers," riding the wall 1.
similar to those of the external wall. Brick ( 43 x 21 x 13 cm.) was used with
some mortar on the outside, but without any inside, in horizontal stepped
The Fortified Enclosure of the Temple Area at Medinet Habu 494 courses in the socle and in slanting "hanging" courses in the battered wall
itself. Mud plaster and whitewash covered the brickwork. The wall was
The fortified temple complex at Medinet Habu is considered to be unique. A destroyed toward the end of the Twentieth Dynasty.
model of such a fortified enclosure is offered by Pharaoh Herihor (Twenty-
First Dynasty) to the god Khonsu in a low relief of the temple at Karnak. Did THE OUTER w ALL. The outer brick wall is not so high as the girdle wall, being
Ramses III actually fear some invasion of Thebes or some internal revolt, or only +4 meters above the outer grounds (corresponding to 2.4 m. on the
was it only a flattering reminder of his glorious military feats in Asia? What- inside), with small towers mounted on corbels and probably having battle-
ever the reason, the enclosure of the temple shows highly developed features ments. The wall on the east side is faced externally with stone lining. Each
of Egyptian fortification at that time, presumably akin to, or inspired by, entrance has a double guardhouse consisting of a long room with two win-
contemporaneous Syrian fortresses. It is significant that for the description of dows on the outside and a door on the inner side. Ramses VI decorated the east
the temple at Medinet Habu by Ramses III the scribe of Papyrus Harris used side of the wall with low reliefs representing him before the gods.
two words of Semitic origin: 'araty for "ramp" of the enclosure wall and
t jakara, "enclosed tower." 495 The introduction of foreign elements from pala- THE MOAT. A moat (6.6 m. wide, r.1 m. deep), probably of late Ramesside date,
tial or military architectures was a feature known also in other Oriental runs between the outer wall and the girdle wall on the north, west, and south
cultures. Another conqueror, Sargon II, describes much later in his palace at sides, apparently as an outlet for water accumulating in the desert watercourse
Khorsabad (706 B.c.) "a portico patterned after a Hittite palace," probably an during storms.
element from the Syrian architecture of that time. 496
THE Two GATEWAYS. In the center of the east and west sides of the great girdle
The inner area consisting of the temple proper, the palace, and maga-
wall are high gateways giving entrance to the Nile canal (E.) (fig. 248) and to
zines, was surrounded by a wall fortified with bastio14s (fig. 247). When
the desert (W.) . The west gateway is larger and more strongly fortified, prob-
Ramses III enlarged the temple precincts outside these limits he surrounded
ably because it was more liable to an attack from the desert. Both structures are
them with a simple girdle wall whose northwest side slanted inward where it
similar and built in brickwork, or in stone on the faces that could be accessible
abutted on the earlier temple of Ay-Horemheb . This wall was provided with
to the enemy: front, court walls, and rear. The approach from the T-shaped
two great fortified gateways in the central axis, on the east and west sides. An
canal assumes the layout of a high landing quay, bordered on either side by a
outer wall parallel to the large one and separated from it by a moat formed the
lateral stairway.
second part of this fortified enclosure. A passage along the internal face of the
wall, a pomerium, was left for defense purposes, a feature of military architec- THE EASTERN GATEWAY (fig. 249). The plan of both gateways is identical,
ture already known in the forts of the Middle Kingdom ( cf. Vol. II, p. 203). consisting of a narrow court flanked by two towers rising 2 meters above the
 464 V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE 465
girdle wall, with a doorway (3.8 x 5.7 m.) at the rear, closed by a heavy door
reinforced with metal sheets which pivots on a large granite socket (pl. 66) .
The tower slants in front, above a projecting socle forming a basement, but has
vertical walls on the court (7.1 m. wide) . This court widens (9.2 m.) then
narrows again (5.5 m.) between two projecting faces which rise up high and
are provided with projecting basements, smaller than the front ones. This was
intended to impart to the person entering the illusion of a second pair of
towers beyond the front pair. No window opens in the front towers except on
the third floor, while to the rear of the passage there are lateral windows on
the second floor and two large windows of appearance above the central
doorway, on the second and third floors. High on the protruding faces around
the court are three corbel slabs, each supporting a row of four heads of
prisoners, carved in the round as if they were lying prone on their chests and
were engaged in the masonry. Above each slab a statuary group, presumably in
wood, represented Pharaoh slaying a kneeling enemy.
A most interesting feature of the fac;ade on the court is the use of optical
illusions to emphasize the perspective and make the court look deeper. A

248 . Restored perspective of the landing quay in front of the eastern gateway at Medinet
Habu.

249. The eastern fortified gateway at Medinet Habu: reconstructed perspective, longi-
tudinal section, and plan of the third floor.
 466 V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE 467

Plate 66. The eastern fortified gateway of the mortuary temple of Ramses III at Medinet
Ha bu.

Plate 67. Back of the eastern gateway of the mortuary temple of Ramses III.
 468 V: MILITARY ARCHITECTURE V: MILITARY ARCHITECTURE 469

planned decrease in the dimensions of the corresponding elements occurs

gradually from the front toward the rear; hence the levels and widths of the
corbel slabs, the heights of the basements in the front tower and in the tower-
like projections in the rear, the spacing between the towers and the projections
mentioned above, and the decrease in the levels of the windows from the front
toward the rear.
The walls are decorated with painted low-relief scenes of Pharaoh before
Amun, the largest scenes being the lowest ones (pl. 67) . This arrangement was
probably intended to foster an optical illusion (such was certainly the aim in
the decoration of the sanctuary in the Great Temple of Ramses II at Tanis).4 97
Only the central body of the gateway is built of stone, abutting on white-
washed brick structures on both sides. A ramp or stairway leads along the
south wall to the second Boor from which presumably a staircase in the north
tower once rose to the third Boor and to the terrace. The room (4.15 x 4.5 m.)
above the gateway passage, built in stone and roofed over with a wooden
ceiling, has a large window with wooden grating and folding shutters in the
east and west walls, probably used as windows of appearance. Two doors
connect this room with vaulted chambers to the north and to the south. The
plan of the third Boor is identical to that of the second Boor, with the addition
of a few rooms set at a higher level in both the north and the south towers. It is
noteworthy that four of the third-Boor windows open behind the statuary
groups set on the corbel slabs, which allows the presumption that they served
solely for gaining access to these statues, the more so since other windows open
in the same rooms for illumination.
The terrace is Bat, set at various levels. The battlements, however, run at
one level on the towers and at a lower one on the abutting girdle wall.
The ornamentation of the walls is in low relief foi; the stone faces, and 250. Engaged composite column in the western fortified gateway of the mortuary temple
shows scenes from the royal private life such as Pharaoh playing chess with of Ramses III at Medinet Habu.
maidens of his harem. Unassuming paintings of baskets of fruit and Bowers
cover the wall behind the door- or window-leaves, this area usually being
hidden. Tapestry patterns or rows of vultures form the painted ornamentation This is probably an ingenious device in military architecture to allow the
on the ceiling. soldiers to rush out and attack the besiegers unexpectedly.
The style and ornamentation of the gateway seem to have been the same
THE WESTERN GATEWAY. The plan of the western gateway is similar to that of as in the western gateway. Two slabs with engaged columns brilliantly colored
the eastern one but with larger dimensions, since a smaller lateral gate opens had probably been set in the brick rooms (fig. 250). The column has a cluster
from the court southward and contains a stairway to the gateway and the wall. shaft surmounted by three superimposed capitals: a half-open lotus, an open

1
 136 m
470 V: MILITARY ARCHITECTURE

papyrus of smaller diameter above it, and at the top a lily capital, again of
smaller diameter ( color plate Xllb). It is presumed that the columns with such
a three-staged capital represent an actual cluster of stems with a lily at the top,
a papyrus below it, and farther down lotus blossoms.

THE INNER ENCLOSURE WALL (fig. 251 ). 498 The original layout of the temple and
its dependencies- palace, administration buildings, and magazines- is sur-
rounded with a brick wall on a rectangular plan ( 136 x 171 m.), with quadran- ;::

gular bastions. The wall ( 15 m. high, 6 m. wide) is battlemented on both faces TE MP LE MAGAZINE!
and set on a slanting socle ( 1.7 m. high) on the outside. It is noteworthy that
the external face has a slight convex batter. Towers project 3.8 meters from the
N
wall, and presumably rose higher and were battlemented similar to the wall
(42- 47 m. apart). The foundations are set 2 meters deep on gravel. The east
side of the enclosure embodies the pylon of the temple. It has been propounded
that the only places where there could be stairways rising to the top pathway
( 2 m. wide) are in the northeast and south west corners of the plan.
PALACE

AOM INllTRATION

City Enclosure Wall (Tell el Retaba) 499

This city is located in the W adi Tumilat, in the desert east of the Delta, and is
possibly the Pithom of the Bible (Egyptian Per-Atum) (fig. 252). The city
walls were built at three different periods along a rectangle (E.-W.). The
earliest brick wall (1) is quite irregular in plan (123 in. [3.12 m. J thick),
bending at three points and having four bastions projecting about 50 inches
( 1.27 m.). It seems to have ended to the west with a gateway opening in the
axis of the great temenos wall of the temple. ..
Ramses III enclosed the city with a larger and thicker wall (374 in. [9.5
m.]), on a more regular plan ( 2) . Its long side ( E.-W.) runs close to one
stretch of the earlier wall for a short distance and bends at its western end. A
E
gateway was set near the earlier one, but had vanished by the Twentieth
Dynasty. At the third stage a third wall was built (347 in. [8.81 m.]) contig-
uous to the second one on its inner face and overlapping the first wall (3). The
western gateway was rebuilt, leaving only a narrow passage (22 in. [0.56 m.])
for persons walking in single file. A stone gateway was built in the middle of
the south side.
3.80 m 6m

25r. Plan of the inner fortified enclosure, section of the south wall in the southwest corner,
and later Egyptian representation of the fortified temple enclosure (Herihor, Temple
of Luxor).
 472 V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE V: MILITARY ARCHITECT URE 473

THE ACHIEVEME NT OF MILITARY ARCHITECT URE

The Egyptians of the Empire were afforded the opportunity of gaining de visu
information about Palestinian and Syrian military architecture, the latter
being, in the northern districts, akin to the Hittite. The power of the country,
-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - owing mainly to its expansion abroad as a result of military victories and to its
o~~~~~~~~~~---'150m
riches collected from the tribute of vassals, the booty from campaigns, and
flourishing trade, resulted in an extensive program of fortifying the metropolis
~HOUIE and its newly acquired possessions. If the fortresses in Egypt were actually
similar to those they raided during their campaigns abroad and which they
represented on the walls of their temples, one would expect to find among
these representations elaborate examples of their own military architecture.
The achievement consists in the versatility of the types: stronghold, fortress,
and frontier post, as well as the isolated tower known since the archaic times.
It is to be presumed that the New Kingdom architects still knew and used earth
defensive works such as those from the Middle Kingdom and later in the
Delta. The rational system of fortification, still featuring two types of
plans- the rectangular and the one following the contour lines of the ter -
rain- consists of a dry moat between double walls, a heavily battered wall in
252. Plan of the city wall at Tell el Retaba.
brick, with stone gateways, bastions, and towers with machicolations, and
perhaps also a citadel. All these elements, as restored from the drawings and
Fortified Enclosure Wall of the City of Sesebi actual remnants, form a well designed and rationally fortified structure. The
(Sudan, Eighteenth-Nin eteenth dynasties) 500 scale of the buildings has considerably increased from the usually limited one
in the Middle Kingdom fortresses and settlements to the establishment of
The plan is rectangular (N.-S.), enclosing an area of 270 by 200 meters in flat whole cities on the strategic routes to Asia or in remote colonies in the Sudan
country. The wall, about 4.65 meters thick, is in brick, provided with buttresses enclosed within fortified walls (Tell el Retaba, Sesebi).
(3.15 m. thick) at regular intervals ( 2.65 m.). It seems that a gateway opened The unique stone structure at Medinet Habu that imitates a fortified
in every one of the four sides, not necessarily in the middle except for the building shows, incidentally, besides the well-developed elements of fortifica-
southern one. A street was certainly stretching from the southern gateway tion, a process of planning to achieve a host of optical illusions on both lateral
northward, forming a main artery N.-S. Each gateway is paved arid lined with walls of the entrance gateways, with the evident purpose of emphasizing
stone, provided with a door sliding horizontally into a recess of the wall, perspective and space in a manneristic way. !1!

which accounts for the greater thickness of the gateway. A drainage channel From the comprehensive data provided at Buhen one can derive an idea 111

issues under the pavement in the axis of each gateway, probably for heavy of the evolution of military architecture by the comparison of the systems of
rainfalls, a characteristic of the climate at that period ( ?) (see Fig. 32). Similar fortification used at that same site during the Middle Kingdom and the New
drainage channels form a customary feature of the gateways of Hittite forts Kingdom. It is obvious that the architects of the New Kingdom did away with I
(Sindjerli, 501 Troy, Arslan Tepe) and in Mesopotamian town gates. many unpractical elements such as the two spur walls flanking the gateway
I I 1

I
I

i
I
I

1 Ii 1
 474 V: MILITARY ARCHITECTURE

and the outer range of wall, semicircular bastions, and the dry moat which had
proved to be more hampering than useful, especially against numerous besie-
gers mounted on horses. This process of simplifying is allied to another one of
VI
strengthening the bastions and the towers of the main wall.
Architectural Statuary

The use of architectural statuary increased considerably in the New Kingdom.

Such elements as processional avenues bordered with sphinxes and colossi of
the pharaohs, or even columns form the typical approach to the temple. In the
temple proper the trend to exteriorize statuary, already apparent in the Middle
Kingdom, grows with the distribution of large standing or seated statues of
the pharaohs and gods around the open courts and even in the hypostyle hall
and sanctuary of the rock-cut temple. Nowhere has this statuary simply a
constructional or ornamental purpose. It can be described as fulfilling a two-
fold aim, religious and symbolic. According to the ideology of the Egyptians
such an aim could still be strictly functional, and a statue might be nothing
more than a medium through which people implored either the deity living in
the inaccessible sanctuary or the deified pharaoh in his capacity of mediator. In
the latter case the statue is a concrete symbol of the power of the divine ruler,
and the increase in the number and size of such colossi reflects the actual
increase of his power during the Empire. It is no surprise that Ramses II had
such a propensity for setting colossi in front of, and inside, the temples. But
whatever was the initial motivation- perhaps to awe the populace- there is no
doubt that the exteriorization of statuary illustrates a new democratic aspect of
the relations between the people and the once inaccessible gods and pharaohs.
Pharaoh was clearly invoked as a mediator. The "Scribe of the Treasury of the
Temple of the Aten,'' Penbuy, asks Amenhotep III in his inscription to induce
Amun-Re' to give him a mortuary offering.502 This role of Pharaoh as mediator
is now played by his colossi who are accessible to everybody.
 476 VI: ARCHITECTURAL STATUARY VI: ARCHITECTURAL STATUARY 477
THE IDEOLOGY OF MONUMENTAL STATUARY IN THE TEMPLE

The study of the use of monumental statuary in Egyptian architecture can be

greatly enhanced by an examination of the ideology connected with such
statues.503 Most of the colossal statues in the temples represented pharaohs, and
as such they were cult images of the pharaoh himself. But whereas the cult
statue of a god was usually of small size and concealed in a naos, that of a
pharaoh was, as a rule, of colossal scale. The Egyptians themselves called these
colossi "great statues" (twt 'a). They were erected in front on pylons and rock
temples or in temple courts, where they could be seen and approached by the
populace, who were actually allowed access to the courts. On stelae and tomb
walls there are representations of individuals offering to such colossi as those of
Mentuhotep III (Eleventh Dynasty), Amenhotep I, and Amenhotep III
(Eighteenth Dynasty).50 4 Ramses II, 505 however, was the pharaoh whose colossi
were especially popular as cult statues in the Delta (see fig. 253) as well as in
Upper Egypt. They were relatively numerous, and their introduction into
religious architecture can be considered as a factor influencing temple architec-
ture. Ramses II is depicted offering in person to a colossus representing himself
both in his temples in Nubia and upon stelae of individuals.
253. Stela of Mahu representing him adoring a statue of Ramses II.
Colossi bore names which were the same in different localities. It is
noteworthy that such names were also those of regiments or ships transporting
troops. This seems to indicate that the main aspect of the royal personality that The names of the colossi show certain aspects of the ideology of their
happened to appeal to the people was the military one connected with his cult. The colossus can be simply "The-God" (pa netjer) , as on the stelae and in
power. Or was it the result of a policy directed by the military-minded the rock temple at Garf Hussein, or "Montu-in-the-Two-Lands," a most popu-
pharaoh? lar name which occurs on no less than forty out of the sixty-seven stelae. We
Private citizens manifested their devotion to these colossi by dedicating know also that there was a colossus named "Beloved-of-Atum" and others
stelae as ex-votos to be placed in some chapel or temple. Some sixty such stelae "Sun-of-the-Rulers" from the stelae and texts in the temples at Luxor, the-
were erected by officers of the army of Ramses II, probably in the chapel of a Ramesseum, and in the rock temple of Hathor at Abu Simbel. The last name
military settlement in the Delta. The names of the colossi to whom the stelae is similar to that of another colossus, "Ruler of Rulers."
were dedicated were partly known from the other colossi, some even in Upper From the representations on stelae we know that two of the four colossi
Egypt and Nubia, and corresponded to names of certain regiments. Ramses II mentioned were standing statues of Ramses II: "Ramses-Miamun-The-God"
in the form of such colossi was accordingly the "patron" of these regiments. and "Usirmare'-Setepenre'-Montu-in-the-Two-Lands." The other two were
That there was such a cult in far-off settlements does not imply that they were statues of Ramses II seated on a throne and wearing the double crown of
situated near colossi or large temples. Portable statues and replicas of the Upper and Lower Egypt: "Ramses-Miamun-Sun-of-the-Rulers" and "Usirmare'-
colossi could play the same role. Statues of Amenhotep I were the object of a Setepenre'-Beloved-of-Atum." It has been suggested that these colossi stood in
cult in the workmen's village at Deir el Medina, and those statues were front of a pylon, possibly at Pi-Ra'messe, the Delta residence of Ramses II, or
probably replicas of an original in the temple at Karnak. at Qantir or Bubastis.
 478 VI: ARCHITECTURAL STATUARY VI: ARCHITECTURAL STATUARY 479
As we should expect, the persons dedicating the stelae to the colossi did so temple of Senusert I at Lisht). A pair of sphinxes might flank the doorway to
in the hope that their wishes expressed in the inscriptions would be granted. the court which might be preceded by an alley bordered with sphinxes. It is
These were of a practical type for the welfare of the dedicating individuals. not until the New Kingdom, however, that such avenues of sphinxes become
The Scribe of the Offering-Table Mahuhi inscribed the following prayer on the usual approach to the fa;:ade of the temple or the connection between two
his stela: "Adoration to thy ka, Lord of the Two Lands, Usirmare'- temples, such as the temple of Mut and Pylon X at Karnak, or even between
Setepenre'-Montu-in-the-Two-Lands, that thou mayest grant life, prosperity two complexes of temples as distant from each other as those at Luxor and
and health, a happy existence, the heart filled with joy, until the moment of Karnak. The Egyptians called such an avenue "The-Way-of-The-God," because
reaching the necropolis in peace, for the ka of the scribe of the offering-table of along it the god used to be carried out in procession at least once a year.
the Lord-of-the-Two-Lands, Mahuhi" (fig. 253).506 The similarity of this Another new feature used as an approach to a temple is the columned avenue,
prayer with those addressed to Anubis or Osiris is striking. such as that in front of the temple at Luxor, or the temple of Mut at Karnak.
This aspect of the cult of the royal colossi can be; considered as a form of But the simpler avenue bordered with trees also prevails. Occasionally, sphinxes
popular religion, which proliferated devices and methods to reach the gods. with heads symbolizing the god of the temple were used, such as ram-
There was a particular Amun in Western Thebes called "The- headed sphinxes at Karnak and falcon-headed ones at Wadi el Sebu'a in
One-who-Listens," and numerous stelae were carved with rows of ears symbol- Nubia.
izing the various times the god had answered a prayer. Such a popular cult, The portal or gateway to a temple, now opening in a pylon, is flanked by
which afforded a direct contact between the individual and his god without two or more colossi representing Pharaoh seated or standing, set against the
involving the presumably costly and complicated intercession of a priest, fa\=ade so as to face the approach. Here again, as with the occurrence of
allowed certain license; and often the god is rebuked and even threatened in avenues of sphinxes, there is. no evidence for such a use before the New
case he does not grant the wish. Amenhotep I and his mother Ahmes Nefertari Kingdom. In the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak the two standing colossi
had become the patron saints of the Theban necropolis, and the workmen of face each other across the approach in front of the porch to the pylon (II) (fig.
the village at Deir el Medina often had recourse to them. 254 :3). The seats of the colossi are carved with symbolic scenes representing
Pharaohs expressed again and again in their inscriptions their wish to the union of the two lands, above rows of foreign prisoners of wars on the
help their people, and there is no doubt that putting their colossi as mediators bases. Colossi in hard stones can attain huge dimensions corresponding to
in the external parts of the temples at the disposal of the people was one of those of the pylons (19.90 m. in the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III; 15.6
these means of help. In addition, however, there could have been other less m. at Luxor; 17 m. in the Ramesseum). 507 The pair of colossi may be erected in
obvious purposes such as impressing the populace with their power, temporal the rear of the first or second court and may be accompanied by two smaller
or godly, and perhaps also the wish to minimize the ubiq11itous intercession of statues representing Pharaoh standing (Luxor; fig. 254:2). 508 In the rock-cut
the priesthood. temple at Wadi el Sebu'a each standing colossus of Ramses II is accompanied
by a sphinx (fig. 254:1). In front of the pylon of the western hall in the temple
of Ptah at Memphis (Ramses II) the statue bases are trapezoidal in plan, one
DISPOSITION AND TYPES OF STATUES long side being parallel to the axis of the hall and the opposite one, perpendic-
ular to the pylon face. The pylon face happens to run askew to the perpendic-
A monumental approach to a temple in the Middle Kingdom could be ular to the axis. Could this be an attempt at optical illusion? The climax in
achieved by laying out an avenue or a ramp bordered with trees (Eleventh the use of colossi in any temple seems to be that at Abu Simbel, where the four
Dynasty temple at Deir el Bahari, temple at Hermupolis), or by placing colossi attain huge proportions and form the main feature of the rock-cut
Osiride statues of Pharaoh along both sides of a causeway (Deir el Bahari, fa\=ade (fig. 254:rn ). The god to whom the temple was dedicated,
 DIST~IBUTION Of HATUA~Y

.. ..
VI: ARCH ITECT URAL STAT UARY 481
IN TH [ HMPLU
Re'Ho rakhty , is carved in a niche openin g axially above the entrance.
Nowhe re
else does the mania of Ramses II for colossi result in such a bold and
00000 I 10000 0 impres-
00~ ct:f'.lO 0 sive achievement, and nowhere else were the colossi relevantly located
o~
~g as in
o~ that temple, set at the gateway to the farthest lands of the Empire,
o~ -o to inspire
'-"
, __
oo ~o Cl awe and submissiveness in the hearts of the conquered peoples. This
1-1 00 00 Cl
purpose
00 oo is conveyed by the carving of the eyes gazing intently down at the crowd
0 0 00 (see
0 0 00 pl. 40). The colossal scale of the statues at Abu Simbel is surpassed,
00 0 0 0 00 however,
by that of the four standing statues, also cut from the rock, in front
00000 0
00000 0
of the
eastern face of Gebel Barkal (Sudan ) . The badly weathered colossi
must have
risen to about roo meters. 509
I I I
In the smaller temple at Abu Simbel the standing statues are set in
the
fa;ade in recesses cut to their size (fig. 254: II). Here architectural integra
tion
has been perfected: the colossi of Ramses II and his Queen Nefertari
--'
seem, like
the much earlier statues in a false-door of the Old Kingdom, to issue
KA~AK~~ O• from the

- -· 0
•
4 5ANCTUARY
o•
o•
apertures of the rock; but they are no longer isolated figures, and
tainly form a part of the constituent elements of the fa;ade of the
strikin g parallel, though on a smaller scale, is found in the statues of
they cer-
temple. A

1~r~if
'AMAR NA
lNNAlYA (XIX)
gods and
goddesses built in brickwork in the recessed panels on the external walls
of the
temple of Inanna at Warka , from the Kassite Period (fifteenth century
B.c.) .510
\\ 0 0

\
0 0
00
otiii
0 0
0 0
oo
iliJio
.....
11 11
g [Ej] g [Ej]
I~

..... .__Jo[

~ [
The Kassite deities symbolically emerge from the mount ain and
from which issues a continuous double stream of the Water of Life
about the whole temple onto the mountainous ground. 511 The deity
temple of Hatho r is the cow Hatho r, whose statue stood in the inner
as if issuing forth from the sacred mount ain to protect the pharao
hold vases
flowing
of the
sanctuary
h beneath
II:: ""
: a lD a a her head. Were the royal colossi of the fas:ade supposed to transfer
protection to the people and assume a function similar to that of the
this godly
goddess
1\::
I 0 0
: 1l9
issuing from the mount ain? This idea would be similar to that of the
location

7b~:
of the statue of an Assyrian god in a deep niche cut in the side of
a ziqurra t.
9 DrnR The god was supposed to come forth from the mount ain symbolized
-=~~~~_:_~~~~=----- • by the
z1qurrat. 51 2
RAMU HUM 10
The feature of a porch frontin g the pylon is common in the temple
A~U llMBU s at
'Amar na and later at Karnak , althou gh it could have occurred earlier
in struc-
tures of light perishable materials. Between each pair of column s in
the porch
facing the approach to the sanctuary at 'Amar na and along it there
is a stand-
ing statue of Pharao h Akhen aten (fig. 254 :4). This location seems to explain
the
role assigned to a colossus frontin g a temple as being that of a mediat
254 . Distribu tion of architectural statuary in the courts and on the fai;:ades of temples or to the
people approaching the temple. Let us remember that in Assyria the
during the Empire . king had
 482 VI: ARCHITECT URAL STATUARY VI: ARCHITECT URAL STATUARY 483

also the function of a mediator between the people and the god.513 In the ex- The earlier distribution of Osiride pillars, the statues of which represent
clusive religion of the Aten, where no other god was tolerated besides him, could Queen Hatshepsut as a bearded mummified Osiris in her temple at Deir el
the status of Pharaoh have been that of a full deity? Such free-standing groups Bahari, is somewhat akin to that in the typical Osiride porticoes. On the
representing Pharaoh and the queen are also set between the columns of a uppermost terrace the axial approach is flanked by the two wings of a double
portico bordering the court of the Aten temple. Two standing statues of portico having an outer row of Osiride pillars ending on two massive antae of
Akhenaten adjoin two stelae on the platform of the altar in the sanctuary. Pray- masonry, each fronted with an Osiride colossus (7.8 m.) erected at the lower
ers were addressed to the Aten or to Akhenaten as a mediator or prophet. No- level of the first court.
where is the process of mediation expressed so clearly as on the numerous Another peculiar distribution is that of an Osiride portico running on
stelae representing the royal family receiving life from the Aten, and being one side only of a court, opposite to and in clear connection with the entrance
asked to bestow it in the shape of favors. 514 A statue of Akhenaten bearing a portal to the royal palace adjoining the mortuary temple (Ramesseum, fig.
tablet for offering proves that this pharaoh never pictured his own status as that 254 :7; temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu, fig. 254:8). The pharaoh or the
of a "god-king." Free-standing colossal statues were also placed in front of the ritual procession issuing from the palace on its way to the temple would thus
intercolumniations (first court at Luxor, third hypostyle hall in the mortuary face the Osiride statues.
temple of Ramses III), or in front of the columns (court of Herishef at Ehnasya, Farther in the interior of the temple, Osiride pillars occur on two rows
Nineteenth Dynasty) (fig. 254 :5). Statues of the gods are sometimes set in the facing each other along the longitudinal axis of the hypostyle hall. This is
hypostyle hall or even in the sanctuary of the temple, and rarely in the court. common in the rock-cut temples in N ubia (Garf Hussein, Wadi el Sebu'a,
They are always larger than life-size, sometimes colossal, and often abut on pil- Abu Simbel).
lars. Osiride statues of pharaohs occur in two rows facing each other along the Still farther in the innermost part of the temple, statues are integrated
longitudinal axis or form part of the portico in the court of the rock-cut temples with the architecture. For the first time four large statues were set in recesses
at Garf Hussein and Wadi el Sebu'a (Nubia), as in the small temple of Amun in both side walls of the sanctuary in Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahari. In
(Ramses III at Karnak; fig. 254:6) . The most common distribution, however, the peristyle court preceding it ten statues of the queen stood in niches.
is as a front row in a portico stretching along the side of a court preceding a
colonnaded court (Thutmose III, Seti I at Thebes) or hall (Ramesseum; fig.
254:7; temples of Merneptah, Ramses III at Karnak and Medinet Habu) (fig. EVOLUTION IN THE TYPE AND STYLE
254:8). This portico is a typical element of the mortuary temple at Thebes in
the New Kingdom. It usually stands higher than the level of the court, This is not an appropriate place for a discussion of the degree of faithfulnesJ in
involving a terraced treatment of the fac;ade to the inner temple. In two portraiture of the architectural sculpture. It only needs to be pointed out that 11

temples there seems to have been a reduplication of the portico along the there seems to have existed a general trend toward a high fidelity, 515 even in
opposite side of the court, as a lower level portico (Ramesseum, Merneptah such large-scale colossi as those at Abu Simbel. The heads of Ramses II, as is
[ ?] at Thebes). In all these varied uses the Osiride statue really forms part of shown by photogrammetry and photography, feature the same peculiar traits
the pillar on which it abuts and it has become completely integrated with the of the conqueror as are found in smaller "atelier" statues (Turin Museum).
architecture of the portico, although it does not play any structural role. It is The extensive use of paint on limestone and sandstone' statues would corrobo- I
an element known as the Osiride pillar; and the statue is often carved out of rate this assertion that monumental statuary aimed at portraiture. The bro-
the same courses as the rectangular pillar on which it abuts. In one temple two ken-up statues of Hatshepsut had retained their vivid colors, but the granite
rows of rectangular pillars and a third row of Osiride pillars, the latter fronting ones show the polished grain of the stone with only a few features emphasized
the fac;ade of a second hypostyle hall, form the unusual distribution of the with paint.516
supports of the first hypostyle hall (rock-cut temple at Derr; fig. 254:9) .

,I
I
I
 484 VI: ARCH ITECT URAL STATU ARY
VI: ARCH ITECT URAL STATU ARY 485

05l~IDE shepsut (Eighte enth Dynasty at Deir el Bahari) , than between the latter and
/:-. the clumsy and massive figure of Ramses III at Medine t Habu. Unlike the
(_:;_~:-.· ·
I
seated colossi, which were monolithic, the Osiride statues were carved in the
masonry of the pillars (Hatshepsut, Ramses II, Ramses III). Stylization, with
it~ most successful characteristics apparen t in Hatshepsut's Osiride
pillars,517 is
still prevalent later in those of Ramses II in the Ramesseum. The proportions,
however, lack the elegance of the earlier figures, but it can be said in their
favor that an excessive simplification of their shape into a rectilinear outline
~nd squared modeling has even increased their architectural affinity.
A similar
melegant sturdiness is apparen t in the colossi and Osiride pillars of the same
pharaoh at Abu Simbel, a feature that has been interpreted as being planned
to
convey an effect of power. With the clumsy massiveness of the figures
of
Ramses l~I at Medinet Habu, however, this pretense can hardly be supported,
althoug h It has been proposed by Holscher. 518
Architectural statuary also occurs in domestic and military architecture.
At '~marna, in the so-called broad hall court preceding the Great Palace,
standm g statues of Akhena ten and his wife border the area, set on a staggere
d
line on both sides of the entrance porch. This treatme nt reminds one of the
Osiride pillars facing the entrance to the palace in the later mortua ry temples
at Thebes.
RAM !El II <RAMfllf UM> RAMHl Ill <MtDINtT HABU>
In the first palace of Ramses III at Medinet Habu the window of royal
255. Views of types of Osiride pillars appearance forms the central item of a great composition of low-relief scenes
of royal victories. Under the sill a sweeping horizontal line of heads
of
prisoners sculptured in the round juts out from the wall face, as if representing
The Osiride pillar evolves in its form and style from the Eighteenth ~risoners lying prone under the feet of Pharaoh . The motif
is outstanding in
Dynasty to the later Ramessids, when it disappears (fig. 255). The form is the its bold and faithful renderi ng of the ethnic characteristics. Sculpture in the
typical mumm iform Osiris figure, clad in the narro"W' sheath, both arms round serves here to symbolize the overwhelming power of Pharaoh.
crossed over the breast and holding scepters, both feet on a line, and the head More of the same symbolic statuary was integrated in the pseudomilitary
wearing the Osirian crown. In the later examples (Medin et Habu), howeve gateway to the complex of Ramses III at Medinet Habu. Here again six corbel
r,
the figure represents Pharao h in his ceremonial garb, both feet on a line, but slabs pr?trud e from the side walls, high above the entrance passageway, each
bare from the knees down, while two small statues of the queen stand beside support mg a row of four heads of prisoners sculptured in the round.
A
the larger one. The crown, still that of Osiris, usually reaches the level of the statuary group, probably in wood, was fixed to the walls above each slab. The
architrave or lintel. subject featured is again Pharao h smiting a kneeling enemy- the stereotyped
In style there is probably less difference between the fine and elegant scene symbolizing victory. The whole composition uses its architectural as well
monolithic Osiride figure of Senusert I (Twelf th Dynasty) and that of Hat- as its sculptural elements to form optical illusions to emphasize the depth and
ultimately, the scale of the passageway.
'
 486 VI : ARCHITECTURAL STATUARY VI : ARCHITECTURAL STATUARY 487
AN APPRECIATION known in the earliest times (statue of Neterikhet Djeser, Third Dynasty;
Cairo Museum) . To the original role of the royal colossus as mediator between
The development of architectural statuary was carried forward from its forma- the deity and the people another purpose, with a political implication, has been
tive stages in the Middle Kingom by further evolution in the exteriorization, superimposed.
the increase in scale, and the elaboration of fa;:ade composition featuring
statuary as a dominant element.
Six characteristic uses of statuary can be summarized.
1. The Osiride pillar attains its standard form where the stylized statue is

intimately linked to the masonry pillar behind and is set upon a base protrud-
ing from the latter pillar. It is commonly used in rows to form typical porticoes
in temples, and has a symbolic involvement.
2. Architectural composition freely uses rows of free-standing statues in
the court of a palace.
3. The exteriorization process is carried forward with the common use of
paired colossi in front of the pylon of the temple.
+ Architectural composition occasionally seeks its dominant elements in
colossi cleverly integrated in the fa\'.ades of rock-cut temples (Abu Simbel).
In the larger temple the typical pair of colossi is reduplicated and attains
huge proportions. They are intimately connected with the fa\'.ade, even em-
braced by the two slanting buttresses cut in the rock on both sides. In the
smaller temple the distribution of statues in recesses, known earlier in the
causeways of Middle Kingdom temples, exteriorizes in a sweeping alternance
of standing colossi in recesses with slanting buttresses between them support-
ing the crowning cornice. In both compositions statuary is the dominant
feature, carried to its maximum emphasis without impairing unity or scale.
5. In the unique case of elements in the round, protruding from the face
of walls at Medinet Habu and distributed so as to enhani;.e the optical illusion
fostered by the layout of the architectural elements, statuary also plays a basic
role in composition. This role is more integral than that of the statuary in the
pediments and metopes of Greek temples, and can be compared to the role of
the innumerable statues in the recessed porches of Gothic cathedrals. Perfect
integration of statuary and architecture had been attained by the Ramesside
master builders in highly impressive compositions around the thirteenth cen-
tury B.c., especially in the rock-cut temples in Nubia (Abu Simbel) .
6. The proportions of the statues seem to alter, even to become deformed,
to convey a stronger impression of power (Ramses III), a process already
 VII: GARD EN ARCH ITECT URE 489
the divine limbs": "I have hearkened to my father ... comma nding me
to
VII establish for him a Punt in his house, to plant the trees of God's-Land beside
his temple, in his garden, according as he commanded. It was done, in order
to
endow the offerings which I owed . ... I have made for him a Punt in his
Garden Architecture garden, just as he commanded me, for Thebes. It is large for him, he walks
abroad in it." 521 Breasted presumed that they could have planted the myrrh
trees on the terraces of Deir el Bahari itself, althoug h they could have grown
more suitably near the temple of Amun at Karnak . The theory that the myrrh
trees were planted at the mortuary temple of Deir el Bahari is corroborated
to
To the Egyptian the garden was an essential element in life. He was happy some extent by the occurrence of such a garden about the later mortua
ry
when he could afford one laid out in front of his house or tomb chapel. He temple of Ramses II at Abydos: "He planted many gardens, set with every
though t that the gods also liked gardens around their temples, and he did not (kind of) tree, all sweet and fragran t woods, the plants of Punt." 5 22 Fragran
t
fail to provide each temple with a garden. Texts and representations unani- trees were perhaps an essential element of the pharaoh's funerary garden.
mously point out this importa nt role played by garden architecture during the Ramses III describes the lake and garden in his mortuary temple at Medine
t
New Kingdo m. Habu: "I dug a lake before it, flooded with N un, planted with trees and
vegetation like the Delta." 523 And further : "It was surrounded with gardens
and arbor-areas (lit. places of chambers of trees) , filled with fruit and flowers
EVIDE NCE FROM TEXTS for the two serpent-goddesses" 524 (the expression "chambers-of-trees" was ren-
dered by "arbor-areas," probably nurseries for young trees).
No text fulfills our wish to have a picture of the garden of a town house, but The temples of the various gods were provided with gardens in decora-
two literary descriptions of a country estate mention the luxuria nt cultivated tive layouts, as a source of flowers, vegetables, and even wine and olive oil.
ground s around a villa of the New Kingdo m. The owner is undoubtedly Texts are quite definite as to this specific purpose. Wine and shedeh-liquor
enjoying his garden, as he is told: "You sit in their shades and eat their fruit. were presented togethe r with vegetables and flowers as a daily offering to the
Wreath s are made for you of their twigs, and you are drunke n with their gods, while olive oil was used "to light the flame" 5 25 in the sanctuary.
. " 519
wmes. Of the temples that benefited by the largesse of pharaohs, those of Amun
Much more adequa te information is supplied by texts concerning the were by far the most favored. The Papyrus Harris I contains records of the
gardens of tomb chapels and mortua ry temples. A description is given in the endowments and riches of the temples in the reign of Ramses III. Gardens and
unique text where Pharao h Ahmose speaks of the pyrami d and tomb chapel land estates are constantly mentioned in their lists. A seemingly importa
nt
he planned to make for his grandm other Queen Tetisheri: "Its lake shall estate in the Delta 5" 6 provisioned the Theban temples with wine and olive oil,
be
dug, its trees shall be planted." 520 This calls to the mind the typical wish and the sherds of its wine jars were found in the magazines of the Ramesseum.
in
numerous funerary texts that the deceased might walk under the trees of his Often the mention is of a generic nature, but some of the figures cast light
garden and drink the water of its lake. Queen Hatshepsut relates on the walls upon the extensive properties of Amun. Of the total of 514 gardens and groves
of her mortuary temple at Deir el Bahari how she complied with the wish of the gods' estates,527 there were 433 gardens and groves 528 for Amun
of of
the god Amun-Re', her father, to have a grove of myrrh trees "for ointme nt for Thebes, 64 for Re',52u to which two gardens and one grove of olive land were
added as gifts,530 and 5 for Ptah.531 It has been calculated from these lists that the

, I
 490 VII: GARDEN ARCHITECTURE VII: GARDEN ARCHITECTURE 491

real estate of Amun extended over one-tenth of the whole of Egypt, a figure REPRESENTAT/ONS OF GARDENS 543
that expresses a proportion similar to Amun's share in other domains of the
economy. 532 Ramses III more than once stated that he donated gardens The houses, palaces, temples, and chapels, whether funerary or private, shown
"equipped" with "groves and arbors (chambers-of-trees), containing date in the paintings of the tombs nearly always have a garden connected to the
trees; lakes supplied with lotus Bowers, papyrus Bowers, isi Bowers, the Bowers building. Often a whole layout of an elaborate nature is detailed, and thus an
of every land, dedmet Bowers, myrrh, and sweet and fragrant woods for thy adequate picture of the various types of gardens in the New Kingdom can be
beautiful face." 533 Elsewhere gardens were restored: "I made to grow the reconstructed from this representational evidence. Until the end of the Middle
august grove, which was in its midst; I planted it with papyrus in the midst of Kingdom, gardens had to be watered from water jars carried at the ends of a
the Delta marshes, (though) it has begun to decay formerly." 534 Flowers were pole slung on the shoulders of water carriers. The primitive counterpoised
grown in the forecourt of the temple of Re' north of Heliopolis.535 No doubt sweep for elevating water (Arabic, shaduf), which is connected by Winlock
the gardens that the Egyptians saw in Syria and mercilessly devastated during with the invasion of the Hyksos, 544 enabled a much easier irrigation of culti-
their military expeditions 53 6 inspired their gardeners, as did the Syrian build- vated land.
ings the Egyptian architecture. Gardens were even planted for Amun in the
southern and northern oases, manned "with gardeners from the captives of the
countries." 537 Among the various titles mentioned by Senmut, that of "Over- GARDENS OF HousEs
seer of the Gardens of Amun" 538 seems to have been particularly cherished by
that prominent personage. In the cities, where the value of land was prohibitive, there is no evidence of
Private individuals have also left records concerning their gardens. These any garden being grown. Occasionally a few trees were planted along the sides
texts usually occur in connection with the paintings representing the gardens of the house (Tjoy ), usually date palms alternating with another species,
on the walls of the tombs. It is often difficult to label these gardens as funerary which can also be grown in brickwork containers (house from Tomb No. 254;
or house gardens. Ineny, 539 an architect who lived during the reigns of Amen- see fig. 2). In the harem of Pharaoh A y a large court surrounding the structure
hotep I, Thutmose I- III, and Hatshepsut, describes his garden as being in the is planted with a row of trees in mud copings, and on the farthermost side a
West, and his yearning "to walk in his garden of the West, cool under its kiosk on columns supports a vine (tomb of Neferhotep).
sycamores, admire its grand and beautiful growths of trees, which he had In the country, where land was cheap, the houses and palaces were set in
made while he was on earth." 540 The various trees in this garden amount to a large garden surrounded by a wall. From the study of the numerous repre-
such large figures- 90 sycamores, 31 perseas, 170 date palms- that it seems sentations in the tombs one can picture the standard type of garden as a
difficult to believe it was located in the desert of Western. Thebes. I propose, symmetrical layout featuring, on the main longitudinal axis, a rectangular or
following Klebs, 541 that it be regarded as a house garden of Ineny which he T-shaped pond in front of the house, surrounded by rows of trees of various
wished to enjoy also in the West; but the location of so huge a garden on the species, possibly alternating in the same rows (Ineny, Kenamun, Amenem-
arable lands bordering the western bank could also be possible. The royal and hat, Puyemre'; fig. 256). A not uncommon feature consists of a pergola
private tomb chapels usually had some kind of landing portal near the water's bordering the main alley along the axis or surrounding the pond. Fruit trees
edge. Funerary gardens of small size are known to have been grown in the have their leaves or branches supported on the trelliswork of the pergolas
courtyards of certain Theban private tombs, 542 probably imitating the larger (Kenamun; fig. 257). The shortest species of trees are planted nearest the
gardens of pharaohs Mentuhotep, Thutmose III, and Queen Hatshepsut. pond, while the tallest, such as doum palms and date palms, are in the rear

- l !.
 492 VII: GARDEN ARCHITECTURE
VII : GARDEN ARCHITECTURE 493

256. Mural representing a garden from the tomb of Puyemre' at Thebes.

rows, an arrangement providing graded perspective about the center of the

garden (Rekhmire'; fig. 258). Sometimes more than one pond is present. In
the formal garden of the temple of Amenhotep II and the attached house of its
attendant Sennufer at Thebes as represented in the tomb of the latter, the
layout is symmetrical about an axis perpendicular to the river and running
from the entrance along an alley flanked with two pergolas and leading to the
small temple with three shrines.545 Each half of the garden, on either side of
the alley, is divided transversely into three areas: the front one has a rectangu-
lar pond parallel to the river and is planted with water plants, date palms, and
sycamores; the middle area is enclosed within a wall and is planted with light
green trees, perhaps rare species; and the rearmost and largest area has again a
rectangular pond bordered on one side by date palms a~d on the other by
sycamores, and near it a small open kiosk of the type met with at 'Amarna. On
either long side of the whole garden an enclosed alley is planted with trees of
alternating species, while tall trees form an effective screen at the back of the
estate (fig. 259).
A formal layout is also followed in the large palace gardens. The ap-
proach is symmetrical, usually with a pond on either side of the axis, bordered
with rows of trees. At 'Amarna, where the ground is not arable, trees are 257. Murals representing gardens in the tombs of Kenamun and another with restored
. of the latter.
perspective '
planted in pits filled with humus and bordered with a round coping. At the
 VII: GARD EN ARCH ITECT URE 495
SACRED GARDE NS

Temples and private chapels also had gardens. Processional approa

ches to
pylons (Amen hotep Sise), or in front of the temple quay along
the river
(Nefer hotep) , are represented in the tombs. In the temple of Hatshe
psut at
Deir el Bahari a garden with four ponds, papyrus, flowers, and vegetab
les is
represented schematically.546 Exotic trees were brough t from the new
countries
subdued during the Empir e and planted in the gardens of Amun .
Such rare
species are represented at Deir el Bahari, Medinet Habu, and Karnak
, but the
representations of these "botanical gardens," though fascinating on accoun
t of
their innumerable exotic species, do not offer any clue regarding their
layout.
Private chapels were erected by rich people in their gardens at 'Amar
na or on
the bank of a river or canal (Ipuky ), and formed an important elemen
t in the
layout, being situated at the crossing of two axes or at the end of the main
axis.
Often the chapel stands at the rear of the enclosed garden on a higher
terrace,
with a rectangular pond flanked by two rows of sycamore trees (Tomb
No.
arden of the vizier Rekhmi re' from his tomb murals (upper figure), 329) or what seems to be two rows of tall jars ( ?) surrou nded
25 8. The g . h"
and a by climbing
sacred garden for funerary rites from a tomb mural at Memp is. growth (Nakh tmin) . The formal layout of the Persian garden,
where an
artificial pond mirrored the glittering splendor of a rich fa~ade beyond
it, had
already been carried out to perfection in Egypt, at least as early as
259 . Interpre tation of the layout of the garden of Sennufer after its representation in his the New
Kingdom.
tomb murals.

F UNERARY GARDE NS

Most of the representations of funerary gardens are schematic, reduce

d to a
T-shaped basin shown in plan on a background of a few date palms
(Nefer-
hotep) . Here the origin of the peculiar plan of the basin may be investi
gated. It
is certain that the dead end of a canal, when shaped as a transverse rectang
ular
basin, would facilitate the moorin g and circulation of barks. On
the other
hand, the offering-table for the presentation of funerary offerings
often as-
sumes the shape of a T-slab, in the middle of which is a deep basin.
rear of the various groups of buildings a large area is laid out as an
inde~end­ offering-table is obviously a model copying an artificial pond with a perpen
The
ent garden around a square pond with sloping sides, in ~ne c?rner of dic-
which .a ular arm branching off as a spout. Whether there is any relation betwee
stairway descends to the bottom. A deeper ha.sin. op~nmg m the n the
bottom is funerary T-shaped pond and the offering-table is uncertain; but it
probably filled with infiltration water. The distnbut10n of the trees is certain,
seems even at the beginning of the New Kingdom, that the T-shaped plan
quite informal, however, possibly another aspect of the 'Amar na trend had a
toward
freedom and naturalism in art.
 496 VII: GARDEN ARCHITECTURE

symbolic implication. There were two T-shaped ponds Banking the central
alley at the bottom of the lower stairway in Hatshepsut's temple.
At least two paintings, both from Memphis (fig. 258:2), represent a
funeral ceremony where the mummy is conveyed by boat to a rectangular
island in the middle of a rectangular pond. In one painting the pond is
bordered on three of its outer sides by a double row of funerary edicules in the
shape of light awnings containing a stand which alternate with date palms and
trees planted in brickwork containers (figs. 260, 261). A quay protrudes into
the water from one small side of the pond, and in one painting it is accessible
by a stairway. In this latter representation a quay is set at both smaller ends of
the island. This could be a symbolic representation of the Osireion at Abydos
or an actual copy of that sanctuary at Memphis.
The location of the funerary garden has been the subject of controversy,
but it can be safely assumed that some kind of small garden was occasionally 260. Layout of a funerary garden from a Memphite tomb mural.
laid out in front of the tomb itself and that more often a larger garden was laid
out below on the riverbank and probably also near the portal of the tomb
complex. 26r. Restored perspective of the funerary garden after its representation in a Memphite
tomb ( cf. fig . 260) .

REMAINS OF GARDENS

As might be expected, the actual remains of gardens are scarce indeed,

especially since the earlier excavators seldom cared to look for them. In the
valley, gardens were certainly a usual feature in rural houses and estates, but
they have disappeared, even before the structures themselves. Happily, the
capital built by Akhenaten in the desert left, in spite of its destruction at the
hands of the avengers of Amun, sufficient traces to provide.material for study.
Trees were planted in pits filled with black earth, and these are especially
recognizable. Gardens have been found in at least three of the royal palaces at
'Amarna. In both northern and southern wings of the Harem there is a garden
and a tank bordered on two sides by a columned portico with a series of small
cubicles. One of the gardens is sunk at a lower level than the ground Boor and
forms the main element in the architectural layout of the northern Harem,
located on the north side of the large columned portico and main hall (fig.
49). There is a garden adjacent to the women's quarters in the representations
of the palace from the tombs (fig. 16). In the King's House, a large garden
 VII: GARDEN ARCHITE CTURE VII: GARDEN ARCHITE CTURE 499
498
forms the central element, laid out symmetrically about a N.-S. alley, leading th~ theology propounded by Akhenaten. The layout of the eastern group of
from a north entrance pylon and accessible from the Bridge and from a bmldings is strictly axial (N.-S.) and the axis E.-W. of the large lake crosses it
gateway on the Royal Road. It is surrounded on three sides by the buildings of inside the hall of the Marn, or viewing place of the sun disk. A garden with a
the servants, the royal living quarters, and the magazines. On its western side ?rocessional alley fronts the group on the south. Here also there is a symbolic
there are two lower terraces, one having a roofed-over arbor, probably a island carrying a hypaethral kiosk, accessible from the Maru through a bridge.
"chamber-of-trees" similar to the one mentioned by texts (fig. 52). Here again A second bridge at the north end leads by an alley Banked with Bower beds to
the garden is located on the north side of the main hall of the living quarters, a water court featuring a range of eleven T-shaped water basins on an inter-
probably to allow the "cool breeze" coming from the north to carry the sweet locking plan (fig. 127). I have interpreted the kiosk on the island as designed
fragrance of the Bowers to the royal hosts and to provide a cool shaded garden. for the yearly festival of the viewing of the Aten, while the eleven basins of the
There must have been some device in the upper stories of the building- some water court would symbolically be connected with the eleven other monthly
windows or pergola on the terrace- from which the view on the garden could festivals. 548
be enjoyed. In the so-called North Palace, possibly a reserve for animal species Although nothing can be found concerning the formal layout of gardens
and botanical garden, the main element in the plan is an extensive water court about the landing quays of palaces or temples, it is safe enough to consider the
surrounded by trees. The rear central group of buildings is the formal apart- dat~ i~~icated by paintings and drawings as being exact. Landing quays were

ment, with a private suite bordered on the north by a sunken garden sur- the initial approaches to the buildings from the river, and they had to benefit
rounded on three sides by a columned portico and contiguous cells. Here again as much as, if not more than, the processional avenues from the decorative
the location of the garden is to the north df the living quarters (fig. 52), and effect of a formal layout. In a text from the reign of Ramses II (Bakenkhonsu)
there is a corner staircase leading up to the roof of the portico, where a pergola I would see a reference to such a quay wall in front of the temple at Luxor: "A
must have afforded an enjoyable view of the precincts. The animals were kept wall was before it of stone over against Thebes; it was flooded; and the
garde~s were planted with trees." 549 These are presumably the gardens on
in separate courts and rooms.
The villas of the rich inhabitants had extensive gardens where a chapel or both sides of the quay walls. At least two representations of landing quays
kiosk marked the crossing of the axis through the entrance gateway with that feature layouts of gardens. 550
of the house (fig. 61). Even magazine courts in the palace (fig. 52) and in the No trace of a garden has been found adjacent to the tombs, unless the
Great Temple of Aten (fig. 76) were provided with shade trees. purp~se of the _two large jars on both sides of the stairway in front of a chapel

In the layout of mortuary temples there could also have been some at Deir el Medma (No. 1213) was to contain trees or shrubs rather than water
provision for a processional avenue planted with trees and even a garden. In (fig. 219).
the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahari two papyrus p!;Jols on a T-shaped
plan, with Bower beds on both sides of each pool, Bank the central alley at the
bottom of the lower stairway (fig. 176) .""1 To the south of the temple structure
at Medinet Habu, but within its general enclosure, is a T-shaped pool (fig. 96) .
The architect Amenhotep son of Hapu had twenty trees planted in square
brick containers around the large square basin of the court of his mortuary
temple (fig. 188). But in no other temple did a garden attain such an impor-
tance as in the Maru-Aten at 'Amarna. The extensive grounds of that peculiar
complex, long mistaken for a "pleasure resort," are really a concrete represen-
tation of the potentiality of the sun disk Aten as a Creator; it is an outcome of

I1
 ACHIEVEMENT OF MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE 501

unassuming in size, being only temporary rest houses for the pharaoh, but the
VIII royal residences in Thebes are large complexes of buildings ( Amenhotep III at
Malqata). To the garden of such a residential palace may be appended an
immense lake such as that excavated for Queen Tiy, an achievement somewhat
The Achievement of Monumental reminiscent of the irrigation projects of Amenemhat III in the Fayum
(Twelfth Dynasty; cf. Vol. II, p. 232).
Architecture in the Empire The initial structure of a temple is important in itself, but it forms only a
nucleus to the rambling architectural complex that results from the additions
to the front by pharaohs or high priests of courts and pylons of gradually
PROGRAM increasing size. It is through this accretion process that such large temples as
those at Luxor and Karnak grew during the centuries- concrete proofs of the
Perhaps the most characteristic features of architecture in the Empire are its power of the gods and their clergy. It was natural that the elements of such
functional approach and its impressive scale. When the Egyptians reoccupied extensive monuments should be of a large size, and we find columns 19.26
the fortress at Buhen, which they had been obliged to abandon after the meters high (hypostyle hall at Karnak), pylons 65 meters long and higher
breakdown in the Middle Kingdom, they demolished the elements that had than 23 meters (Luxor, Medinet Habu), and colossi of 17 meters (Ra-
proved inefficient, such as the outer line of rounded bastions and the spur walls messeum) and 23 meters (Abu Simbel), or even rock statues of about 100
flanking the deep and narrow entrance, and instead they increased the thick- meters (Gebel Barkal). Statuary is used profusely, and integrates into the
ness of the girdle walls and their bastions. The plan of the artisans' village at structure in the form of Osiride pillars along courts and halls, and in friezes
'Amarna is a highly utilitarian design featuring, besides the adequate orienta- topping a rock-cut fa;:ade (Abu Simbel), not to mention the sphinxes set in
tion to take full advantage of sunlight and zoning, the use of one type of two rows along the processional alleys leading to a temple.
housing unit in single rows to insure privacy and simple police control.
Construction is also extremely functional. The artisans' village at Deir el
Medina, though perhaps not designed by an architect, is nevertheless a highly STYLE
practical achievement.
Although scale is not a prominent feature in these housing projects, it This concept of a monumental scale, which is comparable only to that in
certainly assumes the leading role in the fortified cities of the plains such as Hellenistic and Roman architectures, is allied to a concept of space. The choice
Sesebi in the Sudan, and especially in the temples, whether they be cult of a mountainous background as a setting to a mortuary temple, boldly
temples or mortuary temples in Egypt, or cut in the rock ofthe cliffs in Nubia. initiated by the architects of Mentuhotep (Eleventh Dynasty), is imitated with
It is a rule to separate the mortuary temple from its tomb, and to conceal it even more success by those of Hatshepsut. The traditional treatment of struc-
inside the western hills of Thebes. Scale and mass, which were essential to the tures at various levels connected by causeways, known since the Old Kingdom,
royal pyramid in the Old Kingdom and even in the Middle Kingdom, are which developed into a series of terraces, is at its most impressive stage (temple
replaced by the skillful furrowing of a deep corridor with pits, rooms, and of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahari). Although basically the choice of the setting
niches. Sometimes, however, such a corridor assumes colossal dimensions, may be an outcome of the influence of religious symbolism that linked a
especially in the cenotaphs at Abydos (Ahmose, Seti I). Temple palaces are forceful verticality of the terraced structure inclining heavenward against the
cliff to a local cult for the pyramidal apex "El Qurn" surmounting the cirque,
there is no doubt that the aesthetic aspect was coordinated so as to achieve a
style in harmony with nature.

-
 502 ACHIEV EMENT OF MONUM ENTAL ARCHI TECTU RE ACHIE VEMEN T OF MONUM ENTAL ARCHI TECTU RE 503
A feeling for unity pervades architectural composition and is occasionally polygonal or fluted columns of the portieo.es. Even when Thutmo se III uses
expressed by such specific elements as the bridge linking the official palace of plant-columns or imitates tent poles in stone in his Festival Hall at Karnak the
Akhenat en to his residence and spanning the Royal Road at 'Amarna , or the style is full of refined elegance. His two pillars decorated in high relief with
avenues of sphinxes connecting one temple to another, sometimes over great the heraldic plants of the South and the North are masterpieces. The palmi-
distances ( 2 km. connecting Luxor and Karnak) . This avenue is actually an form column disappears in monume ntal architecture, while the bundle papy-
external extension of the axial approach to the shrine of the god. In the temple riform one imitates the eight or sixteen stems of the Middle Kingdom one.551
itself this approach is the central nave of the hypostyle hall, en_iphasized .by its Plant-columns, mainly the papyriform,552 are stylized under Amenho tep II but
axial doorways and portals flanked by statues or obelisks forming the spine of still retain the shape of the original cluster of stems (Luxor) . In the temple of
the plan. Unity as a result of religious symbolism led to the orienting of the Amenho tep III an approach of two rows of huge open papyriform columns
temples at Thebes, at least that at Luxor and that of Hatshep sut across the leads to the pylon, which forms the regular front to the typical temple.
Nile, toward Karnak. The architectural style at 'Amarna closely expresses the profound creed
Flexibility in planning is obvious in the curving of the axis of the temple in Nature propounded by Akhenaten. The openness of the style of porticoes as
at Luxor to let it gradually assume a direction toward Karnak. Flexibility also best exemplified by the temple of Hatshep sut is emphasized by the use of
led the architect of the mortuary temple of Ramses II to design it on an askew windows of appearance and loggias. This is true commun ion with Nature, and
axis ~o that the earlier small temple of Seti I would be abutting on the in the internal apartments this aspect is achieved through the layout of sunken
hypostyle hall of the new one. A curved processional avenue was an outcome gardens and a lavish use of floral and faunal elements such as ducks hanging
and an extension of the curved axis of a temple. We find such an avenue from plant-cluster columns and ceilings painted with vines (coronation hall).
between the temple of Mut, passing through the central court of that of Architecture is transformed to induce man to worship the sun disk as the
Amun-R e' and leading to that of Ptah and the northern gateway at Karnak. In creator of Nature, everywhere at home or in the sun temples or in the
the layout of the mansions at 'Amarna , unity was achieved in the alley Mam-Aten. One of its main aspects is architectural symbolism in its most
bending along two axes at right angles, leading from the street entrance to the concrete calendric implications, where the double set of 365 offering-tables in
hypaethr al chapel and thence bending to the house. In general,. howev.er, the Gem-Aten would serve for the daily offering ritual at sunrise and at
symmetry is a basic factor in the layout of the temples and housing umts. sunset; and the eleven basins of the water court and the kiosk in the Maru-
Geometry is even more thoroughly sought after here than it was by the Greeks Aten would serve for the monthly festivals of the Aten. New elements appear
in the planning of towns or temples. This does not preclude a functional for the first time: the broken lintel, the pylon with vertical faces, and the open
solution, especially in the plan of houses at Lahun in the Middle Kingdom , fa;ade consisting of pillars and low screen walls, perhaps taken over from the
where a portico or loggia opens north or west to catch the cool breeze peripteral temple, not to mention the sunken gardens. Some elements have a
('Amarn a mansion s); or in the King's House where a garden is laid out to the strange Mesopotamian connotation, such as the two ramps across the door-
north. ways, the pillared square coronation hall akin to the later apadana of the
A brief review of the stylistic characteristics of the monuments and their Persians, and the window of appearance across the Royal Street which reminds
main elements, such as columns and statues, during the epoch-making reigns us of the later bridge from the gate to the ziqurrat at Kar Tukulti Ninurta, or of
is revealing. Thus, with Hatshep sut the style is all rhythm and harmony ; the that between the palace of Sargon and the temple of Nabu at Khorsabad.
terraced layout contributes to the scenic effect more successfully than in the
Beginning with the style of 'Amarna , the proportions of the columns
nearby mortuar y temple of Mentuhotep or in the tombs at Qaw. Architectural deteriorate, and the shafts are overburdened with alien elements such as ducks,
statuary is exteriorized and integrated into the structure in the shape of elegant and panels and details of decoration. 553 Toward the middle of the Nineteen th
Osiride pillars. An elegance akin to that of classical Greece is expressed by the Dynasty the shaft is of circular cross section. The polygonal type disappears
 504 ACHIEVEMENT OF MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE ACHIEVEMENT OF MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE 505
and the colossal open papyriform column is almost exclusively used to border colossi of the temple at Medinet Habu are the concrete result of an artificiality
the nave of the hypostyle hall. 554 The shaft is thickened into a cylinder with that appeared earlier at Karnak, even to pervade the legends of wall scenes
entasis and is carved in low relief. Porticoes with intercolumnar screen walls where Amun's thanks to Seti I contain puns on the names of Pylon II: "My
stretch at the rear of the court of the temples. 555 son Seti, my heart is happy with your monument in Waset. I am pleased that
The external walls of the temples are decorated with low relief of a you have made my heart joyous, . . . that you have illuminated Ipet-iswt with
functional purport, historical or funerary.556 The types of carving technique eternal work." The Second Pylon was called "Amun-is-in-Joy" and "The
are the sunk relief outside and the raised low relief inside; but under the Splendid Doorways illuminating Waset of Amun-Re'." 560 Although some of
Ramessids, beginning with Ramses II, both types are irrationally used inside the religious scenes may have plagiarized those in the Ramesseum the narra-
with disconcerting effects. The sunk relief, which reacts strongly in the bright tive ones bristle with life and three-dimensional rendering achieved through
sunlight, is meaningless and ugly in the shade. the interrelated gestures of the figures in the superimposed rows.
This is the period of the great harmonic plans of the temple of Seti I and The influence of painting is prominent in the evolution of low relief.
his impressive cenotaph at Abydos, the latter being a clear architectural cry- Colar, which began to be used on flat walls instead of low relief in the Middle
stallization of a cosmic symbolism. Proportions in both monuments are mas- Kingdom, is now applied on pavements to imitate ponds with fish and aquatic
sive, but the low relief in the temple, though of an excellent quality, does not plants, on ceilings as rows of vultures alternating with cartouches and as
reach the freshness of the earlier New Kingdom. 557 A bold dramatic rendering chessboard patterns. Scenes of the Netherworld cover almost exclusively the
of narration in huge compositions without registers is attempted in Karnak walls of the royal tombs, and appear mixed with scenes of daily life in private
(Battle of Qadesh). 55 s tombs. New types of friezes of uraei alternating with Hathor heads and
Ramses II is certainly the greatest builder among the pharaohs. It can be cartouches in temples, or floral garlands in houses run beneath the ceiling.561
said that architectural statuary reaches its apex in this reign, for colossi assume The medium is cheap enough to be used by artisans in the decoration of their
a prominent place in the temple and also in front of the pylon. Obelisks are houses and tombs (Deir el Medina). The painting technique occasionally
also favorites of this ruler. The style is characterized by its expression of resembles the fresco finished with , tempera (palace at Malqata). The style
strength and power through the massive proportions of the Osiride pillars, the admits of grading and expressionistic touches. In Ramesside times painting
overwhelming impression of the colossi and obelisks, and the strong shadows declines, featuring a sketchy design in black outlines.
of the deep sunk relief. As if this aggressive use of the colossal scale and deep
carving were not sufficient, artists invent illusionistic decoration (Tanis) to
emphasize perspective. Narrative scenes become more stereotyped during the CONSTRUCTION
long reign of Ramses ll,559 though often very extensive ..with hundreds of
figures in violent movement. Construction attains it greatest efficiency in the 'Amarna Period, perhaps as a
Ramses III imitates the achievement of Ramses II in his mortuary temple result of financial restrictions. Concrete, a rapid and easy-to-handle material, is
at Medinet Habu, with two fortified gateways, possibly featuring Syrian influ- poured in the foundation trenches of the desert soil, upon which walls are built
ences, and a resurgence of optical illusionism. This illusionistic style aimed at in one-brick and half-a-brick thicknesses. L-shaped partitions abut trans-
replacing real scale by a larger faked one, by inventing faked elements, and by versely on an enclosure wall to form the contiguous houses in the artisans'
placing low-relief scenes in inverted order, the larger registers being the closest village. For the first time pointed arches and vaults are evidenced (Esna) .
down. Such mannerisms in architectural design, preceding by twenty-seven Massive construction more in line with pre-'Amarna tradition is used in
centuries those of Michelangelo in the Campidoglio in Rome, are a sure sign of the mortuary temples of Ramses II and Ramses III, however, even in such
decline. The deformed Osiride statues and the debased proportions of the

11

, I

II
 506 ACHIE VEMEN T OF MONUM ENT AL ARCHI TECTU RE
ACHIE VEMEN T OF MONUM ENTAL ARCHI TECTU RE 507
secondary utilitarian structures as the administration outbuildings. Stylobates
courts of the Great Temple at 'Amarna .564 The plan of the irregular temple of
form a solid base to temples or sometimes even to mansions. 562
Seti I at Abydos features the unique, shift of the rear portion to one side
Materials are in general poorer than those used in the Old Kingdom, and
abutting on the main body. Its harmoni c analysis reveals, however, that this
sandstone from Gebel Silsila and even brick and wood are used in the temples.
shift conforms to the system, for the basic harmonic triangles are interrelated
Except for the monoliths of Thutmos e III columns are built in drums. This
along continuous straight lines, connecting the lateral complex with the
economy in monume ntal architecture is oddly coupled with the use of gold
scheme of the main body of the plan.
and electrum sheets applied as a lining to walls, pyramidions, obelisks, flag-
What was the presumed purpose of harmonic design in Egyptian archi-
staffs, doors, and pavements (hypostyle hall at Karnak) ; and colored ceramic
tecture? Was it aesthetic? The fact that in most cases the aesthetic effect,
inlays as a versatile decorative medium were favored in palace ornamen tation
especially in the hypostyle hall crowded with columns, could not be perceived
where they were sometimes replaced by stuccoed wood or mud molded and
in perspective suggests that a conceptual interpretation, even if not perceivable,
painted (palace at Malqata ). Many of the royal commissions must have been
was aimed at. The use of the actual numbers of the summation series as
carried out in haste, especially those of Ramses II, for inscriptions were mis-
dimensions in cubits in some of the plans seems to imply that they contributed
placed and subsequently emended (Abu Simbel), and faults in the bedrock
a symbolic value of their own, possibly as a connotation of "eternity" imma-
colossi were filled in with plaster and carved without further ado.
nent in the series itself. This same concept is perhaps rendered graphically
through the "prismatic triangle" which forms a skeleton framewo rk along the
axis of the plan of any temple and which features a series of squares interpret-
HARMO NIC ARCHI TECTU RAL DESIGN 563
ing the contiguous elements of this plan, decreasing in size from the pylon
inner alignment upon which it stands toward the sanctuary. Actually, such a
Whether treated in the elegant style of the early Eighteen th Dynasty at Thebes
prismatic triangle could well have been pictured by the Egyptians as a rabatte-
and Abydos, or on the coarser styles of the Egyptian settlements in Nubia
ment to be rendered in space as a prism whose apex points just above the
('Amada , Sesebi), and those at the end of the Empire, monume ntal architec-
ultimate square of the sanctuary proper toward heaven, or eternity, a crystalli-
ture shows a consistent use of the harmoni c system of design. Plans and
zation of the Egyptian religious concept interpret ing the sanctuary as "the
elevations are still regulated by the Golden Ratio so that their components in
abode of god, heaven."
the shapes of squares and 8 :5 isosceles triangles feature a harmonic sequence
The harmonic system is evidenced during the Empire for plans of tem-
embodied into a harmoni c whole. Most of the plans that I have analyzed
ples, palaces, chapels, tombs, and even towns ('Amarn a East). It is also .appar-
conform to the system, even to featuring a sequence of dimensions in cubits
ent in the very few elevations extant, such as that of a peripteral chapel of
marked by significant points along the longitudinal axis ~hich conforms to
the Eighteenth Dynasty at Elephantine.
the consecutive numbers of the Fibonacci summation series.
Thus, it seems that here also a basic pursuit of function by the Egyptian
Proof of the theory of harmonic design is afforded, though in two
artist leads concurrently to beauty.
different ways, in the plans of the two sanctuaries at 'Amarna , and in that of
the temple of Seti I at Abydos. The harmonic system of the two 'Amarna * * * * *
sanctuaries is identical, even to the dimensions of the squares that form their During this relatively short period of five centuries ( 1580-1085 B.c.),
constructional diagrams. These squares determine the basic outline of the when Egypt reached the apex of its rise as the world power, architecture
various elements of the design, and the dimensions of their sides in cubits experienced its hardest times. Althoug h it reappeared from the chaos of the
conform to the numbers of a summation series 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144. Numeri- Second Intermediate Period in all the prime freshness and elegant simplicity
cal symbolism is also found in the layout of rows of offering-tables set in the that asserted its indubitable filiation from the "classicist" trends of the Middle
Kingdom , it was soon submerged by the requirements of a "nouveau riche"
 508 ACHIEVEMENT OF MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE

society, emphasizing scale, massiveness, and glittering materials.

The interlude of the Aten (1369- 1354 B.c.) brought in an interpretation
of truth conspicuous for its vigorous originality in function of sunlight and
utilitarian purpose in architecture, profuse plant and animal motifs of a rather
poor taste in modeled ornament, and realism in architectral statuary. Notes
This short-lived recession from tradition had its lingering reactions in the
post-'Amarna architecture, however, which, deprived of its genial inspiration,
could only decline under the Ramessids ( 1314- rn85 B.c.) in both style and
construction. Style, becoming increasingly estranged from nature, stumbled
into a massive artificiality that occasionally sparkled with mannerism. Construc-
tion could not maintain its excellence against the harrassing requirements of
too many commissions to be carried out in an expanding Egypt in too short a
time.
Yet tradition was not dead and, happily for Egyptian architecture and
other disciplines of art, it revived to control both monumental and private
programs. As will be shown in the next volume of this work the decline that
had seeped into Ramesside architecture was checked under the Later dynasties,
one of which, called Saite (Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, 663-525 B.c.), sought inspi-
ration, albeit more servile than imaginative, in the art of the Old Kingdom.
Architecture proved to be the art that resisted decline best, surviving the
chaos brought in by foreign invasions of Persians (525- 404, 341- 333 B.c.) and
Macedonians, to reemerge during the Ptolemaic Dynasty (304- 30 B.c.) and
even to prosper under the Roman domination, true to its norms, profoundly
Egyptian and occasionally inventive even though burdened with relief in a
debased style. It was this unwavering truthfulness of monumental architecture
to its tradition in design that allowed it to continue as a creative admirable
discipline long after the other arts had foundered in the HeHenistic deluge and
well into the alien environment of Christianity.
 Abbreviations Notes
A.S.A. Annales du Service des Antiquites de l'Egypte. Cairo, r900- -.
A.Z. Zeitschrift fur agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. Leipzig,
r863-.
B.l.F.A.O. Bulletin de l'/nstitut franrais d' archeologie orientate. Cairo,
r9or- -.
Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York, r905- -. I. Breasted, A.R., III, #rfo- r98; 282- 293.
B.M.M.A . 27. G. Lefebvre, Romans et Contes egyptiens
Badawy, Dessin Architectural Alexandre Badawy, Le Dessin Architectural chez les Anciens Egyp- 2. Winlock, Middle Kingdom in Thebes, de l'epoque pharaonique (Paris, 1949), p.
tiens. Cairo, r948. pp. 150- 170, pls. 22- 32. 220 n. 84.
Badawy, Egyptian Archi- Alexander Badawy, A History of Egyptian Architecture. Vol. I, 3· J. Wilson, T he Culture of Ancient Egypt, 28. Erman-Blackman, Literature, pp. 293- 302.
tecture, I From the Earliest Times to the End of the Old Kingdom (Chicago, r958), p. 16r, n. ro, does not 29. Breasted, A.R., II, # 1000.
(Giza, 1954). agree with this surmise. 30. Ibid., I, #755·
Badawy, "Maison" Alexandre Badawy; "La Maison mitoyenne de plan uniforme clans 4. Drioton-Vandier, L 'Egypte, pp. 453-474. 3I. Ibid., III, #584.
l'Egypte Pharaonique," Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Cairo Uni- 5. Breasted, A .R., II, #978. 32. Ibid., IV, #363.
versity, Vol. XV, Part II (Dec., r953), pp. r- 58. 6. Drioton-Vandier, L'Egypte, p. 472. 33. Ibid., IV, #386.
J. H . Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt. Chicago, r906-r907. 5 7. Breasted, A.R., II, #991 ff. 34. Ibid., IV, #380, 394.
Breasted, A .R.
vols. 8. I bid., III, # r70. 35. Ibid., III, #625.
B. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh. Fouilles de l'Institut fran~ai s d'archfo- 9. Ibid., IV, #4rO.
Bruyere, Deir el Medineh 36. C. Nims, "Places about Thebes," f.N.E.S.,
logie orientale du Caire. Cairo, r926--. ro. Alexandre Badawy, "Politique et Archi- XIV (1955), rr7, referring to H . Ricke,
Erman-Blackman, Literature A. Erman, The Litemture of the Ancient Egyptians. Trans. A. M. tecture clans l'Egypte Pharaonique," A.Z., LXXIII (1937) , 124- 13r. See now
Blackman. London, r927. Compare the new edition with no:es Chronique d'Egypte, XXXIII/ 66 (1958), C. Nims, T hebes of the Pharaohs (Lon-
by W . K. Simpson, The Egyptians. New York, 1966. pp. r7r- 18r. don, 1965).
I r. Breasted, A .R ., II, #867.
Holscher, Medine! Habu U. Holscher, The Excavation of Medine! Habu. Chicago, r934- 37. Breasted, A .R., IV, #489, and p. 238,
r954, 5 vols. r2. G. Posener, Litterature et Politique dans n.c.
f.E.A. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. London, r9r 4- -. l'Egypte de la Xll. Dynastie (Paris, 38. Ibid., II, #342.
Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Chicago, r942-- . 1956), chap. ii.
f.N.E.S. 39. Caminos, op. cit., pp. 164-165, 4ro- 41r.
Kemi Kemi. Revue de Philologie et d'Archeologie Egyptiennes et Coptes. r3. Breasted, A .R., IV, #4r6 ff. 40. Ibid.
Paris, r928- -. r+ Ibid., III, #307; IV, #rr7. 4r. Badawy, Dessin Architectural, pp. 75-rr5.
Porter-Moss, Bibliography Bertha Porter and R. L. B. Moss, Topographical Bibliography of r5. H. Frankfort, The Art and Architecture N . de G. D avies, The T ow nhouse in
Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic T exts, Reliefs and Paintings. Ox- of tlie Ancient Orient (Baltimore, 1954), A ncient Egypt, Metropolitan Museum
ford, r927-r95r. 7 vols. New ed.; Oxfor.i, 1960--. p. r46, fig. 67.
Studies Vol. I/2 (New York, 1929), pp.
W. Stevenson Smith, The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. 16. Ibid., p. 148, pl. r 4 r.
Smith, Art of Egypt 233-255.
Harmondsworth, Middlesex and Baltimore, Maryland (Pelican r7. I bid., p. r50, fig. 68. Architectural, pp.
42. Badawy, Dessin
I 8. I bid., p. I 52, fig. 70.
Art History of Art), r958. New ed., 1966. 132-134.
19. Ibid., p. r53 ff.
Steindortf, Egypt (Baedeker) Eg.ypt and the Sudan. H andbook for travellers, by Karl Baedeker. 43. Errnan-Blackrnan, Literature, p. 178.
8th Rev. ed. Leipzig, r929. 20. Breasted, A.R., II, #192. 44. Ibid., p. 163.
Jacques Vandier, Manuel d'archeologie egyptienne. Paris, 1952, 2 r. Ibid., IV, # 109.
Vandier, Manuel 45· S. Clarke and R. Engelbach, Ancient
22. Holscher, Medine! H abu III, 37;
1954, r958. 3 vols. Egyptian Masonry (Oxford, 1930), pp
Breasted, A.R., IV, #r92. '
Vol. II Alexander Badawy, A History of Egyptian Architecture: The r73-175, figs. 206-207.
First Intermediate Period, the Middle Kingdom, and the Second 23. R. Caminos, L ate-Egyptian Miscellanies 46. Holscher, Medinet H abu, II, 81-82, fig.
Intermediate Period. Berkeley and Los Angeles, r966. (London, 1954), pp. 37_38. 7r.
24. Ibid.
Winlock, Middle Kingdom H. E. Winlock, The Rise and Fall of the Middle Kingdom in 47. !bid., III, pp. 77-78, figs. 52-53.
25. I bid., p. IOI.
in Th ebes Thebes. New York, r947. 48. W. FI. Petrie, Six T emples at Thebes
26. Ibid., p. 73-
(London, 1897), pl. XXV; U. Holscher,
 512 NOTES NOTES 513
Das Hohes Tor von Medinet-Habu, eine 67. L. Borchardt, "Ein Brot," A.Z., 68 92. Fairman, op. cit., pp. 40-41 ; Pend lebury, l 19. Pendlebury, op. cit., III, 122-123, pl. XX;
baugeschichtlic/1es Untersuchung (Leip- ( 1932)' 78, fig. 2. op. cit., III, 1-4, pl. I. Badawy, Maison, pp. 30-31, fig. 17.
zig, 19!0), p. 54, fig. 5i. 68. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt, 93. Fairman, op. cit., p. 37; H. Frankfort and r20. Ibid., pp. 113-117, pl. XIX.
49. B. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh (1935-1940), pp. 275-279. J. D. S. Pen<;llebury, The City of Akhena- l2I. Badawy, Dessin Architectural, p. 130, fig.
(Cairo, 1943), Part I, pp. 72-79, 85-89, fig. 69. Holscher, op. cit., II, 68-72, figs. 54-60. ten (London, 1933), II, l-+ 158.
36 bis, pl. 3. 70. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 16-17, 94· Pendlebury, op. cit., III, 33-85, pls. 122. Pendlebury, op. cit., III, 2g-30, pls. I,
50. Holscher, Medinet Habu, III, 44-48. figs. 4, 6, 7. XIII-XIV; W . FI. Petrie, Tell el Amarna XII.
5i. H. Ricke, Der Grundriss des Amarna- 7r. P. Mon:et, Tanis: Douze annees de fouil- (London, 1894), pp. 7-20, pl. XXXVI; 123. Ibid., pp. 106-111, pl. XVIII.
Wohnhauses (Leipzig, 1932), pp. 65-68, les dans une capitale oubliee du Delta Ricke, op. cit., pp. 56-57. 124- Ibid., pp. 16-48, pl. XIIIa.
figs. 59-60. egyptien (Paris, 1942), pp. 28, 222-230. 95. Badawy, Maison, pp. 31-32, fig. 18. 125. Ibid., pp. 89-101, pl. XVI.
52. Badawy, Maison, p. 40, fig. 29. 72. J. Leclant and J. Yoyotte, "Les Obelisques 96. Frankfort, op. cit., pp. 70, 77. 126. Ibid., p. roo, 210, pl. XVI.
53. Holscher, op. cit., III, pp. 49-59. Ricke, op. de Tanis," Kemi, XI ( 1950), S+ 97. Pendlebury, op. cit., p. 86, pl. XVI. r27. Ibid., p. 131, pl. XXI.
cit., fig. 59. 73. Montet, op. cit., pp. 44, 226; J. L. Fouger- 98. E. Newton, "Excavations at El-'Amarna, 128. Petrie, Tell el Amarna, p. 24, pL. XLI.
54. Smith, Art of Egypt, pp. 156-159, figs. ousse, "Etudes sur Jes constructions de 1923-1924,'' f.E.A. , X ( 1924), 294-298; H. 129. Borchardt, op. cit., p. 74, pl. IV.
5 1-53. Tanis,'' Kemi, V ( 1935), 31 ff ; A. Lezine, Frankfort, "Preliminary Report on the 130. Pendlebury, op. cit., III, 131-135, pl.
55. R. de Tytus, A Preliminary Report on the "Le Temple du Nord a Tanis," Kemi, Excavations,'' f.E.A., XIII ( 1927), 218; T. XXI.
Re-excavation of the Palace of Amenho- XII ( 1952), 46-58. Whittemore, "The Excavations at El- r3r. W. B. Emery and L. P. Kirwan, The
tep Ill (New York, 1903). Smith, op. cit., 74- Fougerousse, op. cit., pp. 42-43, fig. ro. 'Amarna, Season 1924-1925,'' f.E.A., XII Excavations and Survey between W adi
pp. 160-172, figs. 54-60, pls. 120-122. 75. Uzine, op. cit., p. 56. ( 1926), 3-9. es-Sebua and Adindan, 1929-1931 (Cairo,
56. Smith, op. cit., p. 163. 76. Ibid., p. 53. 99. Vandier, Manuel, p. 1022. 1935), pp. 33- 37, pl. VI.
57. Badawy, Maison, pp. 38- 39, fig. 26. 77. Montet, op. cit., pp. 50-51, pl. II. roo. T. Eric Peet and C. Leonard Woolley, 132. G. Steindorff, Aniba (Gliickstadt, 1937),
58. Frankfort, The Art and Architecture of 78. Uzine, op. cit., p. 56 n. r, fig. 3. The City of Akhenaten (London, 1923), II, 19, Blatt 8.
the Ancient Orient. 79. Montet, op. cit., p. 226. I, 4-5. 133. Ibid., p. 31, Blatt 3.
59. Badawy, Maison, pp. 39-40. So. E. Naville, The Store-City of Pithom and IOI. Ibid., pp. 37-50. 134. Breasted, A .R., IV, #9.
60. C. S. Fisher, "The Eckley B. Coxe Egyp- the Route of the Exodus (London, 1903) 102. Vandier, Manuel, II, 986. 135· Ibid., p. 7 n.d.
tian Expedition," Pennsylvania University pp. ro-14. 103. Smith, Art of Egypt, p. 202. 136. Badawy, Dessin Architectural, pp.
Museum Journal (Philadelphia), VIII Si. W. FI. Petrie, Naukratis (London, 1886), 104. I bid., p. 202. 123-125.
(1917), 211-230, figs. 77-89; Porter-Moss, I, 2+ 105. Peet and Woolley, op. cit., I, II, fig. 3. 137· Ibid., pp. 123-130.
Bibliography, III, 223; Ricke, op. cit., pp. 82. Holscher, Medinet Habu, III, 15; Bada- 106. Ibid., I, 15-17, pl. I. 138. P. Montet, Les scenes de la vie privee
64-65, fig. 58. wy, Maison, pp. 42-44, figs. 32-33. 107. Pendlebury, op. cit., III, 26-27, pl. XI, fig. dans les tombeaux egyptiens de l'Ancien
6r. E. R. Ayrton, C. T. Currelly, and A. E. P. 83. Holscher, op. cit., III, 16, fig. 17; Badawy, 6. Empire (Strasbourg, 1925), pp. rr6 ff.
Weigall, Abydos, (London, 1904) III, 37, Maison, p. 44, fig. 34· 108. Ibid., III, 139-141, pl. LV, fig. 20. 139. N. de G. Davies, "Akhenaten at Thebes,"
pl. LIII. 84. Wilson, op. cit., p. 215, citing A. W. 109. Peet and Woolley, op . .cit., I, 5-9, pls. f.E.A., IX ( 1923), 144, pl. XXVI. But this
62. H. M. Blackman, "I'reliminary Report on Shorter, f.E.A. , XVII ( 1931), pp. 23 ff.; III-V; Smith, Art of Egypt, pp. 201-203, curvature seems to be a regular feature
the Excavations at Sesebi, Northern Prov- XVIII ( 1932) pp. l IO ff. fig. 70. ( cf. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh, III,
ince, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1936-1937,'' llO. Frankfort and Pendlebury, op. cit., II, 5, II5)-I2I, figs. 12-I+
85. J. D . S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhena-
J.E.A., XXIII (1937), 145-151, pls. XIII, pls. III, XVI. 140. Holscher, Medinet Habu, II, 82, fig. 95.
ten (London, l95IJ , III, 4.
XIX. Badawy, Maison, pp. 23-24, fig. l l r. I bid., pp. 24-25, pl. XII; Seton Lloyd, 14r. Edouard B. Ghazouli, "The Palace and
86. Steindorff, Egypt (Baedeker), p. 245;
I2. "Model of a Tell El-Amarna house," Magazines Attached to the Temple of
Smith, Art of Egypt, pp. 186 ff.; Vandier,
63. P. Barguet, Le Temple d'Amon-Re Kar- a Manuel II, 1006 ff.
f.E.A., XIX (1933), 1-7, pls. IV, IX; Fair- Sety I at Abydos and the Facade of this
nak: Essai d'Exeg.ese (Cairo, 1962), p. 34; ~1 man, op. cit., pp. 37-39. Temple," in A .S.A. (Cairo, 1964,) LVIII,
87. Pendlebury, op. cit., III, r.
also p. 3 n. 5. I I 12. Frankfort and Pendlebury, op. cit., II, 99 ff., pls. I-XXXIII, fig. 3.
6+ E. Egli, Geschichte des Stadtebaues 88. I bid. I, I ; II, pl. I.
89. Fairman, op. cit., pp. 39-41, figs. r, 5,
~fJ Pts·
44-45, XIV, L V. 142. Holscher, Medinet Habu, III, 78-82, pl.
(Ziirich, 1959), pp. 41-42, fig. ro. rr3. Ibid., pp. 40-42, pls. XVII, VII. ro.
65. Barguet, op. cit., p. 37. 15. rr4. Ibid., pp. 63-66, pl. XV. 143· Ibid., pp. 6z ff.
66. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh (1934-1935) 90. Smith, Art of Egypt, p. 189. rr5. Ibid., pp. 30-31, pl. XIII. 144- Ibid., II, p. 7J, fig. 62.
(Cairo, 1939), 15 ff; H. W . Fairman, 9r. Fairman, op. cit., p. 37; T . E. Peet, C. L. 116. Peet and Woolley, op. cit., I, 51-91 ; Bad- 145. I bid., fig. 63.
"Town Planning in Pharaonic Egypt," Woolley, B. Gunn, P. L. 0. Guy, and F. awy, Maison, pp. 25-30, 48-50, 54- 146. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 17, fig.
Town Planning Review, XX/ 1 ( 1949), G. Newton, The City of Akhenaten, Vol. rr7. Badawy, Maison, pp. 33-34, figs. 20-22. 5.
46-49; Badawy, Maison , pp. 34-38. I (London, 1923) . rr8. Ibid., pp. 32-33, fig. 19. 147· Borchardt, op. cit., pl. IV.
 514 NOTES NOTES 515
190. Ibid., II, #965, n. a. 226. Badawy, Dessin Architectural, pp. sign of Egyptian temples: S. Giedion,
148. Pendlebury, op. cit., III, 77·
149· Peet and Woolley, op. cit., I, rr3, fig. 19 r. Ibid., IV, #479· 164-181. The Eternal Present, Vol. II, The Begin-
192. Ibid., II, #812, 758, 759· 227. I bid., pp. 181- 189. nings of Architecture (New York, 1964),
17. 193· Ibid., II, #884, 918; IV, #121, 126, 128, 228. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 64, fig. pp. 517-520.
150. Ibid., figs. 7-ro.
137, n. a, 190, 207, 213, 359, 40+ 46. 243. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 33-34,
l5I. Ibid., I, 113. 229. Badawy, Dessin
194· Ibid., II, #150-155; also II, #608. I have Architectural, pp. fig. 2I.
152. Ibid., I, 112; III, 60.
interpreted differently the sentence de- 190-198. 244. Ibid., p. rr5, fig. 81; Z. Zaba,
l 53. Peet and Woolley, op. cit., I, l l 3·
scribing the foundation ceremony of 230. Ibid., pp. 199-201, figs. 235-236. L'Orientation astronomique dans
154· Pendlebury, op. cit., III, 86.
"stretching-the-line"; see Alexander Bada- 231. Ibid., pp. 201- 205. l'Ancienne Egypte et la precession de
155· Peet and Woolley, op. cit., I, rr9, fig.
wy, Ancient Egyptian Architectural De- 232. Drioton-Vandier, L'Egypte, pp. 90-93. l'axe du monde (Prague, 1953).
18. sign. A Study of the Harmonic System, 233. Steindorff, Egypt (Baedeker), 1929, p.
156. Breasted, AR., II, #883, 894; III, # 174· 245. Winlock, Middle Kingdom in T hebes, p.
University of California Publications, clxxiii. 90.
157· Ibid., II, #82r. Near Eastern Studies no. 4 (Berkeley and 234. Alexandre Badawy, "Politique et Archi- 246. W . Andrae, Die Feststrassen im Nahen
158. Ibid., III, #500, also #498.
Los Angeles, 1965), pp. 46-47. tecture clans l'Egypte Pharaonique" Chro- Osten (1941), pp. 43-52, pls. VI- VII.
159· I bid., III, # 173- nique d'Egypte, XXXIII
160. I bid., II, # ro4, 302, n. a; # 596, 889, 890, 195· Breasted, A.R., I, #65, n. a, d. ( 1958), 247. J. Durm, H andbuch der Architektur
196. Ibid., II, #300-302. 171-181. (Leipzig, 19ro) II, 2, pp. 538- 539.
907. 235. Badawy, Egyptian A rchitecture, I, fig. 248. Cicero, Cat. III. 20).
l6r. Ibid., II, #890. 197· Ibid., II, #567.
198. Ibid., II, #601. 18. l 249. F. Granger, Vitruvius on Architecture,
162. Ibid., II, # 375· 236. Badawy, Dessin Architectural, p. 189.
199. Ibid., II, #794· Loeb Classical Library (London, 1931 ) , I,
163. Ibid., II, #638-639. 237. T.
200. Ibid., II, #883. Dombart, "Der Zweitiirmige 232- 233.
164. Ibid., II, #935· Tempel-pylon altaegyptischer Baukunst
201. Ibid., II, #886. 250. I am thankful for the remark to Dr. E.
165. Ibid., II, #880, n. a.
202. Ibid., II, #89+ und seine religiose Symbolik," Egyptian G. Wente, Oriental Insti tute, University
166. Ibid., III, #222.
203. I bid., III, # 31. Religion, I ( 1933), 87- 98, 135. of Chicago.
167. Ibid. , III, #503. 238. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 92.
204. Ibid., III, #215. 251. A. H. Gardiner, "To 'await' in Middle
168. Ibid., III, #580. 239. P. Gilbert, Le classicisme de /'architecture
205. I bid., III, # 412. Egyptian," f.E.A., 43 (1957) , u3.
169. Ibid., II, #883.
206. I bid., III, # 493· egyptienne (Brussels, 1943), pp. 86- 87. 252. H. N issen, "Orientation," Studien zur
170. I bid., III, #214.
207. Ibid., IV, #4. 240. ~· A~nold , W ar;drelief und Raumfunk- Geschichte der Religion, I (1906), 29 ff;
171. Ibid., II, #885.
208. Ibid., IV, # 601-603. tzon tn iigyptzsclien T empeln des Neuen Zaba, op. cit.; see the review and remarks
172. I bid., II, # ro4; for the names of other
doorways at Karnak see P. Barguet, Le 209. Ibid., IV, #631-632. Reiches (Berlin, 1962), p. 95. All the by J-.P. Lauer· about Zaba's work: "Recen-
Tem ple d'Amon-Re aKarnak: Essai d'exe- 2ro. Ibid., IV, #701. subsequent discussion derives from this sion," in B.l.F.A .O., LX, (196o), 171- 183;
211. Ibid., II, #326-329. excellent work. For the daily ritual and J.-P. Lauer, "L'Orientation des Pyra-
g.ese (Cairo, l 962) , pp. 343-344.
212. Ibid., II, # 172-173. its representation in scenes: A. Moret, Le mides" in his Observations sur les Pyra-
173- I bid., III, #827.
213. Holscher, Medin et Habu, III, pp. 4, 7, 8, Rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte mides (Cairo, 1960), pp. 99-124.
174- Ibid., III, #504.
9, IO. d'apre:S les papyrus de Berlin et les textes 253. J. Leclant and J. Yoyotte, "Les Obelisques
175· Ibid., II, # 153; for the names of other
religious structures at Karnak see Bar- 214. Breasted, A .R., IV, # 159· du temple de Seti !er a Abydos, Annales de Tanis," Kemi, XI ( 1950) , 83, n. 5.
215. Ibid., IV, # 219. du Musee Guimet, t. 14 (Paris, 1902). 254. P. Montet, T anis, p. 57, fig. 7.
guet, op. cit., pp. 344- 345.
216. Ibid., II, #924. 241. H. Nelson, "The Egyptian Temple, with 255. A. Lezine, "Le Temple du Nord a
176. Ibid., IV, #659.
217. Ibid., II, # ro3-ro6; K. Sethe, Urkunden Particular Reference to the Theban Tem- Tanis," Kemi, XII (1952), 54> n. 3, fig.
177- I bid., II, #630.
des iigyptischen Altertums (Leipzig, ples of the Empire Period," Biblical A r- 4·
178. Ibid., II, #627.
1906), IV, 55- 56; Barguet, op. cit., p. chaeologist, VII (New Haven, 1944), pp. 256. Ibid., p. 56, fig. 1.
179· I bid., II, #833.
88. 44- 53; H. W . Fairman, "Worship and 257. Ibid., p. 56, n . 1, fig. 3.
180. Ibid., II, #87-89.
Festivals in an Egyptian Temple," Bulle- 258. l bid., pls. I, II, fig. 1.
181. Ibid., III, # 245, 547· 218. Ibid., II, #351, 354·
tin of the John Rylands Library (Man- 259. Montet, T anis, pp. 187-211.
182. Ibid., II, #127; cf. II, #176; IV, #5. 219. Ibid., II, # 372- 378.
chester) 37/ 1 (1954) , 165-203 ; A. de 260. P. Montet, "Les Obelisques de Ramses
183. Ibid., II, #33- 37. 220. Ibid., II, #389. Buck, De egyptische voorstellung.en be- II," Kemi, V ( 1935) , ro4-rr4, pls.
184. Ibid., II, #91-98. 221. I bid., II, #754 ff. tretfende den oerheuvel (Leiden, i922); I- XXXIV ; Tanis (Paris, 1942), pp. 64-67,
185. I bid., III, # 255)-271. 222. Ibid., II, #775· Barguet, op. cit.; Arnold, op. cit., p. 74-75; Leclant and Yoyotte, op. cit., pp.
186. Ibid., III, # 269.
223- Ibid., II, # 922. l- 3. 73-84, pls. VIII-IX.
187. Ibid., III, #271. 242. Badawy, Ancient Egyptian Architectural
224. Ibid., III, # 625. 26r. W. F I. Petrie, Tanis (London, 1883-
188. Ibid., II, #8ro- 815.
225. Ibid., IV, # 488. Design . About the verticality in the de- 1884) , I, 26.
189. Ibid., II, #945)-972.
 516 NOTES NOTES 517
262. Leclant and Yoyotte, op. cit., p. 84. 279. T. E. Peet and C. L. Woolley, The City 293. C. Nims, "Places about Thebes," f.N.E.S ., 56-72 VIII ( 1920), 20-38, pls. V- VI;
263. J. L. Fougerousse, "Etudes sur Jes con- of Akhenaten (London, 1923) , I, XIV ( 1955), n5. Fondation Egyp:ologique Reine Elisa-
structions de Tanis," Kemi, V (1935), 109- 123, pls. XXIX-XXX, XXXVII- XL; 294. Ibid. pp. 114-u5.
beth, Fouilles d'El-Kab Documents
26+ Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, figs. 2, H. Ricke, Der Grundriss des Amarna- 295. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 95, fig. (Brussels, 1940 and 1954).'
4, 53· Wohnhauses (Leipzig, 1932), p. 57· 66.
318. Steindorlf, op. cit., pp. 366-367.
265. Fougerousse, op. cit., pp. 56- 57. 280. W. FI. Petrie, Six Temples at Thebes 296. Smith, Art of Egypt, pp. 152-153.
(London, 1897), pp. 24- 25, pl. XII, 11, 297. P. Lacau, Memoires de l'Academie des 319. Jequier, Elements, pp. 182, 188, 189.
266. Holscher, Medinet Habu, II, 1- ro.
12 If.; P. Lacau, Les steles du Nouvel Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, XLIII/2 320. Porter-Moss, Bibliography, V, 186-188.
267. W. FI. Petrie, Ehnasya, 1904 (London,
1905), pp. 8-11 , pls. VI, VIII-X; Porter- Empire (Cairo, 1909), pl. XVI, No. (Paris, 1951), 77 If; V';\hdier, Manuel, pp. 32r. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh (1935-1940)
Moss, Bibliography, IV, u8- u9 ; Van- 34025; Breasted, A.R., II, #887. 843 If. (Cairo, 1948), Part II, pp. 99-104, figs.
281. M. Alliot, Le Culte d'Horus a Edfou au 298. For Amun's temple and Karnak, see Bar- 52-55, pl. 3.
dier, Manuel, pp. 828-829.
268. W. FI. Petrie, Heliopolis, Kafr Ammar temps des Ptolemees (Cairo, 1949- 1954), guet, Le Temple d'Amon-Re a Karnak: 322. Ibid. pp. 121-125, figs. 66-67, pls. 3, II,
Essai d'exegese. XXII, xxx.
and Shurafa (London, 1915), pp. 1-5, pl. pp. 575, 58 I.
282. B. Gunn, "Inscriptions of 1932," in Peet 323. Ibid. pp. 80-84, pl. 3.
I. 299. Drioton-Vandier, L'Egypte, pp. 92, II9.
324. Steindorlf, op. cit., p. 412.
269. W . FI. Petrie, Memphis I (London, and Woolley, op. cit., pp. 156-158. 300. C. Nims, "Places about Thebes,'' f .N.E.S.,
1909), pp. 1-12, pls. I, II; Steindorlf, 283. H. W. Fairman, in Pendlebury, City of XIV ( 1955), 116. 325. H. Gauthier, Le Temple d'Amada
Egypt (Baedeker), pp. 154-155. Akhenaten, III, 206. 301. Ibid. (Cairo, 1913); Steindorlf, op. cit., pp.
270. In R. Anthes, Mit Rahineh 1955 (Phila- 284. For an entirely new interpretation, cf. 302. Breasted, A. R., III, #180. 426-427. G. Maspero, Art in Egypt (Lon-
delphia, 1959), see the part by J. Jaquet, Alexander Badawy, "Maru-Aten: Pleas- 303. Ibid., IV, #5 4 r. don, 1912), pp. 132-133, fig. 244 ; Arnold,
"Architectural Study," pp. 12-13, pl. I. ure-Resort or Temple," f.E.A., 42 (1956), 304. Ibid., IV, #403. op. Cl!., pp. 18, 51, 99, III, I20-I2l, fig.
305. Ibid., II, #683, n. d. IO.
271. Ibid., pl. I. 58-64.
272. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 85. 285. A. M. Calverley and M. F. Broome, The 306. Cecil Stewart, A Prospect of Cities (Lon- 326. A. M. Blackman, "Preliminary Report on
Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos (Lon- don, 1952), p. 54. L the Excavations at Sesebi, Northern Prov-
273. Ibid., pp. u7-121.
don, 1933- 1959) , 4 vols; Arnold, op. cit., 307. Vandier, Manuel, pp. 890-9or. ince, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 193 6_37,"
274. I bid., p. 34, fig. 22.
275. H. Frankfort and J. D. S. Pendlebury, pp. 22-24, 30-31, 42, 67- 68, 76, 86-87, 308. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, 64-66, f.E .A., xxrrr (1937), r45-15r.
The City of Akhenaten (London, 1933), IOO, II2. 68. The canopy above the bed of Queen 327. H. W. Fairman, "Preliminary Report on
II, IOI-!02, pl. XXVl. 286. Steindorlf, Egypt (Baedeker) , p. 253. Hetepheres from the Fourth Dynasty had the Excavations at 'Amarah West, An-
276. Ibid. 287. Ibid., p. clxxiv. supports of that type (cf. Smith, Art of glo-Egyptian Sudan, 1938- 9,'' f.E.A. ,
27J. J. D. S. Pendlebury, The City of Akhena- 288. Jequier, Elements, pp. 176-177. Egypt, p. 132, pl. 3oa) . XXV (1939), 139-144; Arnold, op. cit.,
ten (London, 1951), III, 5-17, pls. I, IV, 289. H. Frankfort, The Cenotaph of Seti I at 309. Barguet, op. cit., pp. 219 If. pp. 34, 54, I 14·
VI, VIII, IX; "Preliminary Report of the Abydos (London, 1933) , pp. 9- 22, pls. 310. Ibid., pp. 336-340 . 328. H . Schleif in G. Steindorlf, Aniba
Excavations at Tell El-'Amarna, I-IT. 311. Arnold, op. cit., pp. 1,6, 49, 120; fig. 9. ( Gllickstadt, 1937), II, 20, fig. r, Blatt
8.
1932-1933,'' in f.E.A., XIX ( 1933), 290. Steindorlf, op. cit., pp. 259- 260; Arnold, 312. L. Borchardt, Agyptische Tempel mit
u3- u6, pl. XIII ; "Excavations at Tell El op. cit., pp. 31- 32, 59, 60, 68- 69, 81- 82, 329. F. L. Griffith, "Oxford Excavations in
Umgang (Cairo, 1938) , pp. 61-66, figs. Nubia," Liverpool Annals, VIII
Amarna,'' in f.E.A . XX (1934), 129-133, IOI, 113- 114, 125-126; figs. 13, 18, 19, 32, 21-22; Nims, op. cit., p. n 7.
pl. XVI; Alexander Badawy, "The Har- ( 1921-1922), 84-94; Vandier, Manuel,
33· 313. M. Benson and J. Gourlay, The Temple pp. 962-g63.
monic System of Architectural Design in 29r. Steindorlf, op. cit., pp. 272-277; Vandier, of Mut in Asher (London, 1899), pl. p.
Ancient Egypt," in Mitteilungr:n des In- Manuel, pp. 843-8~2; W . Wolf, Das 330. D . Randall-Maciver and C. L. Woolley,
36.
stituts fur Orientforschung, VIII/ r (Ber- schone Fest van Opet (Leipzig, 1931); G. Buhen (Philadelphia, 1911), pp. 34_9+
314. Nims, op. cit., p. u7.
lin, 196!), 1-14; "The Symbolism of the Daressy, Notice explicative des ruines du 33I. L. Borchardt, Altagyptische Festungen an
315. H . Ricke, Das Kamutef-Heiligtum Hat- der Zweiten Nrlschnelle (Leipzig, 1923 ),
Temples at 'Amarna," in Zeitschrift fur temple de Louxor (Cairo, 1893) ; A. shepsuts und Thutmoses' Ill in Karnak
Agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde Gayet, "Le temple de Louxor," Memoires PP· 19-20; D. Dunham, Semna, Kumma
(Cairo, 1954) .
(Berlin, 1962), Vol. 87, pp. 79-95; An- de la Mission Archeologique Franraise, (Boston, 1960) ; Arnold, op. cit., p. 28.
316. C. Robichon and L. Christophe, Karnak-
cient Egyptian Architectural Design: A 332. Borchardt, op. cit., p. 14; Vandier, Man-
XV/1 (Paris, 1894). Nord, Ill (1945-1949) (Cairo, 1951), pls.
Study of the Harmonic System, Univer- 292. Against this hypothesis, cf. W. von Biss- uel, pp. 965-966; Dunham, op. cit., pp.
L, XLI, XLII, pp. 15~18 ; A. Varille, Kar-
sity of California Publications, Near East- ing, Acta Orientalia (Budapest), VIII II6 If; Arnold, op. cit., pp. 16, 50; R.
nak I. Fouilles de l'Institut Franrais
ern Studies no. 4 (Berkeley and Los Caminos, "Surveying Kumma," in Kush
(1957), 129; XVI, 192; also A. Scharff, in d'Archeologie Orientale, XIX (Cairo,
W. Otto, Handbuch der Archaeologie (Khartoum), 13 (1 965), 74~ 7 .
Angeles, 1965), pp. 106-u5. 1 943) .
278. Pendlebury, City of Akhenaten, III, pp. 333. Vandier., op. cit. p. 968; Smith, Art of
(Munich, 1939), p. 556, n. 1, p. 591, n. 317. S. Clarke, "El Kab and the Great Wall"
Egypt, p. 153; Arnold, op. cit., p. u2.
92-97, fig. 18. 5· f.E.A., VII (1920), 56-72; VII (1920), 334· M. L. Macadam, The Temples of Kawa
 518 NOTES NOTES 519
(London, 1955), II, 13-14, 31-41, pls. 3, op. cit., pp. 424-426; Arnold, op. cit., pp. 368. H. E. Winlock, Excavations at Deir el 389. H olsher, op. cit., II, 75-115, figs. 64- 95.
4, fig. 4. 34, 54, IOI, II3. Ba{iri (New York, 1942), pp. 133-I35. 390. Ibid., III, 23, 30, pl. 2, fig. 13; Porter-Moss,
335. N. de G. Davies, Two Ramesside Tombs 353. Breasted, A .R., III, #504. 369. G. H. Carnarvon and H . Carter, Five Bibliography, II, 141 ff.; Arnold, op. cit.,
at Thebes, (New York, 1927), pl. XXIX, 354. A. M. Blackman, The Temple of Derr Years' Exploration at The bes (London, pp. 21, 29, 30, 59, 66-67, 123-125, fig.
p. 51 ; Borchardt, Tempel mit Umgang, (Cairo, 1913), pl. I; Steindorff, op. cit., p. 1912), pp. 4-5, figs. 2- 3, pp. 38- 41, figs. 12.
pp. 74-'J8, fig. 25; Badawy, Dessin Archi- 428; Arnold, op. cit., pp. 33, I02, II4. lO-I1, pls. XXXI- XXXII; Marquis of
tectural, p. 192, fig. 228; Smith, Art of 355. Breasted, A .R ., III, #503.
391. J. E. Quibell, The Ramessum (London,
Northampton, W. Spiegelberg, and P. E. 1896); Holscher, op. cit., III, 23-24,
Egypt, p. 225, pl. 162. 356. Porter-Moss, Bibliography, V, 2, I7-I8. Newberry, Report on Some Excavations 71-75, pls. 2, lo, figs. 44- 47; Arnold, op.
336. Borchardt, op. cit., p. 2; Steindorff, 357. Steindorff, op. cit., p. 437; Maspero, A rt in the T heban Necropolis during the cit., pp. 55, IOI, figs. 21, 34; Steindorff,
Aniba, II, clxxi. in Egypt, p. 143; Arnold, op. cit., p. 29. Winter of 1898-9 (London, 1908) , pp. op. cit., pp. 324- 327.
337. Borchardt, op. cit., pp. 35-41, Blatt 358. Steindorff, op. cit., pp. 43I-435; Arnold, 37- 38, figs. 28-29; Winlock, op. cit., pp. 392. Petrie, Six Temples, pp. II-I3, pl.
ll- 1 2. op. cit., pp. 32, 54, 87-88, I03. 2I2- 2I3. xxv.
338. Bruyere, Deir el Medineh (1935-1940) 359. Steindorff, op. cit., pp. 435-436; Arnold, 370. Winlock, op. cit., p. 90, pl. 44. 393. Holscher, op. cit., III, fig. 34.
(Cairo, 1948), Part II, pp. 84-85, pl. 2. op. cit., pp. 54, 70, I03. 371. Smith, op. cit., pp. I35-138, pls. 92-93. 394. Ibid., III, 4- 36, figs. 1-12; Arnold, op. cit.,
339. Borchardt, op. cit., pp. 41-44, Blatt 13. 360. Breasted, A .R ., III, #500. 372. Dabrowski, op. cit. pp. 35, 4I-42, 59, 61, 76, 82, 88, 92,
340. Ibid., pp. 90-93, fig. 27 ; Vandier, Manuel, 36r. W . .FI. Petrie, Researches in Sinai (Lon- 373. Nims, op. cit., p. 118. I05-I06, fig. 14.
pp. 804-805; Barguet, op. cit., pp. don, 1906), pp. 72-I08, figs. 85-I 13, map 374. Alexander Badawy, "A Collection of 395. N ims, Places, p. I I9.
266- 267. 4. Foundation-Deposits of Tuthmosis III," 396. Holscher, op. cit., III, 32- 36.
34r. Borchardt, op. cit., pp. 93-94, Blatt 20. in A .S.A. (Cairo, I947) , XLVII, I45-157, 397. Smith, Art of Egypt, p. 224, pl. l6ob.
362. Holscher, Medinet H abu, III, 22-32, pl.
342. Description de l'Egypte: Antiquites, I, 2 pls., 5 figs.
2. 398. See Funerary Architecture, Representa-
181-185, pls. 34-38; Borchard t, op. cit., 375. Winlock, op. cit., pp. 2I5-216, figs. I3.
363. D. Randall-Maciver and A. C. Mace, El tional Evidence, p. 375.
pp. 95-98, Blatt 2r. 376. Smith, op. cit., pp. 134-I35. 399. Badawy,
Amrah and Abydos (London, I902) , pp. Dessin A rchitectural, pp.
343. Borchardt, op. cit., pp. IOO-IOl, Blatt 377. Winlock, op. cit., p. 2I7.
75-76; E. R. Ayrton, C. T. Currelly, and 245-246, figs. 307- 308.
2I. 378. B. Smith, Egyptian A rchitecture as Cul- 400. Holscher, op. cit., IV, 22- 26, fig. 25, pl.
E. A. P. Weigall, Abydos Ill (London,
344- I bid. pp. 98-99, Blatt 22. tural Expression (New York, I938), p.
I904) ; Vandier, Manuel, II/ 222, fig. 42.
345. Holscher, Medinet Habu, II, 43- 52, pl. 4, 1 33·
156. 4or. Ibid. pp. 75-77, fig. 49.
fig. 41 ; Borchardt, op. cit., pp. 83- 85, 379. P. Gilbert, Le classicisme de !' Architec-
364. Breasted, A .R ., II, # 36. 402. C. Robichon and A. Varille, "Quatre nou-
Blatt 17; Arnold, op. cit., pp. 15, 38, ture egyptienne (Brussels, I943), pp.
365. C. Robichon and A. Varille, L e temple veaux temples thebains," Chronique
47-48, 75, rr8-rr9, fig. 7. 60- 72.
du scribe royal Amenhotep fils de Hapou d'Egypte, X (1935), 237-242; L e temple
346. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, I9I ; 380. Giedion, op. cit., pp. 4I5 ff.
(Cairo, 1936), pp. 3I-33, pls. VI-VII; du scribe royal A m enhotep, fils de H apou
Jequier, Elements, p. 370. 38 r. Dabrowski, op. cit., p. 415 ; Arnold, op.
H olscher, Medinet H abu, III, 23. (Cairo, I936) , pp. 35- 39, pls. IV,
347. Steindorff, Egypt (Baedeker) , p. 24r. cit., p. I2. XIX-XXII.
348. Ibid., pp. 360-36I; G. Maspero, Histoire 366. E. Naville, The Temple of Deir el Bahari 382. H . Ricke, Der Totentempel Th utmoses' 403. Smith, op. cit., p. I74·
ancienne des peuples de !'Orient classique (London, I894- I908) , 6 vols; Holscher, 111 (Cairo, 1939), pp. 3-25; Arnold, op. 404. Alexander Badawy, A H istory of Egyp-
(Paris, I897), II; 348-349. op. cit., pp. 22-23, 25, 29, 31, pl. 2; Ar- cit., p. 60. tian Architecture: The First Intermediate
349. H . Gauthier, "Le _temple de l'Ouadi nold, op. cit., pp. 11- 13, 38, 47, 58, 60, 98, 383. Porter-Moss, Bibliography, II, I49; W. F I. Period, T he Middle Kingdom , and the
Miyah (EI Knais)," B.l.F.A.O., XVI! l I0-1 I I ; Leszeck Dabrowski, "A Famous Petrie, Six Temples at Thebes (London, Second Intermediate Period (Berkeley
(1920) , 1-38, pl. 20; Arnold, op. cit., p. Temple Re-examined: Queen Hatshep- 1897), pp. 4- 6, pls. XXII- XXIII; Ricke.
sut's Temple at Deir el Bahari-and a and Los Angeles, I966), pp. 59, 73- 75.
53.
350. G. Roeder, Der Felsentempel von Bet Hitherto Unknown Temple," Illustrated
op. cit., pl. l r. 405. P. Barguet, Le T emple d'Amon-Re a
384. Steindorff, Egypt (Baedeker) , pp. Karnak (Cairo, I962), pp. 1l n. 3, 92, 249,
el-Wali (Cairo, I938), pp. I37-I66; Stein- London News, Sept. I9, I964, pp. 345-346; Drioton-Vandier, L'Egypte, pp. 272.
dorff, Egypt (Baedeker), pp. 418- 419, Ar- 413- 4I5. L. Dabrowski, "Preliminary Re- 342, 372. 406. Robichon and Varille, op. cit., pp. 4I, 17,
nold, op. cit., p. 113. port on the Reconstruction Works of the 385. A. Bataille, L es Memnonia (Cairo, pls. IV, XIII, XVI!.
35r. Steindorff, op. cit., pp. 420- 42I; G. Hatshepsut Temple at Deir el Bahari I952) . 407. Badawy, Egyptian Architecture, I, fig.
Maspero, L es temples immerges de la during the 196I- 1962 Season," A.S.A., 386. Smith, A rt of Egypt, p. 154; for the 53.
Nubie. Rapports relatifs ala consolidation 58 (1964), pp. 37-60. J. Lipinska, "Names inscriptions see C. Nims, T hebes of the 408. P. Gilbert, "La conception archi tecturale
des T emples (Cairo, 1909), I, pls. XVI!, and History of the Sanctuaries built by Pharaohs (London, 1965), p. I53· de la salle hypostyle de Karnak," Chro-
XVIII ; Arnold, op. cit., pp. 34, 53· Tuthmosis III at Deir el-Bal;iri," f.E.A., 387. Petrie, Six T emples, pp. 3-9, pls. XXIV, nique d'Egypte, XXXIV ( 1942), I6g-I76;
352. H . Gauthier, Le temple de Ouadi es- 53 ( 1967), PP· 25-33. XXII. Le classicisme de l'Architecture egypti-
Seboua (Cairo, I912) , 2 vols; Steindorff, 367. Smith, Art of Egypt, p. 129, pl. 97b. 388. Ricke, op. cit., p. I3, pl. l r. enne, pp. 86-87.
 520 NOTES NOTES 521
409. Alexandre Badawy, L'Art Copte, Vol. I, des Religions (Paris), 149/1 (1956), 13. 450. B. Bruyere, Deir el Medin eh (1930 ) , 473. R. Bloch, L'art et la civilisation Etrusques
Les Influences egyptiennes (Cairo, 1949), 433. G. Daressy, Catalogue general du Musee (Cairo, 1933), VIII/3, pp. 32, 84, pls. (Paris, 1955) , figs. 6- 7.
p. 2. du Caire; Ostraca (Cairo, 1901), pl. 32; XXIV, XXXII, figs. 17-18. 474. Breasted, A.R., II, # 852.
410. Breasted, A .R., II, #52. "Un plan egyptien d'une tombe royale," 45r. Ibid., II/ 2, pp. 31-35, pl. VI. 475. Ibid., III, #88.
41r. Ibid., II, #36. Revue archeologique, Sfr. 3, XXXII 452. I bid., ( 1929) (Cairo, 1930) VII/ 2, 3 ff. 476. Ibid., III, #586.
412. Ibid., II, #ro6. (1897), 235-240; Badawy, op. cit., pp. 453. Ibid., (1929) (Cairo, 1930) p. 19; II, 477- I bid., III, # 100.
413. Ibid., II, #389. 242-244, fig. 304. (1923-1924) (Cairo, 1925) , 30, pl. XXIX. 478. Ibid., III, #633.
414. Ibid., II, # 112. 434. W. Hayes, Ostraka and Name Stones 454. N. de G. Davies, The Rock Tom bs of El
from the Tomb of Sen-mid (N. 71) at 479. Ibid., II, #72.
415. Ibid., II, #947· Amama (London, 1903-1908), 6 vols.
Thebes, The Metropolitan Museum of 480. Ibid., II, #548.
416. I bid., III, # 32. 455. H . Balcz, "Zur Kunstgeschich tlichen Stel-
417. Ibid., IV, #4. Art Egyptian Expedition (New York, 481. Ibid., III, #457·
lung der Graber von El Amarna," m
418. Ibid., IV, #473· 1942), nos. 31-32, p. 15, pl. VII; Badawy, 482. Ibid. , II, #433·
Melanges Maspero (Cairo, 1934) I,
419. Ibid., IV, #499-566; E. Peet, The Great op. cit., p. 244, fig. 305. 147-15+ 483. Ibid., II, #430.
Tomb-Robberies of the Twentieth Egyp- 435. W. Wreszinski, Atlas zur altaegyptischen 484. Ibid., IV, #14r.
456. Davies, op. cit., III, 26-33, pl. XXVI.
tian Dynasty (Oxford, 1930), 2 vols. Kulturgeschichte (Leipzig, 1923-1948), 485. Ibid., IV, #573; But see now A. Gardiner,
457. Ibid., II, pp. 9-32, pls. II-IV.
420. Breasted, A.R., IV, #502, 543. II, 129; Badawy, op. cit., 244, fig. 3,06. Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford, 1961), p.
436. Wreszinski, op. cit., II, 278; Badawy, op. 458. Ibid., VI, pp. 7-15, pls. XI, XII, XIV.
42r. Ibid., IV, #506. 308.
422. Ibid., IV, #636. cit., p. 245. 459. Porter-Moss, Bibliography, IV, 132, 139; 486. U. Holscher, Das H ohe T or von Medi-
423. Ibid. , IV, #665, 666, 667. 437. E. R. Ayrton, C. T . Currelly, and A. E. P. v, 2 . net-H abu, eine baugeschichtliche Untersu-
424. Ibid. IV, #513. Weigall, Abydos Ill (London, 1904), pp. 460. M. Pillet, "Structure et decoration archi- c/zung, (Leipzig, l9ro), p. 56; Baclawy,
425. H. Carter, "Report on the Tomb of Zeser- 29-32; pl. XLIX; Vandier, Manuel II, tectonique de la necropole antique de Dessin A rchitectural, pp. 146-158.
ka-ra Amenhetep I, discovered by the 218-220. Deir-Rifeh," in Melanges Maspero (Cairo, 487. R. N aumann, Architektur Kleinasiens
Earl of Carnarvon in 1914," in f .E.A., III 438. Alexandre Badawy, Dispositifs architectu- 1934) , I, 65, 73, fig. 8; Vandier, Manuel, (Tiibingen, 1955), pp. 290- 295, figs.
(1916), 147-154. raux contre le viol des tombes egypti- p. 376, fig. 262. 361-3n.
426. Breasted, A.R., I, #637. ennes, Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, 46r. Porter-Moss, Bibliography, V, 32, 28; 488. P. Montet, Tanis (Paris, 1942), p. 22 ;
427. N. de G. Davies, "Some Representations Cairo University, XVI/1 (Cairo, 1954), Vandier, Manuel, p. 378, fig. 262. Gardiner, op. cit., p. 253.
of Tombs from the Theban Necropolis," pp. 96- 98, fig. 22. 462. Randall-Maciver and Mace, op. cit., pp. 489. G. Contenau, Manuel d'archeologie Ori-
in f.E.A., XXIV ( 1938), 25- 40; Badawy, 439. D . Randall-Maciver and A. C. Mace, El 64, 70, pls. XXIV- XXVI. entate (Paris, 1931), II, 901- 902, fig.
Dessin Architectural, pp. 214-235. Amrah, and Abydos (London, 19b2), pp. 463. J. Garstang, El Arabah (London, 1901), 623.
428. L. Borchardt, R. Konigsberger, and H. 75- 76; Ayrton, Currelly, and Weigall, op. pp. 20-21, pls. XXXII-XXXV.
490. N aumann, op. cit., pp. 295-298, figs.
Ricke, "Friesziegel in Grabbauten," in cit.; Vandier, Manuel, p. 222, fig. 156. 464. J. Garstang, "Excavations at Hierakon- 378- 381a.
A.Z., 70 ( 1934), 25. 440. Breasted, A.R., II, #36. polis, at Esna, and in Nubia, in A .S.A.,
491. Steindorff, Aniba, II, 17- 20, Blatt 6, 8,
429. E. Naville, Das aegyptische Todtenbuch 44r. H . Carter, "Report on the Tomb of Zeser- VIII (1907), 145- 148, pls. XIII-XV.
9.
der XV/II. bis XX. Dynastie, aus verschie- ka-re Amenhotep I, " f.E.A ., II ( 1916), 465. Holscher, Medinet H abu, Vol. V.
492. D. Randa ll-Maciver and L. Woolley,
denen Urkunden zusammengestellt und 147- 154, pls. XX, XXIII ; Steindorff and 466. See the author's plans in S. Gabra, Fouil-
a Her- Buhen I, 5, u 9-124, pls. G, E.
herausgegeben von E. Naville (Berlin, Wolf, op. cit., p. 73 ; Vandier, Manuel, pp. les de l'Universite Fouad !er
moupolis Ouest (Touna el Gebel) (Cairo, 493. W. B. Emer y, "A Master-work of Egyp-
1866), I, p. IV; Badawy, Dessin Architec- 223-228. tian Military Architecture of 3900 Years
tural, p. 2 30. 1942), pl. XXXIX.
442. Doubted by Peet, op. cit. Ago," Illustrated London News, Sept. 12,
430. G. Steindorff and W . Wolf, Die Theban- 467. Porter-Moss, Bibliography, V, 176- 184;
443. Steindorff and Wolf, op. cit., p. 74. Vandier, Manuel, p. 380. 1959, pp. 250-251, figs. 1-IO.
ische Graberwelt ( Gliickstadt, 1936), pp. 444. Vandier, Manuel, p. 228; this theory is 468. D. Marcks, "Die Anlage der Graber," in 494. H olscher, Medinet H abu, II, l-ro, pls. l ,
47, 95, fig. II; Badawy, Dessin Architec- not accepted by Steindorff and Wolf, op. 2, II, 41.
tural, p. 23r. G. Steindorff, Aniba ( Gliickstadt, 1937) ,
cit., p. 74, n. I. II, 42-55. 495. Breas ted, A.R., IV, p. I 14, n . a.
43r. H. Carter and A. H. Gardiner, "The
445. Steindorff and Wolf, op. cit., p. 79. 469. D. Randall-Maciver and C. L. Woolley, 496. H. Frankfort, T he Art and A rchitecture
Tomb of Ramses IV and the Turin Plan
446. Ibid., p. 86; this view is not favored by Buhen (London, 19n), 2 vols. of the A ncient Orient (Baltimore, 1954) ,
of a Royal Tomb," f.E.A. , IV (1917),
Vandier, Manuel, p. 24+ 470. Steindorff, Aniba, II, 242- 243, pls. p. So.
130 ff; Badawy, op. cit., pp. 235-241;
Steindorff and Wolf, op. cit., pp. 86-89, 447. Steindorff and Wolf, pp. 8g-9r. IOl-104- 497. J. L. Fougerousse, "Etudes sur Jes Con-
fig. 34. pl. 24a. 448. Ibid., pp. 33 ff; Vandier, Manuel, pp. 471. W. FI. Petrie, Dendereh (London, 1900), structions de T anis, Kemi, V, ( 1935)
432. F. Daumas, "La valeur de !'or clans la 358 ff. pp. 28- 30, pl. XXXVI. 56- 57.
pensee egyptienne," Revue de l'Histoire 449. Steindorff and Wolf, op. cit., p. 55, n. 2. 472. Ibid., p. 65, pl. XXIII. 498. H olscher, op. cit., I, 61 ff.
 522 NOTES NOTES 523
499. W . FI. Petrie, Hyksos and Israelite Cities 518. Holscher, Medinet Habu, II, 32-36. 549. Breasted, A .R., III, #567. 560. P. Barguet, Le Temple d'Amon-Re
(London, 1906), pp. 28-30, pl. XXXV; 519. R. Caminos, Late-Egyptian Miscellanies 550. Badawy, Dessin Architectural, figs. 238, (Cairo, 1962), p. 58; C. Nims, Thebes of
Steindorff, Egypt (Baedeker), p. 192. (London, 1954), p. 413. 239, 241, pp. 202-204. the Pharaohs (London, 1965), p. 93.
500. A. M. Blackman, "Preliminary Report on 520. Breasted, A .R., II, #36. 551. G. Jequier, Manuel d'Archeologie egypti- 561. Jequier, Elements, p. ror.
the Excavations at Sesebi, Northern Prov- 52r. Ibid., II, #295. enne, Vol. I, Les Elements de !'architec- 562. Ibid., p. 39.
ince, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1936-1937," 522. Ibid., III, #527. ture (Paris, 1924) , p. 215. 563. Alexander Badawy, Ancient Egyptian Ar-
f.E.A., XXIII ( 1937) , 146, pls. XIII, 523. Ibid., IV, #189. 552. Ibid. chitectural Design: A Study of the Har-
XIX. 524. I bid., IV, # 194· 553. Ibid., p. 217. monic System, University of California
5or. Frankfort, op. cit., p. 171, fig. 83 ; Nau- 525. Ibid., II, # 161, 567; IV, #263. 554- I bid., p. 224. Publications, Near Eastern Studies no. 4
mann, op. cit., figs. 303, 346. 526. Ibid., IV, #216. 555. Ibid., p. 107. (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1965) .
502. J. Wilson, The Culture of Ancient Egypt 527. Ibid., IV, #384. 556. Ibid., p. 97. 564. Alexander Badawy, "The Symbolism of
(Chicago, 1958), p. 2ro. 528. Ibid., IV, #226. 557· Smith, Art of Egypt, p. 22r. the Temples at 'Amarna," in Zeitschrift
503. J. J. Clere, "Nouveaux documents relatifs 529. Ibid., IV, #282. 558. I bid., p. 222, fig. 73- fur Agyptische Sprache und Altertums-
au culte des colosses de Ramses II clans le 530. Ibid., IV, #288. 559. Ibid, p. 223. kunde (Berlin, 1962), 87, pp. 79-95.
Delta," Kemi, XI ( 1950), 24-46 ; E. Otto, 531. Ibid., IV, #339·
Orientalia, XVII/4 ( 1948), 448-466. 532. Ibid., IV, #17r.
504. E. Naville, The XIth Dynasty Temple at 533. Ibid., IV; #264.
Deir el Bahari (London, 1907), I, pl. 534. Ibid., IV, #27r.
XXVb; J. Cerny, "Le Culte d'Amenophis 535. Ibid., IV, #274.
ler chez Jes ouvriers de la necrople the- 536. Ibid., II, #461.
baine," B.l.F.A.O; 27 (1927), 159-203; A. 537. Ibid., IV, #213.
Varille, A.S.A., 34 (1934), 13-36. 538. Ibid., II, #353·
505. G. Roeder, "Ramses II als Gott," A.Z., 61 539· I bid., II, # 44 ff.
(1926) , 57-67 ; B. Couroyer, "La resi- 540. K. Sethe, Urkunden der 18. Dynastie
dence ramesside du Delta et la Ramses (Leipzig, 1927) , IV, 73; Badawy, Dessin
biblique," Revue Biblique, 53 ( 1946), Architectural, p. 215.
81-82. 54r. L. Klebs, Die Reliefs und Malereien des
506. Clere, op. cit., p. 39, pl. Illb. Neuen Reiches (Heidelberg, 1934, p. 29.
507. Jequier, Elements, p. 370, n. I. 542. G. Steindorff and W. Wolf, Grdberwelt
508. I bid., p. 370, fig. 36. (Gli.ickstadt, 1936), p. 55 n. 2; G.
509. H . N . Chittick, "An Inscription on Gebel Maspero, "Les jardins funeraires," Bib-
Barkal," f.E.A., 43 ( 1957), p. 42, pl. IV. liotheque Egyptologique, VIII (n.d.), 244,
510. J. Jordan, Uruk-W arka (Leipzig, 1930), I, cf. C. Robichon and A. Varille, Le temple
30-39, pls. 15-17. funeraire du scribe royal Amenhotep, fils
511. H. Frankfort, The Art and Architecture de Hapou (Cairo, 1936) .
of the Ancient Orient (Baltimore, 1954), 543. Badawy, Dessin Architectural, pp. 248-
pp. 63-64. 259.
512. Ibid., p. 70, fig. 27. 544. Winlock, Middle Kin~om in Thebes, pp.
513. Ibid., p. 78. 165-166.
514. A different interpretation of these texts is 545. A. Erman, Aegypten, und dgyptisches
given by Wilson, op. cit., pp. 223-224, Leben im Altertum (Ti.ibingen, 1922),
where Akhenaten is a "god-king;" but see fig. 57; Badawy, Dessin Architectural,
Drioton-Vandier, L'Egypte, pp. 344-346. pp. 254-255.
515. H . E. Winlock, Excavations at Deir el 546. K lebs, op. cit., 31-32, thought it was the
Ba_hri (New York, 1942), p. 173, is of a palace garden.
different opinion regarding the statues of 547· H . E. Winlock, Excavations at Deir el
Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahari; but com- Ba~ri (New York, 1942) p. 92, pl. 44.
pare his pls. 55-56 with 58. 548. Alexander Badawy, "Marn-Aten: Pleas-
516. Ibid., pp. 142, 159, pls. 52, 53, 57, 49. ure-Resort or temple?," f.E.A., 42 (1956) ,
517. Ibid., p. 209, pl. 54. 58-64.
 Hieroglyphic
Lexicographical Evidence
SELEC TION OF ARCH ITECT URAL TER~MS OF THE NEW
KINGDOM
(This selection comple ments that of terms of the Middle Kingdo m, most
of which were still in use with slight variatio n in the New Kingdo m; see
vol. II, pp. 2 57- 60).

DOMES TIC ARCHIT ECTUR E

iwyt ~f\ l!. 44; 1,C:, street, town quarter /!ry nnri \\
I
0
<=>~ III[""] ground floor (lit.
ipt GlQ harem (lit. censored), lower house)
n
Luxor (lit. harem rip nD::in arsenal (lit. house of
(of Amun]) weapons)
im1w 4 > ~1!.~n tent (hence, house, m1 n>n sighting pavilion (lit.
office) house of sighting;
is ~in workshop cf. Arabic manzara)
mi
ist ~ Q9 palace, god's .dwelling c:m~ mammisi, birthhouse
(lit. house of birth)
isbt HJ..: c hair, throne, throne tn{j1t ["] ""'"
l' o I archive, library (lit.
canopy, pedestal house of documents)
et __,
room (see vol. II, n nbw LJ F\ sarcophagus chamber
p. 257) in royal tomb (lit.
nt !Jt 7':10 arbor, nursery (lit. house of gold)
chamber of trees) nfr
C: *n embalming house (lit.
rrrjt
=:!4 4~ hall of palace, of court good house)
of justice
rrt
mnjwt
:::4~~'f' harbor (lit. mooring
=.:. 1 i~o! loft (place])
mn~b ~ ~ ["]
+~
r!zt palace (dungeon) cool room, royal
palace (lit. cool
rl!nwtj -D:§o}~ R royal apartment in (place])
mrrt 'Z tn
palace = n0
street, quarter
w1!Jj f\ ;UTI reception hall of palace
niwt ®@ village, town
o l
w!Jrt ~ ..!X1SJ1 dockyard, carpenter's
yard
ml !~ new town
wi!Jt ffil hall in palace, in nfrw uin rearmost room in
temple (lit. broad) T heban royal palace
wrJ t ~ 44 boundary stone, stela, or tomb (lit.
memorial stone (lit. innermost (place])
order) TJ-/zri ~! n treasury
pr n
I house (see vol. II, h1mw ru l. ~ ~,C:, aviary (lit. [place of]
p. 257) birds)
 526 HIEROGLYPHIC LEXICOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE HIEROGLYPHIC LEXICOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE 527
1;w1 gn mansion, castle granary (lit. FUNERARY ARCHITECTURE
nbw g~, goldsmith's workshop passageway)
(lit. mansion of gold) fmmt = ~),~ stall, granary, caisson waiting (hall) [part of
!;nt ® 0
tomb (lit. resting
--LJ
l;mt f7n workshop (lit. artisans' (lit. ambulatory) royal tomb before
sarcophagus
[place])
[place]) fnwt ,! ~ o .00, granary
chamber] !Jr (The ban) necropolis,
street, alley (cf. tomb
Arabic l;ara) ~nbt I!:' corner, court of justice igrt netherworld,
fps
necropolis funerary stela (lit.
!;ndw ~LJ stair, th_rone (from
!Jnd to step)
11-ra ;;::J .L:",n ramp, stairway (lit. rly,rw stela (from rJ;r to august)
earth stair) stand) r!rjt sarcophagus (lit.
bn '!§,~, tent (from /m roof (lit. top of rly,rt tomb (cf. mr/irt) excellent)
animal's hide) mansion)
Sdrt hall of columns palace, shrine
(Semitic)
MILITARY ARCHITECTURE

lnb wall, fortified wall, lock, fortress, frontier

RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE !Jtm
girdle wall post (from !Jtm to
lnbt fortress, stockade Se<ll)

it!; Jnb ~J battlement

sanctuary (lit. rjd terrace with columned prison (from it/i to
luminous mountain
horizon)
portico in front of
hypostyle (cf. rwd wmt
drag)
girdle wall (lit. thick,
sb_tj a; 1 girdle wall,
fortification
stair) massive)
iwnyt pillared hall or court frontier post against
(lit. [place of] !zwwt !zbw-Sd ~ t;' i l j r~~ ! castles of the jubilee wrft guard house (from Asia (Sile)
pillars)
l;byt
festivals
feast hall in temple
wrl to guard)
11r1 h, 1. :-n fort
w1rfjt hypostyle hall in
(from l;bj to be
b!Jn J.!,n castle, citadel, tower
temple (lit. [place festive)
tpg h, I ~ w 1- LJ barracks
of] papyriform
ws!Jt l;byt feast court
mktr )_~j Q~,I iln migdol (Semitic)
columns) part of girdle wall
wrbt shrine, embalming n!Jtw fortress, settlement of (cf. 1smt bitch)
J:irt-ib mid hall in temple or
laboratory, service war prisoners (lit.
royal tomb (lit.
room (lit. pure strong)
mid [place])
[place])
s!Jm sanctuary (misreading
wb1 forecourt of temple from !Jm)
with obelisks, colossi
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
!Jnw temple, tomb, house
(lit. opener)
(lit. resting [place])
irkt
U~1.44"~ ibid.
it-wrt sanctuary of temple
tree trunk, beam wrnS posts

ws!Jt l;bjt ~U4HIJ feast court of temple (lit. great place) (J

column
wsj slot window (from
sm!J image door leaf, door wij to saw)
wdnt ('.''::rn~ offering court of
bbt niche (lit. cavity)
temple (from wdn Snwt palace, shrine rr stair (from rr to
to offer) ascend)
scaling pole of festival bnl door post of wood,
bnbn benben stela in si;nt
rrjt lintel stone
of Min and Amun
Heliopolis, p D~
Smt corridor ·with statues socle
pyramidion rrwt
I
gate
(from sm to walk)
b!Jnt J!_offi pylon, gate (Semitic)
chapel
pnrjt lock (from pnr to turn
rrrwt gate round)
mjt rhnt gQ~-;D::~ avenue of rams,
portable shrine nmr to line with fine stone
dromos wuj, papyriform column (lit. to dress)
ms!Jnt resting place of a god, twtr1 colossus (lit. large (from w1rf papyrus)
temple (lit. [place statue) n/ibwt lotiform column (from
wmt doorjamb (from wmt
of] rest) building in front of nl;bt lotus bud)
to be thick,
r1-pr =n temple, temple district, temple (lit. at the thickness)
nst part of brick ramp
I I@
false-door, chapel head) wn (from ns tongue?)
aperture of doorway
cour~cs in girdle wall rwt gate door (lit. out[let])
(from wn to open)
(lit. headers)
wrjt door posts l;rjt kiln

wrmt roof (from arbor) !Jwsj to pave, build (lit.

to ram)
 528 HIEROGLYP HIC LEXICOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE

fbJ
r*J gate, door trj l~,~~n- door
fbbt f":I gate, palace (from
fbb to enclose) trr l~~-7'i n baker's oven
smkt 9 ),.;;:J ~- long cedar balk
dbt ~J~ brick (lit. block [of
fmdt r),. ~ - smooth plank, balk clay])
General Bibliography
k1pw ~} timber or stone roof
(from kip to conceal,
cover)

Badawy, Alexander. Ancient Egyptian Archi- - --. Manuel d'archeologie egyptienne : I;

tectural Design. A Study of the Harmonic Les elements de l' architecture. Paris, 1924.
System, University of California Publica- Lange, Kurt, and Max Hirmer. Egypt, Archi-
tions, Near Eastern Studies no. 4. Berkeley tecture, Sculpture and Painting in Three
and Los Angeles. 1965. Thousand Years. London, 1956; 2d ed., Lon-
- - -. Architecture in Ancient Egypt and the don, 1962.
Near East. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass., Lucas, A. Ancient Egyptian Materials and In-
1966. dustries. 4th ed. rev. and en!. by J. R. Harris.
Badawy, Alexandre. Le Dessin Architectural (London, 1962.)
chez les Anciens Egyptiens. Cairo, 1948. Mekhitaria.n, Arpag. Egyptian Painting. New
Borchardt, Ludwig. Alti:igyptische Festungen York, 1954·
an der zweiten Nilschnelle. Leipzig, 1923. Petrie, W. M. F. Egyptian Architecture. Lon-
- - - . Beitri:ige zur i:igyptischen Bauforschung don, 1938.
und Altertumskunde .. Heft II: Agyptische Ricke, Herbert. Der Grundriss des Amarna-
Tempel mit Umgang. Cairo, 1938. W ohnhauses. Leipzig, 1932.
Cenival, J. L. de. Living Architecture: Egyptian - - -. Beitri:ige zur i:igyptischen Bauforschung
(London, 1964). und Altertumskunde.
Choisy, Auguste. L'Art de batir chez les Egyp- Heft 3, l : Der Totentempel Thutmo-
tiens. Paris, 1904- ses' III. Baugeschichtliche Untersu-
Clarke, Sommers, and Reginald Engelbach. An- chung. Cairo, 1939·
cient Egyptian Masonry. Oxford, 1930. Heft 3, 2: Das Kamutef-Heiligtu m
P. Fortova-Samalova, Egyptian ornament. Text Hatschepsuts und Thutmoses' Ill in
by M. Wilimkova (London, 1963) . Karnak. Cairo, 1954·
Gilbert, Pierre. Le Classicisme de l' architecture Scharff, Alexander, in W . G. A. Otto, Hand-
egyptienne. Brussels, 1943· buch der Archi:iologie. (Handbuch der Alter-
Jequier, Gustave. L'Architecture et la decora- tumswissenschaft, I). Munich, 1939· (Pp.
tion dans l'ancienne Egypte. 433-642.)
I : Les temples memphites et Smith, W. Stevenson. The Art and Architec-
thebains, des origines a la ture of Ancient Egypt. Harmondsworth,
XVII/6 Dynastie. Paris, 1920. Middlesex, and Baltimore, Maryland (Peli-
II: Les temples ramessides et can History of Art), 1958. Reprint 1965.
saites, de la XIX' a la XXX' Vandier, Jacques. Manuel d'archeologie egyp-
Dynastie. Paris, 1922. tienne. Paris, 1952-1958. 3 vols.
 Indexes
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Abbott Papyrus, 375 Fairman, H . W., 213 Nebqed Papyrus, 383
Arnold, D., 343 Fibonacci series, 206, 506 Nissen, H., 188, 189

Belzoni, G. B., 297 Gunn, B., 213 Peet, E., 375

Bible, 59, 70, 470 Petrie, W . F., 123, 197, 438
Borchardt, L., 278 Harris Papyrus I, 60, 74, 162,
Breasted, J. H ., 489 163, 462, 489 Strabo, 216, 222
Herodotus, 198, 199
Carter, H ., 375 Holscher, U., 45, 162, 359, Takelam, 306
Champollion, J. F., 284 485
Cicero, 186 Vitruvius, 179, 183, 187, 253,
Klebs, L., 490 366

Maspero, G., 273 Wente, E. G., 515

Wilson, J. A., 515
Emery, W. B., 460 Naumann, R., 448 Winlock, H., 326, 491

INDEX OF HISTORICAL ITEMS

Aahhotep I, 372 Akhoris, 292 397; - II, 7, 8, 16, 57, 161,
Ahmes Nefertari, 394, 478 Alexander the Great, 230 246, 260, 266, 273, 278, 285,
Ahmose, 8, 56, 57, 166, 169, 'Amarna period, 26- 34, 74- 322, 370, 390, 396, 397, 411,
411; tomb of, 424 126 413, 492, 503; mortuary
Ahmose I, 158, 222, 324, 372, Amenemet, 396 temple of, 338, 340; tomb
391; cenotaph of, 391-392, Amenemhab, 382 of, 401; - III, 2, 8, 47, 48,
396, 435, 459, 488, 500 Amenemhat, 376, 491 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 59, 68,
Ahmose Nefertari, 63 Amenemhat I, 2, 9; - III, 84, 92, 156, 159, 161, 163,
Ahmose Pennekhebet, 435 199, 318, 501 165, 181, 186, 211, 212, 225,
Ahmose son of Ibana, 435 Amenemopet, 382, 409, 413 228, 229, 230, 231, 233, 234,
Akhenaten, 2, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, Amenhotep, 13, 14, 165, 411, 235, 244, 260, 264, 268, 276,
12, 47, 76, 80, 88, 100, 156, 414 279, 280, 288, 289, 290, 320,
159, 188, 198, 201, 232, 247, Amenhotep I, 63, 232, 246, 321, 338, 339, 360, 362, 364,
374, 397, 440, 441, 481, 482, 270, 276, 321, 337, 375, 442, 370, 375, 381, 396, 397, 413,
486, 496, 499, 502, 503. See 476, 478, 490; deified, 421; 475, 476; mortuary temple
also Amenhotep IV tomb of, 393, 394, 396, of, 479; temple of, at
 532 INDEX OF HISTORICAL ITEMS INDEX OF HISTORICAL ITEMS 533
Luxor, 503; tomb of, 401- Astarte, r2 436,438,439,484,485,507; 188, 230, 234, 236, 246, 247, Kamose, 8 Mahu, r67, 477
402; - IV, 8, 47, r3r, 226, Aten (Aton) , 3, 7, r2, 76, 78, Nineteenth, 5, 8, 35, 57, 6r, 248, 252, 258, 263, 276, 278, Kamutef, r86, 234, 37r Mahuhi, 478
234, 238, 274, 275, 373, 374, 94, 96, 99, roo, r34, r59, 63, 70, r79, r8o, r85, 283, 285, 290, 29r, 292, 294, 295, Kassite Period, 455, 48r Mai, r2
396, 4r3; tomb of, 402 r98, 2or, 2rr, 212, 2r3, 2r4, 292,338,359, 375,378,390, 318, 320, 322, 323, 324, 326, Kedendenna, 9 Ma'nekhetawitf, 78
Amenhotep Sise, 495 274, 275, 284,424, 427, 482, 397, 398,404,406,4ro,4r5, 327, 340, 361, 368, 370, 37r, Kenamun, 4ro, 49r , 493 Ma't, 357
Amenhotep son of Hapu, 503, 508; - Gem Aten 42r, 428, 430, 43r , 436, 482, 396, 4r r, 414, 435, 444, 483, Keres, 372 Mekitaten, 402
r63, r65, 280, 360; mortu- temple, r65, r66, 20 r, 503 503; Twentieth, 3, 9, 6r, 485, 488, 490, 495, 50 r, 502; Kha', 380, 38r Melishipak, 455
ary temple of, 362- 364, 498 Atum, 230 63, r63, r84, r9r, 322, 352, tombs of, 400-4or Khaemhat, 376 Memnon, 54, r59, 338, 339
Amenmes, tomb of, 406 Augusti, 230 360, 375, 396, 404, 4ro, Herihor, r63, 170, 255, 342, Kha'mwas, 200, 297, 368 Menes, 199
Amenmose, r30, 378 Ay, 25, 26, 29, 35, 36, 68, 69, 4r5, 42r, 430, 43r, 432, 436, 462, 471 Khentkawes, 150 Menkheperre, r57, 160
Amenuser, 390 84, r38, r39, r47, 244, 304, 562, 470; Twenty-First, 3, Herishef, r96, r97, 482 Khentiamentiw, 183 Menkheperre'seneb, r65
Amun (Amon), 2, 3, 6, rr, 323, 354. 362, 366, 370, 398, 9, r57, r63, 342, 354, 462 ; Hittite, 225. See also Index Khepri, 253, 308 Menna, 409
r2, r3, r8, 24, 72, 76, 128, 400, 462, 49r; tomb of, Twenty-Second, r8o, 238, of Places Khety III, 6r Mentuhotep, r86, 322, 326,
r30, r35, r49, r55, r56, r59, 402, 423 360, 432, 438; Twenty- Homer, 60 Khnemu'a, 429 330, 337, 476, 5or, 502; -
r6o, r6r, r62, r63, r65, r7r, Fifth, 257, 292, 360; Horakhty, 156 Khnumhotep, 375 S'ankhkare', 364
r72, r74, r76, r8r, r85, r86, Bakenkhonsu, 253, 375, 390, Twenty-Sixth (Saite) , rr, Khnum, 198, 278, 279, 290 Merneptah, 9, 13, 35, 38, 53,
78, 266, 268, 508; Ethio- Horemheb, 8, 38, 76, 133,
r89, r92, r98, 2r2, 225, 229, 499 Khnumy, 432, 441 54, r56, 165, r88, r98, 200,
138, r39, r161, 226, 229, 234,
230, 232, 234, 236, 238, 242, Bekurel, 374 pian, 234, 238; Ptolemaic, Khans, 382, 387, 388, 409 258, 297, 321, 322, 323, 338,
Buqentuf, 270 234, 508. See also Empire 242, 244, 258, 259, 294, 295,
244, 246, 248, 249, 252, 253, Khonsmose, 378, 379 352, 390, 414, 430, 447,
Bes, 50, 65, 66, 67, II5, 26r 296, 304, 323, 340-342, 362,
26o, 263, 270, 274, 275, 290, Khonsu, r62, r70, r8o, 186, 482 ; mortuary temple of,
Buto, 2r7 366,370,374,397,398,462;
292, 295, 296, 300, 3r4, 322, Edjo, r2 225, 226, 229, 230, 232, 236, 350, 352; tomb of, 405-
tomb of, 402, 405
323, 326, 330, 334, 337, 342, Empire, 3, 7, 9, 55, 148, r5r, 242, 252, 253, 256, 258, 275, 406
Caesar, 230 Hor-Re', 2r4
348, 354, 358, 364, 366, 367, r84, 358, 365, 434, 444, 448, 322, 337, 342, 343, 348, 358, Merykare', 6r
4r3, 414; avengers of, 496; Cheops, 70, 230 Horns, 65, 70, 7r, 2r7, 2r8, 462
449, 455, 480. See also Meryre' II, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35,
colossus of, 478; gardens Chephren, 70, 222, 368 318, 414; throne of, 374; Kingdom: c:i!d, 3, 70, r33,
Kingdom, New 122, r65, 166, 427
of, 495; real estate of, 490 ; Copt, 299, 366, 427 -of Mi'm, 457
Eneolithic, 70, 148 r63, r74, r78, r79, 183, r87, Meryt Seger "The-One-
temple of, 489 Coptic, 250, 352 Eos, 338 Huy, 362, 4ro, 4r6, 4r9. See 189, 195, 200, 20I, 230, 292, Loving-Silence," 63, 396,
Amunet, 249 also Amenhotep son of 322, 323, 365, 367, 368, 393,
Eset, 4or 421, 434
Amun-Ipet, 292 Dedia, 326 Hapu
407, 428, 438, 440, 441, 442, Michelangelo, 504
Amun-Kamutef, 26r, 263 Dedun, 272, 278 Huya, 170 447, 48r, 500, 5or, 508;
First Intermediate Period, Min, 128, r6r, r64, 281, 297,
Amun-of-the-Way, 4, 9 Djehut, 436 Hyksos, 5, 6, 8, ro, 70, r90, Middle, 3, 9, 2r, 22, 58, 70,
440 3% 356
Amun-Re' (Amon-Re), 2, 3, Djeser. See Neterikhet 272, 435, 49r 75, r26, r28, 129, 133, r50,
Dushrata, ro Minmose, 360, 36r, 432, 433,
7, 8, 9, 59, 60, 126, r57, r53, r77, r90, 238, 248, 257,
Gothic cathedrals, 486 44r
r58, r6r, r62, r86, 2r8, 232, Dwatenopet, 407 Imhotep, 198 258, 264, 278, 284, 318, 322,
Dynasty: First, r99; Third, Greco-Roman Period, 188, Minoan, 17
234, 238-248, 249, 253, 255, Inanna, 481 323, 330, 360, 365, 367, 368,
258, 273, 280, 302, 304, 326, r87, 200, 232, 33r, 366, 370, 352, 434 Montu, 194, 234, 236, 238,
lneny, 20, 2r, 35, r29, 163, 372, 373, 39r, 393, 401, 407,
335, 337, 366, 475, 488, 502, 487; Fourth, 70, r50, r99, 246, 373, 394, 400, 4r r, 490, 408, 409, 4II, 413, 429, 430, 357
505 222, 368; Fifth, 2r8; Elev- Hapu:!eneb, 163, r65, 292, 432, 440, 44r, 450, 452, 457, Mut, 180, 186, 225, 229, 230,
49r
Amun-Re'Horakhty, 255 enth, 322, 337, 374, 394, 373, 4II 459, 460, 462, 473, 475, 478, 234, 236, 238, 242, 252, 253,
Inhapy, 375, 444
Amun-Re'Montu, 264, 265 435, 5or; Twelfth, 70, r50, H armachis, 159 486, 49r, 500, 502, 503, 505, 258, 259, 260, 261, 263, 275,
lnhertmosi, 430
Anhorauf'ankh, 432 r86, r97, r99, 272, 364, 374, Harmose, 436 507; New, 9, rr, 75, 128, 300, 318, 322, 337, 343,
Ipuky, 5, 376, 409 348, 358, 367, 436, 502
Anhorkhawy, 4r6, 4r9 39r, 394, 436, 484, 5or; H athor, 35, 38, 39, 67, r73, r48, 150, 152, 154, 177, r89,
Ipuy, 281, 282, 283 Mutemuya, 230, 338
Anta, 70, 72, r89, r92, r94 Thirteenth, r2, 374, 394; 198, 225, 258, 268, 270, 271, 2I2, 232, 276, 295, 308, 318,
Anubis, r98, 329, 331, 335, Seventeenth, 407 ; Eight- 272, 287, 300, 302; 3r4, 315, Ipy, 294, 4ro, 414
322,337,365,366,368,372,
478 eenth, 5, 8, II, 35, 38, 47, 3r6, 318, 3r9, 320, 32r, 331, Isis, 65, 67, 198, 225, 276, 384, 422, 429, 430, 436, 440, Nabu, 87
Archaic Period, r53, r82, 2or, 59, 6r, 63, r76, r84, r86, 332, 334, 335, 337, 338, 370, 4r4; - Queen, 374 444, 457,458, 459, 460,473, Nahum, 59, 60
266, 473 r97, 238, 272, 282, 284, 292, 371, 432, 477, 48r, 505 Iuya, 386 475, 482, 488, 49r, 495, 504. Nakl~t, 22, 23, 24, 35, 94, roo,
Artemis, 295 293, 3r8, 32r, 340, 353, 372, Hatiay, 22, 23, ro8, r88 Iwnmwtef, 292 See also Empire IOI, 137, 409, 410
Assurnazirpal, II, 455 375,376, 378, 390, 39r,396, Hatshepsut, 3, 7, 8, ro, II, Nakhtamun, 377, 378
Assyrian, Late, 455, 48r 397, 403, 4ro, 422, 430, 433, 57, r62, r64, r65, 186, Jupiter, r87 Late Period, 434 Nakhtmin, 360; representa-
 534 INDEX OF HISTORICAL ITEMS INDEX OF PLACES 535
tion of funerary chapel of, Pennut, 43S 272, 275, 2S2, 290, 294, Renaissance, 444 Setnakht, 9, 396, 397, 39S; 2SS, 2S9, 31S, 320, 322,
3S7, 3S9, 40S, 495 Pentawer, 3 297, 29S, 299, 300, 302, Renenut, 133 tomb of, 406 323, 326, 330, 334, 336,
Nebamun, 22, 23, 35, 129, Pentu, 166 304, 305, 30S, 309, 3ro, Roy, 13, 165 Shabaka, 257 337, 340, 362, 366, 36S,
376, 409 Pepi II, lS4 3II, 312, 313, 31S, 321, 322, Sheshonq, 71, 162 3SS, 396, 397, 39S, 4II,
Nebqed, 3S3 Persian, SS; Period, 292 323, 324, 354, 356, 359, Sahure', lS4, 21S Shu, 3S6; - "Corridor of 413, 435, 447, 457, 4S2,
Nebunenef, 414 Pesiur, 3S, 297, 360, 361, 410 361, 362, 366, 36S, 369, Sargon II, S7, 462, 503 the way of Shu," 39S 490, 503; representation of
Nedjemger, 37S Philip Arrhidaeus, 24S 370, 390, 396, 397, 407, Sebek, l9S Siamen, 191, 192 funerary chapel of, 3S7;
Neferhotep, 12, 25, 35, 135, Pinedjem, 162, 354, 375 414, 447, 44S, 46S, 475, Sebekemsaf, 373 Siptah, 297, 323, 390, 39S; tomb of, 401 ; - IV, 10,
134, 172, 174, 176, 244, 376, Psusennes, 191, 444 476, 477, 479, 4S1, 4S3, Sebeknakht, 435 tomb of, 406 76, 155, 157, 159, 246, 273,
37S, 445, 491, 495 Ptah, 14, 156, l9S, 199, 21S, 4S9, 499, 502, 504, 505, Sekhmet, 25S, 261 Smenkhkare', So, SS 27S, 2SS, 290, 291, 292,
Neferrenpet, 3S2 234,257,25S, 299,300, 304, 506; mortuary temple of, Semitic, 71, 462 Snefru, 232, 31S 295, 323, 3S6, 396, 397;
Nefersekheru tomb, 42S- 429 34S, 354. 356, 366, 479, 344-352; tomb of, 405; de- Senmen, 4n, 414, 444 Sokar, 253, 356 mortuary temple of, 340;
Nefertiri (Nefertari), 155, 4S9 ified, 314; - III, 7, 9, II, Senmut, 3, 164, 292, 326, 331, Sopd, 31S tomb of, 401, 402
159, 229, 237, 270, 30S, 31S, Ptah-Tatenen, 300, 356 13, 33, 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 335, 3S7, 4II, 414, 444, Thutnefer, 15, 35, 59, 434
407, 4S1; deified, 314 Ptolemaic Period, 176, l9S, 44, 69, 74, 75, 7S, S4, S7, 490 Taharqa, 23S Ti, 133
Nefertiti, Sr 212, 214, 270, 272, 2S4, n9, l2S, 141, 142, 144, Sennufer, lS, 20, 35, 40, 92, Taurt, 67, 421, 422 Tiy, 47, 52, 170, 338, 402,
Neith, l9S 292, 297, 326 146, 147, l 4S, lfo, 163, 294, 4ro, 492, 494 Tausert, 323, 406 501
Nekhebet, 266, 267, 26S, 269, Ptolemies, 234, 25S 176, lSo, lS6, lSS, 192, Senusert I, 13, 222, 2S4, 479, Tetisheri, l5S, 222, 324, 325, Tjonufer, 382
2SS Ptolemy Evergetes I, 255; - 197, 199, 216, 234, 242, 4S4; - II, IIO; - III, 27S, 373, 392, 4SS Tjoy, 18, 35, 136, 146, 294,
Nekhtnebef, 255 Philadelphus, 261 243, 24S, 255, 257, 261, 391, 392, 393, 396, 397 Thot, 136, lS5, l9S, 217, 266, 382, 4ro, 414, 491
Nektanebo I, 292 Puyemre', 294, 409, 410, 491, 263, 273, 292, 302, 314, Seqenenre', S 26S, 270, 295, 304, 30S, Tukulti Ninurta, I, 87
Nesimut, 374 492 321, 322, 323, 344, 361, Serer, 410 314, 357 Tum, 230
Neterikhet Djeser, 200, 2S4, 366, 370, 371, 374, 396, Setau, 270, 299 Thutiy, 164 Tut'ankhamun, 76, 226, 229,
33 l' 366, 4S7 Qaha, 416, 419, 444 39S, 416, 441, 444, 446, Seth, 12, 70, l S9, 194 Thutmose, 7S 277, 281, 3S5, 422; tomb
Neuserre', rS4, 200 447, 44S, 462, 471, 4S2, Seti I, 7, 9, ro, 140, 141, 155, Thutmose I, 61, 156, l5S, of, 402
Nibmare', 156 Ra 'ia, 15 4S3, 4S5, 4S6, 4S9, 490, 156, 157, l5S, 159, 161, 161, 163, 246, 24S, 276, Tut'ankhaten, So
Nitokris, l l Ramesseum, 3, 35, 37, 3S, S7, 504, 505; mortuary tem- 162, 174, 179, lS5, 197, 27S, 2S5, 323, 326, 334, Tutu, 30, 31, 208; tomb of,
Nut, 222 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, ple of, 352- 360, 466, 467; 199, 214, 215, 216, 217, 337, 344, 373, 394. 396, at 'Amarna, 426, 427-42S,
229, 322, 344-352, 354, - IV, 257, 321, 434, 442; 21S, 219, 221, 222, 223, 397, 39S, 401, 435, 442, 444; tomb of, at Deir Rifa,
Okhepernere Thutmose II, 356, 361, 370, 371, 390, tomb of, 3S4-3S5, 39S; - 224, 226, 234, 244, 246, 447, 457, 490; tomb of, 429
l5S 453, 477, 479, 4S2, 4S9, IV-XI, 9, 234; - V, 374; 247, 24S, 270, 275, 295, 296, 400; - 11, l5S, 160, 161, Tybi, fifth month, 214
Osireion. See Index of Places 501 - VI, 71, 159, 191, 321, 297, 32:2, 323, 366, 370, 163, 2S5, 324, 362, 373,
Osirian. See Osiris Ramessid(e), 4, 6, 9, 10, 60, 39S, 43S, 463; - VII, 39S; 390, 396, 397, 444, 447, 442; - Ill, S, ro, 16, 44, Unamun, 4, 9, 34
Osiris, lS1, l9S, 216, 217, 197, 257, 2S5, 294, 295, tomb of, 407; - IX, 39S, 44S, 4S2, 500, 502, 504, 57, 59, S6, 126, 129, 156, Userhat, 378, 409
222, 224, 246, 257, 27S, 359, 360, 36S, 414, 463, 399, 442; tomb of, 3S6- 505, 506, 507; double tem- 157, 161, 163, 164, 165, Usermare, 156
334, 344, 357, 35S, 442, 4S2, 4S6, 504, 505, 50S; 3S7; - X, 374; - XI, l fo, ple of, 361; mortuary tem- lS6, lSS, 226, 227, 229,
47S, 4S4 type of tomb, 402, 406, 410 257, 447; tomb of, 407; - ple of, 342- 344, 359; tomb 232, 234, 23S, 242, 246, Wahkare', 61
Ra'mose, 3S, 39, 7S, 373, 376, XII,'!! of, 405 ; - II, 234, 23S, 242, 247, 24S, 249, 250, 251, Wedjmose, 390
Pakhet (Pakht), 160, 161, 4IO, 41 l, 413 Ra'nefer, 97 261, 321, 396, 39S; ton1b 252, 253, 255, 257, 25S,
295, 300 Ramses I, 9, 242, 270, 323, Re' (Re), 2, 12, 157, l5S, of, 406 263, 266, 273, 276, 2S5, Xerxes, 88, 149
Panehsy, 9S, 99, 166, 297; 344, 414; tomb of, 405; - 334, 374; temple of, 490
tomb of, 424, 427 II, 2, 4, S, 9, ro, 35, 37, Re'Horakhty, 173, lSS, 21S,
Pa-Ramses, S 3S, 40, 57, 59, 70, 71, 72, 255, 273, 2S1, 300, 302, INDEX OF PLACES
Parennefer, l 36, l 37 u9, 136, 140, 141, 155, 304, 305, 306, 307, 30S, Abahuda, 304 156, l5S, 179, lS3, 214, Aegean, l , 10, 148, 150; orn-
Parohu, 330 156, 157, l5S, 162, lS6, 313, 314, 322, 326, 334, Abu Simbel, 3, 4, 155, lS5, 215, 217, 219, 222, 223, ament, 50
Pawah, 7S lSS, lS9, 190, 191, 192, 344, 34S, 357, 367, 4S1 lSS, 197, 229, 273, 294, 224, 324, 325, 365, 36S, African, 84, 276
Pehsukher, l2S, 129 194, 197, l9S, 199, 200, Re'Horakhty-Atum, 174 29S, 304- 319, 34S, 370, 369, 372, 373, 391, 392, Akhetaten, 8, 12, 15, 55, 60,
Penbuy, 475 222-225, 226, 227, 22S, Rekhmire', 6, 130, 131, 165, 371, 451, 477, 479, 4S1, 393, 40S, 409, 414, 430, 76-81, u 9, 159. See also
Pennesttawy, 410 229, 232, 234, 237, 244, 24S, 294, 409, 411, 492, 4S3, 4S6, 501 4S9, 496, 500, 506, 507 'Amarna
Penno, 159 24S, 250, 25S, 266, 270, 494 Abydos, 3, 4, 55, 56, 57, 140, Achaean, 9 Akhmim, 304
 536 INDEX OF PLACES INDEX OF PLACES 537
'Amada, r6r, 185, 273, 284, Beni Hassan, 160, 292, 295, Djime, 352 Gebel Barkal, 4S1, 501 495, 501, 502, 503, 506; 216, 229, 232, 2S4, 290-
285, 287, 370, 506 296, 430, 450 Domain of Amun, 255 Gebel Dosha, 294 - North, 264, 265 293, 302, 322, 323, 326,
'Amara, r85, 273, 275 Birket Habu, 49 Dra' abul Naga, 321, 337, Gebel Silsila, 294, 295, 296 Kar Tukulti Ninurta, 503 341, 344, 352, 353, 360,
'Amarna, r, 3, 5, 7, 8, r2, r5, Bogazkiiy, 92 374, 3S2, 390, 394, 40S, Gilda, 76 Kawa, 2So, 2S1, 2S2 361, 364, 366, 370, 407,
22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, Brooklyn Museum, r74 43S Giza, 159, 1S3, 222 Kharu, 155
,(J 434, 447, 455, 461, 462-
3r, 34, 40, 47, 54, 55, 56, Bubastis, 477 Greece, Greek, 5, 59, 70, 290, Khorsabad, 87, 462
East, local, 294 470, 473, 4S2, 4S3, 486,
59, 60, 63, 65, 67, 68, 75, Buben, 4, 277, 2S5, 436, 457, 295, 33S, 368, 398, 502 ; Korn el Ahrnar, 40S, 42S, 436
Edfu, 2, 18S, 214, 297, 33S; 4S9, 495, 49S, 50 l, 504,
76-81, 89, 95, IIo, r15, 459, 460, 462, 473, 500 temples, 4S6 Korn el Heitan, 253
- Behedet, 212; - Djeba, 505
126, 129, I 34, I 38, 142, Byblos, 4, 9, 34, 447 Gumb, 40S Kuban, 124, 126, 2S4, 290 Medinet Madi, 364
147, 150, r5r, r52, 153, 212
Kumma, rS5, 27S, 279 Megiddo, 447
r65-r70, 178, r85, r88, Cairo Museum, 33S, 4S7 Egypt, 7, 50, 250, 495 ; - Hagg Qandil, 115, r 16 Kush, 414; armies of, 462; Memnonium, temple of Seti
200, 2or-2r4, 244, 284, Canaan, 163 Lower, 35, 54, 157, 15S, Hatnub, 155, l6r, r64 - "King's son of Kush," 7 I, 216
338, 367, 370, 371, 397, Capitol, 187 24S; - Middle, 3, 8; - Hawata, 76 Memphis, 12, 13, 53, 156,
402, 403, 408, 4II , 412, Cataract, 390; Second, 57 ; Upper, 54, 67, 125, 157, He-Ka-Ptah, r2 Lachish, 92 lfo, 198, 199, 257, 299,
422, 423, 441, 442, 443, Third, 57, 279; Fourth, S 15S, 232, 24S, 476 Heliopolis, 6, 157, 172-173, La hun, 10, 57, 61, 63, 74, 75, 368, 479, 496; - Mem-
444, 450, 457, 481, 492, Constantinople, 157, 250 Egyptian, 6, ro, 52, 55, 155, 192, 197, 304, 348, 490 IIO, l 50, l 52, 502 phite, 222; tomb, 497
4% 496, 498, 500, 5o6, Crete, 5, 41 r; influences of, 413, 50S ; garrisons, 447, Hellenistic, 501, 50S Lateran, 157 Mesopotamia(n), l, 3, 5, 8,
507; tombs of, 422-428; 419, 444 462; representations, 457 Hermonthis, 12, 164. See Latin, 33S 10, 180, 186, 503; architec-
- Central City, 55, 78, 90, Creto-Mycenaean, 92 Ehnasya, 196, 197, 4S2 also On Lebanese, 4 ture, 179; influence, S6,
92, 99, roo, ro5, II 5, 125, Cusae, r61 El 'Amra, 430, 431 Hermopoliian nome, 76 Lebanon, ro, 12, 155, 36S, 444 ; palace, l 51; represen-
r5r, 203; - South City, Cypriote, 64 El 'Araba, 432, 433, 441 Hermupolis, 76, 479; - 447. See also Djahy tations, 457; town gates,
56, 78, 80, 92, 97; - North Elephantine, 2S4, 2SS, 2S9, West, 434 Libya(n), 9, 13, 159, 234, 472
Suburb, 78, 80-S1, S7, 103, Dakka, 273 290, 419, 507 Hierakonpolis, 436. See also Mi'm (Miam), 126, 127, 159,
Elesya, 294 246, 264, 29S, 447, 450,
105, 108, 126, r8S, 20I, Dapur, 348, 453 Korn el Ahmar 276, 2n, 456, 457, 458.
Deir el Bahari, 63, 156, 158, El Kab, 266-270, 2S4, 2SS, 453, 455 ; prisoners, 338
202; - Royal Road, So, Sr, Hill, Primeval, 222 See also 'Aniba
82, S7, 8S, rr9, 121, rS5, r62, 164, 1S6, 1S7, 230, 370, 40S, 434-435 Lisht, 432
Hittite, l, 9, lo, 64, 246, 44S, Minya, 42S
204, 20S, 502, 503 236, 252, 272, 292, 31S, El Kasra, 1S5 Luxor, 3, 59, 60, 140, 156,
455, 460, 462, 472, 473; Mitanni(an), 2, ro, 455
'Amarna East, 7, 55, 6o-6r, 322, 324, 326-335, 337, El Kharga, 40S 157, 159, 161, 171, 174,
fortress, 34S
IIO-lII, 150, 152, 507 344, 368, 370, 394, 414, 444, El Khokha, 40S 1S5, 186, 1S7, 225, 227,
Horn peak, 241 Nag' el Mashayekh, 430
'Aniba, 126, 408, 436-43S, 478, 4S3, 4S8, 489, 495, 50 1 El Qurn, 442, 501 22S, 229, 231, 233, 235,
El Salamuni, 304. See also 236, 237, 242, 244, 246, Naharina, 34
439. See also Mi'm Deir el Ballas, 46, 47 !brim, in Nubia, 446
Deir el Medina, 7, 35, 40, 61- Akhmim 255, 25S, 292, 322, 32 3, Napata, 272
'Araba, 432, 433, 441 Indo-European, ro
6S, 150, 171, 270, 271, 272, El Sebu'a, 273. See also Wadi 340, 344, 366, 367, 370, Naukratis, 73
Arslan Tepe, 472 Isherw, 164, 261
2S2, 2S5, 287, 376, 377, el Sebu'a 436, 471, 477, 479, 499, Negro, 308
Ascalon, 453
37S, 3So, 3S1, 3S2, 391, Esna, 1S8, 432, 434, 505 Jerusalem, 1S9 501, 502 Nekhen, 436
Asia, 4, 6, ro, 72, 455, 457 ;
- Asiatic, 9, 70, S4, 92, 40S, 415-422, 438, 441, Ethiopian, 29S Lycian, 9, 503 Nile, 15, 49, 55, 59, 76, 77,
444, 476, 478, 499, 500, Etruscan, 9, 1S5, 187 Kalabsha, 273 90, 93, l II, 147, 174, lS3,
148, 155, 164, 194, 252,
505 Eurn.pean, 250 Karnak, 3, 13, 59, 60, 72, S6, Malqata, 36, 47, 4S, 50, 51, 185, 186, lS7, 213, 232,
276, 446, 447; -Minor, 9
Deir Rifa, 429, 430 135, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, S4, 92, 153, 211, 501, 505, 239, 285, 2% 338, 367,
'Assassif, 394, 40S
Delta, 4, 12, 59, 70, 473, 476, Faras, 276, 277, 414 162, 164, 165, 170, 171, 172, 506 457, 463, 502 ; humus, 2rr;
Assur, S7 Fayum, 501 Mam-Aten, 78, So, 92, 1S6, personification of, 1S2, 315
4S9, 490; residence, 477 174, 176, 177, lSo, lS5,
Assyria, S7 Den<lera, 47, 18S, 212, 266, Field of Offerings, 255 ; - of lSS, 370, 371, 498-499,
1S6, 187, 18S, 1S9, 192, Nineveh, 59
Aswan, 156, 331 43S, 439 Reeds, 255 503
19S, 226, 229, 232, 239, No-Amoun, 59
Avaris, 70, 151, 1S9 Derr, 3, 4, 156, 159, 294, 29S, Florence Museum stela (No. Mecca, 189
240, 243, 245, 247, 249, North, 90, 427 ; local, 185
Ayan ('Ayn), 155, 161. 164 302, 303, 348, 4S2 5412), 131-133 250, 253, 254, 255, 256, Medamud, 179, 183 Nubia(n), 2, 3, 4, 55, 58, 64,
Dirwa, 76 Forum , 1S7 257, 258, 259, 260, 273, Medinet Habu, II, 33, 35, 36, 126, 148, 150, 153, 154,
Babylonian, 442 Djahy, II , 12, 163. See also 284, 288, 2S9, 322, 342, 38, 52, 55, 60, 67, 69, 72, 155, 159, 164, 185, 270,
Beit el Wali, 4, 1S5, 294, 298 Lebanon Garf Hussein, 270, 272, 294, 3% 366, 367, 36S, 370, 73,. 75, 84, 87' 129, 13S, 272, 278, 281, 294, 295,
Beki, fortress near Kuban, Djamet (Coptic, Djime), 298, 299, 302, 477, 4S2 371, 413, 436, 447, 462, 139, 143, 144, 146, 147, 297, 298, 40S, 4II , 436,
446 Medinet Habu, -290 Gebel Adda, 1S5, 304 476, 479, 4S2, 4S3, 4S9, 149, 156, 159, lfo, 197, 446, 452, 456, 457, 476,
 538 INDEX OF PLACES INDEX OF SUBJECTS 539
479, 4S6, 500, 506; chiefs, Sacred Lake Karnak, 18S Tell el Retaba, 470-472, 473
414 ; - Lower, 294, 295 San el Hagar. See Pi- Tell el Yehudiya, 6, 174
Nun, 182, 255 Ra 'messe Thebes, 3, 4, 6, 7, S, 12, 15,
Saqqara, 133 19, 35, 36, 47, 55, 59-60, INDEX OF SVB/ECTS
Olynthos, 5, 5S Sardinian, 9 70, 76, So, S7, 95, II9, 148, Egyptian words Hwt-Aten "Castle-of-Aten," Pa netjer "The god," colos-
On of Upper Egypt, II, 12. Sea, peoples of, 9 149, 151, 152, 155, 156, Aba, stela, 409 20S sus, 477
See also Hermonthis
Opet, 229, 232
Sedment, 40S
Semitic, 194, 321
157, 15S, 159, 161, 165,
171, 174, 175, 1S9, 212,
1
j
Akhet-Aten "Luminous
Mountain-Horizon-of-
Hwt-netjer "castle of god,"
temple, 154
Per "house" (of God), tem-
ple, 176
Orient, 63 Semna, 1S5, 272, 27S 216, 220, 225, 229, 230, Aten" 'Amarna, 76 Per hedj "house of silver,''
Osireion, Cenotaph of Seti Serabit el Khadem, 31S, 320 232, 236, 241, 244, 24S, Akh-menw "Luminous-of- !pet resyt "Southern Private treasury, l S2
I at Abydos, 216, 21S-222; Serre, 156 275, 2S3, 290, 294, 295, monuments" epithet of Area," temple of Amun at Per nebw "house of gold,"
symbolic representation of, Sesebi, 3, 4, 8, 55, 57, 5S, 304, 30S, 33 1, 374, 377, Seti I, 197; -Thutmose Luxor, 225 sarcophagus hall in royal
496 150, 1SS, 201, 274, 367, 390, 391, 392, 393, 407, III, 250 ' !pet lswt "The-one-checking- tomb, 3S5
472, 473, 500, 506 40S-414, 415, 422, 427, Amdwat, Book of What is in the-census-of-places," tem-
Palestine, 6, IO, 246, 447, Sheikh 'Abd el Qurna, 40S 430, 436, 444, 445, 447, the Netherworld, 39S ple of Amun at Karnak, Sa "protection,'' 50
44S ; Palestinian, 473 Sheikh Said, 76 462, 4S2, 4S9, 492, 499, 'Ankh, life, 50 232, 23S Seh "divine booth," 171, 376
Pekanan, 446 Sicilian, 9 506; - Theban necropolis, 'Araty, ramp, 462 !shed, sacred persea tree, 34S Sekhw wa'b "pure court,''
Pelusiac Branch, 70 Sikket el Sultan, 76, So. See 352; tombs, 429; tomb 'Ash-wood, 164 ltr, measure of 4,400 cubits, slaughtering court, lSo
Persepolis, 52, SS also 'Amarna, Royal Road scenes, 415 ; - West, 56, 'At "room" in royal tomb, 1 59
Serekh panel, 331
Persian garden, 495 ; - in- Sile, 455 6S, 141, 163, 1S5, 212, 239, 3S5 lwnit "hypostyle hall," 273 Shen, hieroglyph picturing
vasions, 50S Silsila, 4, 295 241, 350, 362, 363, 364, the oval shape of the
Philae, 226 Sinai, 2, 4, 31S 367, 372, 373, 395, 404, Bek hen, pylon, 170, 177; - world, 397
Karw "offering-chapel," 255
Piazza de! Popolo, Rome, Sindjerli, 472 412, 47S "tower" stronghold, 446 Khefet her nebes "The One Shena' "magazine," 14
1 97 Soleb, 4, 154, 156, 16r, 229, T jabu, 15. See also Qaw el Benenet, Temple of Khonsu Sn wt "sisters" (?), flagstaffs,
in Front of Its Master"
Pi-Ra'messe, II, 59, 70-72, 276, 279, 2So, 364 Kebir at Karnak, 255 170
city of Thebes within
1S9, 191, 477. See also Somaliland, 330 Tjalu, 4, 4% 455 south enclosure of temples Stja netjer "way of god,"
Tombos, fortress m Nubia, Dja'm-gold, 164, 331
Tanis, Qantir South, 90, 159, 266, 4II, 427 at Karnak, 59 corridor in royal tomb, 3S5
Djed sign, 141
Pi-Ra'messe-Miamun, 12 Speos Artemidos, 160, 185, 447 Khenw "Interior," temple
Djeser Akhet "Holy Lumi- Ta set neferw "The Place of
Pithom, 72- 73, 470 292, 295 To-meri, II, 12
nous- Mountain - Horizon" palace of Ramses II at Deir Beauty,'' Valley of the
Pompeii, 253 Sudan, 3, S, 55, 57, 5S, 150, Troy, 472 el Medina, 38
Hathor c~apel at Deir el Queens at Thebes West,
Punt, Pwene, Somaliland, 201, 232, 272, 274, 462, Tuna el Gebel, 76, 434
Bahari, probably also the Khetem "seal," frontier post, 407
164, 330, 4II, 4S9 472, 473, 4S1, 500 Turin Museum, 4S3
whole Thutmoside com- 446 Tekhen wo'ty "single obe-
Syria(n), 1, 3, 9, IO, 34, 64,
Urartu, 457 plex, 337 Khn um ltenw Pedjwt lisk," 253
Qadesh, 3, 229, 246, 310, IIS, 252, 264, 278, 29S,
Urbs, 12 Djeser Djeserw "Holy-of- "Khnum-'Opponent-of-the- Tjakara, enclosed tower, 462
344, 450, 451 30S, 368, 41 I, 446, 447, Holies" mortuary temple
Uronarti, 55 Bows,'" temple at Kumma, Twt'a "great statue," colos-
Qantir. See Pi-Ra'messe 44S, 449, 450, 457, 473, of Hatshepsut, 326 278 sus, 476
490; fortified town, 451, Valley, Feast of the, 354
Qatta, 432
452, 453, 455; fortress, 462; Valle/ of the Kings, 322, Gem-Aten "Finding-the- W adjit "(hall of) papyriform
Qaw el Kebir, 15, 330, 36S, Men wahet "way station,''
influence, 504 394-396, 402, 403 Aten," "Meeting-the-Aten," columns," 179
40S, 502 repository, 229
temple at Kawa, 281 W adjit shepeset "splendid
Qurnet Mar'i, 61, 326, 336, Ta-Djeser, 324, 434 W adi Alaki, 2 Merw-wood, 14
(hall of) papyriform col-
3% 408, 418 Tanis, 4, 12, 70-72, 190, 191, Wadi el Miyah, 297. See also Heb-sed, jubilee festival, 1S2 Mery! Seger "The One umns," 246
193, 194, 195, 46S, 504 Redesiya Hem-netjer "servant of god," Loving Silence," goddess, Wba "open" (court), 179
Ras Shamra, 10 Tanitic Branch, 70, 72 Wadi el Sebu'a, 294, 300- priest, 1So 63 Wsekhet "broad hall,'' 40S
Redesiya, 4, 154, 162, 297 Taroy, fortress near Ibrim, 302, 479, 483 Henqet'ankh, mortuary tem- Msw-ltn "Birth-of-Aten,'' Wsekhet hebit "feast court,"
Roman, 179, 1S5, 230, 244, 446 Wadi Haifa, 57, 2S5, 2S6 ple of Thutmose III, 337 monthly festival, 213 lS2
501 ; domination, 50S Tehenu. See Libyan Wadi Tumilat, 72, 470 Hetep-Senusert "Senusert is Wsekhet herit ib "interme-
Rome, 197; - Campidoglio, Tell Atchana, IO Warka, 4S1 Satisfied," artisans' town Nekhetw "strong,'' fortress, diate hall," lSo, lSI
504 Tell el 'Amarna. See Waset, nome of Thebes, 59, of Senusert II at Lahun, 446 Wsekhet hetep '.'hall of offer-
Rosta, 374 'Amarna 505 60 Nwt "City,'' Thebes, 121 59 ing (-table)," 180, 232
 540 INDEX OF SUBJECTS INDEX OF SUBJECTS 541
Wsekhet iseq "waiting Architect, 20, 2r, n o, II8, fication, 421; sunken 111 Catacomb of animals, 438, 244, 275; as approach to Corbel, 415, 463; slab, 464,
room" in royal tomb, 385 150, r53, I64, 165, 206, floor, 270; T-shaped, 495; 439 temple, 367 468. See also Vault
Wsekhet kha'it, "hall of ap- 280, 440, 473 water, 321; with stepped Causeway, r84 Colar, 4, 52; colored panels, Cornice, 26, 37, 40, 141, 290.
pearance," r82, 230 Architecture, roo; domestic, sides, 133 Cavalier tower, 463 rr5 See also Torus
Wsekhet khefet her "fore- II-153; religious, 154-371; Bastion, 448, 450, 452, 460, Cave of Hathor, 3I8 Colossal, 7 Coronation, 160. See also
court," 226 funerary, 372-445; mili- 462, 473 Cavetto. See Cornice Colossus, 4, 54, 70, 72, 200, Hall
tary, 446-474; monumen- Bathroom, 30, 42, 43, 49, 54, Cedar, I3, I4, 87, I49, r55, 232, 295, 308, 3ro, 3II, Corridor, 27, 30, 36, 42, 52,
Abacus, 39, r4r tal, 500-508 55, 78, 90, 91, 94, roo, ro5, I64 312, 3I3, 335, 338, 339, 55, 57, 91, 121, 397; Ill
Achievement, in domestic Armor, 5 150 Ceiling, 33, 39, 49, 51, 67, 356, 365, 5or; disposition royal tomb, 385, 396
architecture, r48-r53; Ill Army, 6 Batter(ed), 452, 473 88, 92, 177, 242; astronom- of, 478-483; as mediator, Corruption, 9
religious architecture, 364- Arris, 281 Battlement(ed), 450, 455, 468 ical, 334; decoration, 270, 475, 487; name of, 477 Course, 14, 21; curved, I94,
371; in funerary architec- Artery, 60, So Beam, 73, Io4, ro5; thrust, 298, 4Io; lowering, I82 Column, I3, I6, 27, 29, 34, Ig9, 255; hanging, 46r, 463
ture, 440-445; in military Artisan, 54, 55, 61 220 Cell, 9I, 92, I68, 250 Court(yard), ro, 26, 27, 29,
39, 47, 49, 59, 67, 82, 84,
architecture, 473-474 Artist, skill, 92 Beauty, 371. See also Aes- Cellar, 59, 67, II8, 121, r50, 86, ro5, I55, r58, 212; 30, 74, 86, 92, u5, u9,
Administration building, 75, Art-loving caste, 67 thetics 2I2 bundle, 26, 86, r95; bud 12I, r28, 129, 136, r68,
r42, r46 Audience hall, II Bedroom, 27, 29, 30, 38, 42, Cenotaph of Ahmose, 391- papyriform, r67, r79, 2I6, r69, 204, 207; open, 179;
Aesthetic aspect, 50 r, 507; Avenue, r86, 191, 206, 255; 49, 50, 57, 59, 90, 9r, 94, 392; of Seti I, 218-223; of 230, 242, 255, 276, 282, slaughter, 180, 2or, 218,
~reation, 94, r52; feeling, to temple, 479 roo, I13, 149, 152, 2II Tetisheri, 392-393, 396 290, 297, 342, 35r, 356, 302, 322; sunken, 125
67; value, 218 Awning, n3, 2rr Bellows, paired, 5 Ceramics ovens, 72 366; engaged, 252, 469; Craftsmanship, 52
Aisle, 125, 244 Axiality, 335, 365 Bench, 68 Chancery, I I9, I36, 146 flu ted, 28I, 3I8, 326, 337; Credibility of Egyptian ac-
Alabaster, 42, r6r, r64, 212 Axis, 29, 36, 40, 49, 70, 84, Bin, storage, l I 3 Chapel, 96, 97, Io3, ro5, ro8, forests of, 365; Hathoric, counts, 375
Alcove for bed, 38, 42, 54, 87, 103, IIO, 119, 121, Bird's-eye view restored, I32, 224, 246, 284; of Anubis at 261, 268, 33r; palmiform, Cross section, r36
55, 59, 9r, 94, 97, r51 126, 140, 142, 150, 172, 205, 256, 329, 363, 460 Deir el Bahari, 329; of 25, 26, 30, 37, 42, I89, r9I, Cruciform plan, 295, 352, 422
Alfa grass, r4 177, r83, r84, 188, 190, Block of buildings, 29, 58, Hathor at Deir el Bahari, 276; papyriform, I6, 33, Crypt m royal tomb, 405;
Alignment, 58 191, 2or, 2rr, 214, 216, II9 329; votive, 63, 419, 42r- 37, 40, 54, r36, I38, r79, cruciform, 406
Alley, axial, 278; of sphinxes, 238, 246; curved, 226, 229, Book of the Dead, 376, 400; 42i ; mortuary, 375, 379, 229, 244, 356, 366; of Cubit, no, II3, 330
r78, 263, 294 258, 366, 502; emphasized, of Gates, 398, 400; of 4ro; offering, 255, 323; Kha'mwas, 200; polygonal, Cul-de-sac, 52
Altar, 27, 34, 39, 65, 66, 67, 4II, 413; indicated, 386. Opening the Mouth, 398, rock, 296; pyramid, 4I5~ 253, 278 ; tent-pole, 86, 250, Cuneiform tablets at 'Amar-
68, 91, 96, 167, 169, 201; See also Symmetry 400; of What 1s in the 4r6, 438, 44r 251, 413; with hanging na, II8
desert, 201-203, 204; mono- Axonometric view, 43, 53, Netherworld, 400, 40I Chariot, 5, 86, I5I ducks, 86; without capital, Customs house, SI
lithic, 270; oriented, 2or; 207, 355 Boundary stone, 76, 153 Church, 252, 299, 304 218; 8-sided, 74; r6-sided,
Boxes, storage, I 19 Cynocephali cornice, 308
sun, 275, 326 Citadel, 278, 450, 453, 454, 32 r; 24-sided, 14 l
Ambulatory, 84, II8, 125, Bakehouse, ro5, l5I Bracket, 37, 170 455, 473 Composition, 44; unity of,
Bakery, r6, 121, 148 Brick, I4, 36, 40, 49, 68, 82, Dado, 44, 50, 54, 67, 90, 92,
146, r49, 292 City, 6, 14, 77, I98; in mor- 502 I4I
Anarchy, 9 Balcony, 12, 33, 42, 54, 448, II5; for vault, I42i square, tuary temple of Ramses III, Concrete, 75, 86, r52, 505 Dais, 36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 49,
Anointing room, ro5 450, 453 142; type of, 194, I99, 463 352; of "House-of-Atum,"
Bridge, 82, 86-87, 88, r21, Concubine, 42, 84 50, 54, 93, 94, II3, II8, l4I
Antae, roo, 220, 272, 278, Baldachino, 138 Pithom, 72-73; of Mi 'm,
Balk, 87 45~ 457; at 'Amarna, 498; Cone, frie ze, 409, 44r Debasemen t in architectural
297, 342, 370, 419 456, 457
Apadana, r, 47, 88 Balustrade, 86, 2rr, 329 of the Maru-Aten, 499 Console, 40. See also Bracket porportions, 7
Civic sense, 7
Apartment, 27, 29, 42, 54; Barge, sacred, r l Bronze, 5, r61; smelting, 72 Conspiracy against Ramses Decoration, 48, 50, 67, 83, 92,
Classical beauty, 252 III, 9 ro4, I50, I5I ; of tombs as
private, 93, 148, r50, 151, Bark, 218, 242, 252, 255, 282, Buttress, 140, 459
495; chapel, 180, 255, 257, Classicism, 335, 507 Construction, 49, 70, r54, religious, 44 I ; richness of,
r8r; public, 93, 150; royal,
91 ; state, 84 322, 323, 334> 343, 357; of Caisson, 47, 67, 238, 457, 460 Clerestory window, 52, 86, r74; achievement in, 505- 54
Appearance. See .W indow Amun, 322, 343 Canal, 59, 72, 354, 463; dead 93, II3, rr5, r5I, r77, 242, 506; details of, I95; fea- Defense, 58
Approach, stepped, 308; em- Barracks, 74 end, 495 244, 252, 257, 356 tures of, r52; flimsy, II3; Democratization, I5l, 152
phasized, 367 Base, 47, 264; of column, Cantilever, 453; slab, 252 Closet, ro5, II8 ; earth-, 96; parsimony of, r52; stages Density of population, 55, 61,
Arbor, 88; areas, 489, 490 370 Capital, bell, 86, 250; of col- seat, 94 of, 299 63, III
Arch, pointed, an Egyptian Basement, 16, r48 umn, 39, r52; three-staged, Coefficient of density of pop- Coping, 130, 212, 220; Dependency, 22, 27, 38, 47,
invention, 434, 505 Basilica, 125, r79, 244, 299 470 ulation, 55, 6I, 63, III around tree, 491 56, r38, I42, 149 ; of cult
Archaistic trend, 368 Basin, 138, 167, 354; for puri- Castle, II Colonnade, r89, 230, 235, Copper, 4, 155, r6I temple, 2o r

(
 542 INDEX OF SUBJECTS INDEX OF SUBJECTS 543
Design, 52; simplicity of, Errors from method of ar- Fortified structure, 142 Gratings, 17, rS, 35, 54, 67, Life, II7, IIS-II9 ; of uni- 254, 288; symbolical for
21S chitectural drawing, 172 Fortress, 126, 153, 27S; 103, 141 form plan, II5, II7, 123, Nile, 213
Detritus, 63 Estate, 21, 55 ; literary, 14; names of, 446-447; repre- Graywacke, 174 152, 211; -chariot, 10S; Lapis lazuli, 12
Device against robbers, 393, of Amun, 490 sented, 414; types of, 44S- Grotto of Hathor, 31S, 337 country, 15, 92, 149; Latrine, 49, 55, 90, 94, 95,
40S; earlier device disre- Evidence, representational 455, 473 Growth of temple by accre- King's, 88-90, r 18, 120, 96, 100, 105, II8. See also
garded, 441 ; graphic de- about domestic architec- Foundation, 40, 47, 158, 246; tion, 176, 234, 366 122; many-storied, 15, 19; Closet
vice, 25 ture, 15-35; religious, 165- ceremony, 174, 179, 182, Guardhouse, 7S, Sr rest, 2 r, 90, 92, 149, 282; Lavatory, u8. See also Bath-
Dining room, 29 176 ; funerary, 375-3S9; rS8; deposits, 326, 334; Guardroom, 126 soul, 17, 21; town, 15, 19, room
Distribution of statuary. See garden, 491-496 ; military, trench, 75; flooded with Gypsum of Akhetaten, spec- 55, 93 Layout, 71, 72, 92, 96, 105,
Statuary 44S-457 plaster, 204, 505 imen of material, r 19, 153 Housing unit, 65, IIO ; IIO, 141, 146, 186, 190, 234,
Ditch, 460. See also Moat Evidence from texts about Fresco, 52, 90, II 3; occa- l square, II5 328; inaccurate, 304 ; sym-
Divan, 97, roo, 113, 152 domestic architecture, II- sional, 505 Hall, audience, 50; broad, Hut, 69 metrical, 84, 150
Domain, royal, 27 15; funerary, 372-375; gar- Frieze, 40, 52, 94, 103, 270; 74, 84, 90, 93, 94, 149, 177, Hypostyle hall, 30, 49, 91, Light, 295
Dome, catenary, 147 den, 4SS-490 ; military, modeled, 92 230, 294, in tomb chapel, 177, 179-180, 214, 215, 216, Lining of stone, 94, 150
Door, 155, 354; -frame in- 446-44S; religious, 154- Frontier post, 446, 454, 455 40S, 413, 422, 436, 441; 223, 257, 264, 276, 324, 349, Lintel, 30, l95i broken, 26,
scribed, 127; -jambs paint- 165 Functional approach, 500 coronation, 87-8S, 122, 357; iwnit, 273; at Karnak, 33, 99
ed, 94; inscribed, 126; Ex-voto, 297 151; deep, 90, 93, 149, 177, 161, 242-246; open at Lion, 71
-sill, II 5; sliding, 264, 265; Gable, 133 294, in tomb chapel, 409, Luxor, 225 Living room, 30, 38, 42, 49,
stone, 142 Fac;:ade, 21, 22, 25, 29, 33, 3S, Gallery, 52 413, 422, 436, 441 ; festival, 54, 58, 68, 74, II3, II5,
Dormitories, 126 40, 42, So, 93, 167, 196, Gang of workmen, 61 86, 250-253, 413 ; interme- Illumination of temple, 177 149, 2II
Doubling-back plan, 397, 20S, 227, 267, 2S2, 375; Garden, 21, 27, 29, 55, S8, diate, 180, 250 ; of the Illusion, optical, 7, 197, 229, Lobby, 42
battered, 30S ; of Buhen 14S, 149, 161, 2S2; archi- Chariot, sarcophagus 464, 46S, 473, 479, 486, 504 Lodge, porter's, 93
401, 441
Draftsmanship , 134; drafts- fort, 461 tecture, 48S-499; drawing chamber in royal tomb, Individualism, 148 Loggia, 29, 33, 82, 93, 94, 97,
men, 61, 442 Faience tile, 12, 44, 54, S4, of, 2II, 491-496; funerary, 386; of appearance, rSo, Influences, foreign, 10 99, 100, 103, 105, 149, 151,
Drain, 71, 94, II3, 195, 242, SS; imitation, 42S; inlay, 360, 3S9, 390, 495-496; of 216, 224, 230, 294, 302, Inscription, building, 159- 2II
150, 152, 213, 354 houses, 491-495; remains 310, 314, 331, 343, 348, 163; dedicatory, 157 Loom, horizontal, 5
35S, 472
Drawing, 15-35, 129, 3S7; False burial chamber, corri- of, 496-499; sacred, 495 ; 356; of offering, 180, 232, Insulating, 93, 94 Lotus, 52
compound, 3S3; sectional, dor, shafts, 440 sunken, 84, 90, 496; zoo- 255, 27S, 290, 294, 298, Intercolumnar, 34 Lute, 5
15, 371, 383 False-door, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, logical, 91, 92 300, 310, 331 , 343, 348; Intercolumniat ion, 14 r, 197,
Dressed stone, 59 67, IIS, 141, 149, lSI, 216, Gargoyle, 242 of Foreign Tribute, 204; 222, 242, 284, 2S8, 482 Machicolation, 448, 450, 473
Dromos, 179, 229. See also 225, 260, 323, 326, 337, Gate(way), 26, 29, 30, 71, of Records, 248, 249; pil- Iris, 52, 248 Magazine, 14, 27, 56, 57, 72,
Processional alley 343, 409, 4Sr; double, 322, l 10, 146, 194, 354, 455, lared, 91; reception, 37, 3S, Iron, 5 78, 82, S4, S9, 96, 126-128,
Drum of column, 246 344, 357, 35S 457, 458, 460; of Medinet 40, 49 138-145, 153, 352; at
Island, artificial structure,
Dung as fuel, 14 Festival at Abu Simbel, re- Habu, 463-467, 472 Harbor, 456, 457 'Amarna, II9-123;-"Do u-
Girdle wall, 70, 77, 140, 191, 220, 496
Dungeon, 47 stored drawing, 306 Harmonic design of plan, ble-House-of-Silver," 131;
194, 236, 255; of Medinet Isometric. See Axonometric.
Filling between double walls, 182, 204-206, 208, 21S, 234, - "Magazines-of-the-Tem-
Ivory, 10
Earth, rammed, 59, 67 135; sand, ~04 Habu, 462-463 330, 359, 427, 504, 506-507 ple," 131 ; - "Rich-in-Pro-
Earthwork, 6 Finishing, 154 Gia~ manufactory, 7S Hathoric, capital, 329, 332; visions," 121; - "The-Ka-
Flagstaff, 165, 170, 179, 20S, Gold( en), 4, 6, 10, II, 14, 54, face, 26S, 270; pillar, 318, Keep, 47
Ebony, 164 of-Re'-Lives," 121 ;-"The
Economy factor at 'Amarna, 255; recess, 246, 302 161, 164, 36S; inlays, 149; 319, 32r. See also Column Khan, 105. See also Stables
Flight of steps, 16, 29, 94, of reward, II; ratio, 506. 1 Hearth, II3 ; portable, 100 Kheker frieze, 270, 298
(Storehouse) -of-the-Serv-
IIS, 150 ice-of-the-Aten," 123
Electrum, II , 155, 157, 160, u5, 147 See also Harmonic design Heb-sed jubilee, 250, 284 King's son of Kush, 6 Mammisi, 284
Floor, 50, 52, 142; decorated, Government, carried out, r 15 Horse, 5 Kiosk, 13, 34, 134, 149, 238,
164, 368 Mannerism, 504
Elevation, 18, 25, 27, 41, 152; 213; rise in temple, 182, Granary, 14, 15, 126, l3S; House, attached or contigu- 242, 284, 492 ; of Maru- Mansion, 26, 27, 29, 40, 55,
photogrammet ric, 312 358 on terrace, 7S ; representa- ous, 36, 5S, 74, 150; at Aten, 213, 499 56, 92, 97, 149; contiguous,
Enclosure, 63, So, 146, 454 ; Flute player, 68 tional evidence of, 129-130 'Amarna, 92-IIo; imitated Kitchen, 47, 5S, 67, 99, 105, 57
city, 470; fortified, simple, Forecourt, 179 Granite, S4, 157, 195 in tomb chapel, 409; of II3, 152; appliances, II4 Manufactory, 79
450; double, 452, 453 ; tem- Fortification, 6; arouµd Me- Graphical representation, Corresponden ce-of-Pha- Maru, 212 ; - Maru-Aten,
ple, 462 giddo, 447; plan at Buhen, 142. See also Evidence, raoh, IIS; of Gold, sar- Lake, 14, 47, 2u, 212; im- 209-214, 498-499
Endowment, 15S, 163 459 representational cophagus hall, 3S5; of- mense, 501; sacred, 253, Mashrabiya gratings, 35
 544 INDEX OF SUBJECTS INDEX OF SUBJECTS 545
Mastaba, built-in sofa, 27; ar- Works, 153; of Records, Palm, 17, 67, rr5, 491; reinforced, 214; symbolic, Proto-Doric columns, 273, Reed, 69, 86
chaic, 432; superstructure rr7, rr8 doum, 491; stalk, 67 248, 249 29S
Orchard, 24 Paneling, recessed, 390 Refectory of the priests
of tomb, 408 Plan, 1S, 2S, 75, 152, 196; Prison, 248
Orientation, 229, 236, 238, Papyrus, 52, 24S at Karnak, 13; - "Great
Mat, 35, rr3 design, 93; uniform, 38, Privacy, IIO, II7, uS, 177
Parapet, 21, 74, 2S2, 2S4 Place," 149, 165
Material of construction, 152, 323, 432; by corners, 73; 82, rro, 149; - planning, Public opinion, 7
constant E.-W. of house, Partition, rr5, ~35 Refinement in treatment of
r 54; poorer than before, 6, 37; functional, 150; Pylon, 3, 13, 36, 82, 8S, 140, end of corridor, 406
506 rr3, 500; of temple at Party wall, 94, 96 grid, 224; labyrinth, 150; 146, 155, 161, 165-166, 167, Reform, 7
Mines, 2 'Amarna, 201; temple, Passage, 42, 57; at back of preplanned, 55 169, 170-171, 174, 177-178, Relief, 54, 147, 276, 330, 468,
Moat, 213, 457, 459, 460 183- 189, 502; toward Kar- sanctuary, 275 Platform, 34, 39, 42, 54, 65, 190, 201, 208, 226, 234, 276,
nak, 371; toward Luxor, Patching stone, 3IO, 313 504; high, 72; sunken, 224,
Model, 19, 35, I03, 174 86, 165, 174, 264, 275; con- 294, 321, 477, 501; - at
Pathway, 96, IOS, 141; imi- 406, 422. See also Wall
Modular, 330 344 structional, 238; of fill, 337 Karnak Great Temple, I, Repertoire, 29
Monolith, 220 Ornament, 52. See also Dec- tating processional way, Plinth, S9 238, 239, 241; II, 242; III, Repository, 242, 263, 284,
Monumentality inside tombs, oration 436; sunken, 8S, 422 Plot of land, 55 246, 258; IV, 246, 255, 25S; 288. See also Way station
444 Orthogonal, 58, 78, 150, 344 Pattern, 50, 52, 54, S8, 150; Podium, 2S, 33 V, 248, 255, 258; VI, 24S,
geometric, qr; symbolical, Representations, 375; com-
Monuments, imitation of, Osiride figures, 3 IO, 330, 334, Police post, 63, 7S 255; VII-X, 258; - at Me- pared to structures, 204
4rr; usurped, 8 335, 337, 338, 344, 347, 352, 54 Politics, 4 dinet Habu, I, 44, 359; II, Reserve for animals, 92
Mullion, 19 354. 359 Paved, Pavement, 39, 42, 54, Pomerium, 58 162; - tower, 15S Residence, II, 88, 90; Delta,
Municipal authority, 63, 64 Ostraca, 165, 383, 384, 386 55, 84, 146, I 55 Pond, 21, 149, 352, 491, 492, Pyramid, 133, 322, 375, 377, 12; official, 99
Mulqaf. See Ventilator Outbuildings, 96, 97, I05, Pavilion, S6, IOO, 206 494. 495 37S, 380, 38 l, 3S2, 390, Respect for earlier buildings,
Multistoried, 59 1 49 Pentroof, 133 Pool for birds, 15 391; chapel, 415, 438, 441; 440
Mural, 56, 59, 376, 379, 389, Oven, 67, 96, 105, 113, 124, Pergola, 136, 148, 436, 491 Population, 55, 60-61; of complex, 324; disappears Restoration, ancient, 3IO;
493; evolution of style, l25, 147, 148, 151, 152 Peripteral, 260, 282- 292, 367, 'Amarna East, II I. See from mortuary complex, 366. See also Patching
4IO. See also Painting Overlay, 4, 155, r6r. See also 37 1 also Coefficient 442; isolated, 40S; -shaped Rhythm, 502
Gold Peristyle building, 91; court, Porch, 24, 26, 30, 74, 165, peak, 395- 396 River, 59
Naos, 177, 182, 201, 248, 270, 140, 253 206 Pyramidion, 155, 157, 192, Robbers. See Tomb
422; contiguous, 285 Paddocks, 121 Perspective, notation, 33, 138, Portal, 160, 354, 479 415, 43S Robing room, 49, 94, IOo
Nationalist, 6 Paint(ing), 25, 39, 47, 49, 50, 197, 29S; drawing, 39, 50, Portcullis, 397, 441
5 I, 52, 83, 86, 89, 92, 93, 79, IOI, 226, 240, 241, 359, Roof, 74, 75; corbel, 220;
Naturalism, 7; in 'Amarna, Portico, 21, 27, 30, 36, 37, Quarries, 2, 156 pentroof, 220; wooden,
IOO, IOI, l2S, qr, l4S, 150, 371, 376, 377, 3S1, 3SS, 42, 54, 55, S4, S6, 91, l25, Quarters, 54; harem, 83; mil-
494 246
Nature communion m 2II, 2l2, 270, 271, 272, 363, 413; emphasized, 473 136, 167, 255, 266, 330, 334, itary, l25; officials', n7-
3S1, 3S7, 410, 4rr, 419, 43S; Pharaoh, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 40, 52, Roofing slab, 242, 292
'Amarna, 503 381, 382; double, 276 n8; police, 123, 125- 126;
influence of, on relief, 90, l2S, 131, 149, 156, 163, Rooms, attached as maga-
Nave, 244, 251 Poultry yard, 131-133 priests', u7, 122, 123; serv-
505; as substitute for re- 177, 179, lSo, rSr, rS2, 199, zines, 121, 135
Necropolis, 6r, 64, 158; The- Press, wine, 136-13S ants', 57, S2, 91, 92, 96,
lief, 444, 46S 216, 217, 273, 295, 446, 447, Rosette, 50
ban, 186 Priests, dwellings of, 421; as I05; women's, 94
Palace, 5, rr, 15, 25, 29-55, 464; baptism of, 1Sr; dei- Quay, 26, 32, 33, 174, 175, Row of houses, 58, 73
Niche, 67, 73, 94, 33 r; at top pharaohs, 9
73, S2- 92, 149, 151, 330; fied, 214, 304, 323, 419; 176, 183, 2II, 213, 236, 354,
of pyramid, 380; lamp, fa~ade, 331; garden, 492, gallery of, m Osireion, Processional alley, 174, 226, Sacrifice, human, in founda-
r 13; statue, 422 236, 239, 240; colonnade, 38S, 457, 463, 499
496; representation of, 29- 213'; mediator, 4, 475; re- tions, 194
Nilometer, 266 34, 87; - "House of Re- sides m temple palace, 225
Rabatted, rabattement, 17, Sanctuary, 4, 166, 177, 216,
Nursery, 90 joicing" of Amenhotep III, 354; statue of, 356; tomb Program, architectural, 500;
47; - King's House, S8- of, 396
1 building, 149, 151 27, 33, 50, 131, 133, 134, 295; at 'Amarna, n7, II9,
167, 169, 204- 206; of Royal
174, 183, 3S3, 507
Obelisk, 154, 157, 164, 174, 90; - North Palace at Photogrammetry, 3, 13. See Projection, 29; modern, 136 Temple, 208- 209, 506
Rack, built-in, 96, I05
189, 191, 192- 193, 201, 226, 'Amarna, Sr, 90- 92; - also Elevation Pronaos, 264, 266, 272, 274, Railing, 40 Sanitary accommodation, 74,
227, 246, 247, 365; erection Official Palace at 'Amarna, Piano nobile, 14S 421 I05, 109, 148
Ran1p, 5, 33, 54, 123; con-
of, 4q; scene of transport S2- SS, l22; - "Structure- Pier, SS, 213, 222; rows Propaganda, 4, 177 structional, 220; name of, Sarcophagus chamber, 220;
of, 331; single, 253 of-Beauty" of Neferhotep, around court, 121 Proportions, harmonic, 38; 462; of altar, 201, 203; on m royal tomb, 385, 386,
Offering-table, 39, 88, 167, 12; - ''The-Abode-of-Ram- Pilaster, 6S, q2; painted, rr5 of columns deteriorate, both sides of doorway, 86 387, 397, 400, 401; second,
169, 207, 495; rows, 201, ses-beloved-of-Amun, the Pillar, 52, 8S, 96, rr5, l25, 50 3; of statuary deterio- Reception room, 56, 93, 97, 406
204 Great-Ka-of-Re 'Horakhty," 195, 220, 303; Osiride, 224, rate, 504-505; of floor area, 148, 149 Scaffolding, 194
Office, Foreign, rr8; of 70 242, 243, 482- 483, 484; 150; sturdy, 222, 4S5 Recess in royal tomb, 385 Scale, 7, 154, 365, 371, 444;

-
 546 INDEX OF SUBJECTS INDEX OF SUBJECTS 547
leading role of, 500; in- Stables, 27, 93, 96, I05, 125, Superstructure, 377, 378, 415, 275-276, at Buhen, 276, 308, 330, 331, 334, 335, 362, I, 400, 404, of Thutmose
crease in, 486 151 4I6 ; m shape of house, 277, at Paras, 276, 277, at 41 l ; - terraced, 272, 324 ; III, 401, 403, of Thutmose
Scarab, colossal statue of, Staircase, I6, 29, 47, 74, 82, 436, 441 Kawa, 281, at Kumma, - approach, 367, 368; imi- IV, 401, 403, of Tut'ank-
188, 253, 254 94, IOO, II3, n5, q8; lo- Symbolical, 54, 365; layout, 278, 279, at Mi'm, 276, 277, tated m tomb, 414, 444 ; hamun, 402, 403; straight-
Scenes of triumph in temple, cation of, I 14 206, 222, 501 at Semna, 278, at Sesebi, layout, 330, 335, 50I, 502 ness at 'Amarna, 402;
Stairway, 34, 40, 142, 264, Symbolism, calendrical, 208, 274-275, at Soleb, 279-280; Texts, biographical, l63-I65.
1 77 transformed into church,
Scenic effect of layout, 502 362; in well, 97, 146 ; spi- 213, 214, 367, 503; cosmic, - mortuary, 36, 43, n9, See also Inscriptions 427; two-storied, 432
School, 6r ral, 153 253, 255, 370, 504; numer- ~ qr, 142, r46, 149, I54, 295, Theogamy, 230, 330 Torus molding, l3I
Screen, 42, 65, I05, rr7, 169, Stall, 15, 96, I2I ical, 506-507 ; of Osiride ! 367, of Amenhotep son of
Hapu, 362-364, of Amen-
Throne, rr, 36, 39, 49; - Tower, 142, 453, 454, 455,
206, 276, 297, 358, 367, 42I Stand, pottery as papyrus pillar, 486 I room, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 464, 473; m Syrian fort,

!
Scribe, I5 stem, 440 Symmetry, 22, 38, 42, 44, 49, hotep II, 338, of Amenho- 44, 49, 54, 91 448
Sculptor, 6I, 78 ; of Hatshep- Statuary, architectural, 334, 56, 91 , 94, 121, 142, 183, tep III, 338-339, of Ay- Tomb, 6, 7, 29, 133, 163; Town, 54, 55; new, 8, 6r;
475-487; exteriorized, 475, 20I, 276. See also Axis Horemheb, 340-342, of chapel, 375-382 ; decora-
sut, 335 planning, 58, 63, 78, 151;

I~
Sculpture, architectural, 3IO, 486, 502 ; group, 338, 464; Syringes, name given by Hatshepsut, 324, 326-335, tion at 'Amarna, 29; rob- - fortified, 58, 126; in
ideology of, 476-478 Greeks to royal tombs, 398 of Merneptah, 352, of bers, 321, 374, 393, 440 ; Eastern Village, rro-1rr
359, 370
Section in drawing, I36 Statue, 38, 39, 71, 133, 164, Ramses II, 344-352, of rock-cut, 322, of Ahmose, Transom, decorated, 42
Settlement of prisoners, 4, 169, 248; colossal, 4, 84, Tank, 84, 2rr, 213 Ramses III, 352-360, of 425, 427, of Ahmose Pen- Trap door in ceiling, 126
55, 74; urban, 55 190, 192, 197; names of, Technique, 52, 70, I53 Seti I, 342-:-344, of Teti- nekhebet, 435, of Ahmose Trapezoidal, 63, 71
Shabti, place of, corridor in 226; of deceased, 380 ; Osi- Temenos, 197, 204, 352, 354 sheri, 324, 325, of Thut- son of Ibana, 435, of Treasury of the Interior, in
royal tomb, 385 ride, 234; sacred, 179, 180, T empera painting, rr 3 mose II, 324, of Thutmose Amenhotep, 414, of Amen- royal tomb, 385
Shaduf watering device, 5, 258 Temple, 4, 38, 71, 76, 78, 131, III, 336-338, of Thutmose hotep called Huy, 414, of T rees in containers, 148, 49I;
Stela, 39, 65, 67, 76, 86, % 140; cult, I54' r76-I80, IV, 340 ; - names of, 155- Anhorkhawy, 416, of Har- distribution of, 494; ex-
29, 49I
Shaft, light, 147; of column, 131-133, 159, 169, 208, 272, 242, 255, 266, 279, 365; at 156; old disposed of, 366; mose, 436, of Khnumy and otic, 495; rows of, 491,
54; of tomb, 383, 4I9 318, 381, 382, 390, 415, Abydos, of Ramses II, 222, palace, 212, 216, 352, 354, Minmose, 432, of Paheri, 492
Shed, gabled, I33 477 ; of Tetisheri, 324; 224-225, of Seti I, 214-218; 500-501; - peripteral, at 435, of Panehsy, 424, 427- Trellis of vine, 92, 491
Shelf, 96, IOO, 122, 152 with ears, 478 at 'Amarna, Great Tem- 'Amada, 285, 287, 288, at 428, of Pennut, 438, of Ne- Triangle, isosceles, 506; pris-
Shower, 96, I05 Stellar orientation, I88-I89 ple, rr7, l2o, l2l , 165, Deir el Medina, 285, 287, bunenef, 414, of Ra'mose, matic, 507
Shrine, rr, 98, 155, 276, 43I; Step construction, rr4, rr5, 166, r68, 201, 203-204, at Elephantine, 288-290, at 4rr, 413, of Rekhmire', Tribune, 238, 24I
contiguous, 263; domes- 126 506, Mam-Aten, 20!)-214, El Kab, 288, 289, at Kar- 4rr, 412, of Sennufer, 413- Tripartite, 38, 42, 49, 91, 93,
tic, 94; on platform, 284 Storeroom. See Magazine Per-ha'i/Gem-Ate n, 206- nak, 288, 289, at Kuban, 414, of Serer, 413, of Thoy, 113, rr5, rr7, 176, 2rr,
Silo, 2I, 67, 93, I38, I47; S·ory, 59, 74; upper, IOI 208, Royal temple, 208, 289, 290, at Medinet Habu, 414, of T utu, 426, 429; 302
paired, 96, I05, I13; series, Sanctuary, 204, Sun-Shade 290-292, at Wadi Haifa, royal, 385, 386, of Amene- Turquoise, 12
Strategy, 6
128, I29 of Tiy, I70 ; at Deir el Me- 285, 286 ; - rock-cut, 154, mes, 404, 406, of Amenho-
Street, 56, 58, 63, 77, 78, I03,
dina, of Amun, 270-272, 270, 292-321, 330, in- tep I, 393, of Amenhotep Uraeus, 33, 34, 37, 40, 147,
Silver, 14, 164, 246, 368 IIO, rr3, rr8, 142, 146;
of Hathor, 272 ; at El Kab, vented in New Kingdom, III, 401, of Amenhotep IV- 152
Sinusoidal wall, IOI, 460 cleaning, 150
of Nekhebet, 268-270, of 367, at Beit el Wali, 298- Akhenaten, 402, 403, of Urbanism, 7; 150
Sketches, monochrome, II5 Strike, 68 Thor, 270; at Heliopolis, 299, at Abu Simbel, 304- Ay, 402, 404, of Hatshep-
Slab, lustration, IOo ; mud, Structural science, 252, 368 ; Ic}7, model of Seti I, 174; 3r4, 314-318, at Beni Has- sut, 400-401, 404, of Ho- Vault( ed) , 38, 40, 42, 71,
IOI soundness, I53 at Karnak, of Amenhotep san, 295, at Derr, 302-304, remheb, 402, 405, of Mer- 73, 74, 75, 94, 127, 131,
Sled, 264 Stylization, 359, 368, 485 III, 264, of Amun-Kamu- at Garf Hussein, 29!)-300, neptah, 404, 405-406, of 138, 152, 295, 298, 362,
Social freedom, 7 Style, ro, 52 ; at 'Amarna, tef, 263, of Amun-Re', at Gebel Adda, 304, at Ge- Ramses I, 404, 405, of 363, 421; barrel, 436; cate-
Socle, 96; substitute for gir- 26, 503; of monumental 238-253, of Amun-Re'Ho- bel Silsila, 295-297, at El Ramses II, 405, of Ramses nary, 436; corbel, 337;
dle wall, 259 architecture, 50I-505; per- rakhty, 253, 255, of Salamuni, 304, at Serabit III, 406, of Ramses IV, crown, 142; false, 357;
Space economy, 65 sonal, 364; of religious Khonsu, 255-257, of Mut, el Khadem, 318, 320-32I, 384, of Ramses V, 406, of laminated, 141 , 276;
Sphinx, 4, 44, 159, I74, 178, masterpieces, 368 260, of Ptah, 257-258, of at Wadi el Miyah, 297- Ramses VII, 407, of Ram- pointed, an Egyptian m-
226, 236, 263, 301, 334, 335, Substructure, 4I5, 416 Ramses III, 263-264, of 298, at Wadi el Sebu'a, ses IX, 386, of Ramses X, vention, 434, 505; with
479; crio-sphinx, 238, 255; Suite, 52, I49 T hutmose III, 250; at 300-302 407, of Ramses XI, 407, of astronomy scenes, 326, 351
lion sphinx, 302. See also Sun, 47, 65 ; disk, 91, 20I; Luxor, 225-232; at Mem- Term, 155, 385 Seti I, 404, 405, of Seti II, Ventilation, 22, 295; ventila-
Processional alley shade at 'Amarna, 170, phis, 198; m Nubia, at Terrace, I6, 19, 21, 22, 29, 406, of Setnakht, 406, of tor, 22, 24, 29, 30, 94, I49,
Spiral, 52 2I3 ; winged, 44 'Amada, 273, at 'Amara, 88, 94, 99, II3, qo, 148, Siptah, 406, of Thutmose 151

l
 548 INDE X OF SUBJECTS
Verticality of temple design, 218, 331, 460;-sc enes, Window , 17, 18, 19, 21, 34-
335 216, 220, 222, 224, 229, 35, 67-69, u5, 468 ; of ap-
Vestibule, 38, 40, 42, 49, 54, 230, 244, 248, 278, 298, pearance, rr, 25, 26, 29,
66; column ed, 142 300; in royal tomb, 398, 33, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 72,
Viceroy of Nubia, 6 400; in Theban tomb 84, 87, 90, 149, 413, 427,
Victory scene, 3 chapels, 409; - spur, 473 428; in frontier post, 455,
Villa, 15, 22, 54, 78, 97, 126, Water court, 90, 213; level in Medinet Habu, 464,
142, 149, 169 of, in subsoil, 97, 192, 220; 468; slot, 54, 290
Village, 60-61, 64, 78, 82, spout, 358; storage, u3; Wine press, 136-138
IIO-lII , Il2, u7, 123, supply, 64, 78, 150 Wood( en), 67, 268
150, 152, 204, 2II Way-of-the-god , alley of Worker , condition of, 68
Vizier, 6, 165 sphinxes, 365; way station, Workm en's village. See Vil-
229, 232, 242 lage
Waitin g room in royal tomb, Weapon , 5, 6
385 Weavin g shop, 5, 16 Zeserkare, 375
Wall, 155; of city, 73, 197, Well, 78, 97, 142, 146 Ziqurra t, 87, 183, 481
470, 472; retaining, 153, Windin g approach, 169 Zoning, 78, l ro, 151
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