STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

AND NUCLEUS
 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
An atom consist of proton, electron, neutron; At the centre is the
nucleus surrounded by electrons, which are revolving in some specific
stationary shells(orbits)
The electrons in different shells have different energy.
The various shells away from the nucleus are named as
K,L,M,N,O,P….for n=1,2,3,4,5,6…. Respectively.
These shells accommodate the most 2,8,18,32,50,72… electrons
respectively in a shell number n is given as 2n2.
The size of the atom is determined by the radius of the shell of its
outermost electron and it is of the order of 10-10 m.
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
The nucleus is at the centre of atom, whose size is of the order of 10-15
m to 10-14m (ie 10-5 to 10-4 times the size of the atom)
The proton has positive charge equal to +1.6 x 10-19 C, where as the
electron has negative charge equal to -1.6 x 10-19 C.
The mass of the proton is 1.67 x 10-27 kg, where as the mass of the
electron is 9.1 x 10-31 kg which is approximately 1/1840 times the mass
of proton.
The neutron is electrically neutral particle (i.e., charge =0) and its mass
is nearly equal to that of proton.
The proton and neutron which are the main constituents of the nucleus
are called nucleons.
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
The number of protons in the nucleus (which is same as the number of
electrons in that atom)is called the Atomic number of the element and it
is denoted by the symbol Z
The total number of nucleons(proton and neutron) in the nucleus is called
the Mass number of the element and it is denoted by the symbol A.
The atom is specified by the symbol AZX ,where X is the chemical symbol
of the element.
Number of protons =Z
Number of electrons =Z
Number of protons and neutrons = A
Number of neutrons= A-Z
ISOTOPES
The atoms belonging to the same element, having same atomic number
Z(i.e., no. of protons), but different in their mass number A(i.e., no. of
proton and neutron), are called Isotopes.
They have same place in the periodic table as it depends on the Atomic
number Z.
They have the same number of electrons outside the nucleus, so their
chemical properties are also same.
Example :- Hydrogen has three isotopes, namely PROTIUM 11H ,
DEUTERIUM 21H and TRITIUM 31H
ISOBARS
The atoms of different element, having the same mass number A (i.e., no.
of proton and neutron), but differ in their atomic number Z( i.e., no. of
proton) are called Isobars.
They are not at the same place in the periodic table and also having
different chemical properties.
23
Example :- 23
11 Na and 12Mg are the Isobars.
23
11Na contain 11 protons and 12 neutrons inside its nucleus and 11
electrons outside the nucleus
23
12Mg contains 12 protons and 11 neutrons inside its nucleus and 12
electrons outside the nucleus.
ISOTONES
The atoms having different number of protons but same number of
neutrons i.e., different Z and A, but same A-Z are called Isotones.
They are not at the same place in the periodic table and also having
different chemical properties.
Example :- 23
11 Na and 24
12Mg are the Isotones.
Each nuclei has 12 neutrons.
23 24
11 Na nucleus has 11 protons, while 12Mg nucleus has 12 protons
SUMMARY
ISOTOPES : Same Atomic Number (Z)
ISOBARS : Same Mass Number (A)
ISOTONES : Same (A-Z) (number of neutrons)
RADIOACTIVITY
DISCOVERY OF RATIOACTIVITY
Henry Becquerel once left a uranium salt upon a photographic plate
wrapped in a black paper. After some days he observed that the
photographic plate had been affected. With some more observation with
other salts of uranium, he concluded that uranium and its salts by
themselves emit some kind of radiations which can pass through the black
paper (glass or wood) and they affect the photographic plate.
On further investigations, these radiations were found to be of three
types: Positively charges (named as  alpha), Negatively charged (named
as  beta) and uncharged (named as  gamma) radiations
The substances which disintegrate (or decay) by the spontaneous emission
of radiations are called the radioactive substances. Eg. Uranium, radium,
polonium, thorium, actinium, etc.
DISCOVERY OF RATIOACTIVITY
The isotopes of nearly all the elements of atomic number higher than 82
are radioactive.
Any physical changes (pressure, temperature) or chemical change
(freezing, electric and magnetic fields, chemical treatment, etc.) do not
alter the rate of decay of the radioactive substance.
This shows that the phenomenon of radioactivity cannot be due to the
orbital electrons which could be easily be affected by such changes. The
radioactivity should therefore be the property of nucleus.
• Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is the process of spontaneous
emission of ,  and  radiations from the nuclei of atoms during their
decay.
PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES
1. An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
2. Its mass is roughly four times the mass of proton (6.68 x 10-27 kg)
3. Its speed is of the order of 107 m/s.
4. It strongly ionises the gas through which it passes
5. It rapidly loses its energy as it moves through a medium and hence its
penetrating power is quite small
6. They are defected by electric and magnetic field (since positively
charged)
7. Affects photographic plate
8. Causes fluorescence on striking a fluorescence material
9. Have large KE and momentum with them.
10. Destroy living cells and cause biological damage.
PROPERTIES OF BETA PARTICLES
1. Beta particles are fast moving electrons emitted from nucleus.
2. Its mass is 9.1 x 10-31 kg and charge is -1.6 x 10-19 C
3. Its speed is of the order of 108 m/s but less than speed of light
4. It ionises the gas through which it passes.
5. The penetrating power of  particles is more than that of  particles
6.  defected by electric and magnetic field (since negatively charged)
7. Affects photographic plate
8. Causes fluorescence on striking a fluorescence material
9. Produces X-rays when they are stopped by metals such as Tungsten
10. Destroy living cells and cause more biological damage.
PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RADIATIONS
1. They are the electromagnetic waves like X rays and light
2. Its speed is same as of light 3 x 108 m/s
3. It ionising power is very low.
4. The penetrating power is very high.
5. Not defected by electric and magnetic field
6. Affects photographic plate.
7. Causes fluorescence on striking a fluorescence material
8. Can easily pass through the human body therefore they cause
immense biological damage.
9. Useful for treatment of cancer.
• Radioactivity and changes in the nucleus;
• background radiation and safety precautions.
• Brief introduction (qualitative only) of the
• nucleus, nuclear structure, atomic number (Z),
• mass number (A). Radioactivity as
• spontaneous disintegration. α, β and γ - their
• nature and properties; changes within the
• nucleus. One example each of α and β decay
• with equations showing changes in Z and A.
• Uses of radioactivity - radio isotopes. Harmful
• effects. Safety precautions. Background
• radiation.
• Radiation: X-rays; radioactive fallout from
• nuclear plants and other sources.
• Nuclear Energy: working on safe disposal of
• waste. Safety measures to be strictly
• reinforced.
Write two similarities and two differences
between alpha and beta particles.
Similarities:
1.Both cause biological damage. However the damaging is at different
extent.
2. Both of them ionize the gas through which they pass. However
ionizing property of beta is more than alpha.
3. Both affect photographic plates.
4. Both get deflected by the electric and magnetic field.
 Differences between alpha and beta
Alpha Beta
1. Their speed is in the order of 10 m/s Their speed is in the order of 10 m/s

2. Their penetrating power is much less than beta particles. Their penetrating power is more than alpha particles but
less than gamma radiations.

3. Their ionizing ability is more than beta particles. 3. Their ionizing ability is less than alpha particles but more
than gamma radiations.

4. They are positively charged They are negatively charged.

5. They consist of 2 protons and two neurons. 5. They are high speed electrons.
CHANGES WITHIN THE NUCLEUS IN ,, EMISSIONS
Radioactive substance are not stable.
Their nuclei undergo spontaneous
decay by the self emission of ,,
emission to form a more stable nuclei
The emission of ,, is a
nuclear change. In the emission
of alpha and beta radiation,
there is a change in the nucleus,
while in the emission of gamma
radiations there is a change only in energy of the nucleus.
• When one alpha particle is emitted by an atom, its atomic mass
number decreases by 4 and its atomic number is decreased by 2.

Thus new element will have atomic mass number [A-4] and atomic
number [Z-2]
ALPHA EMISSION
If an unstable nucleus contains number of neutron much more that the
number of protons, it may emit two protons and two neutrons tightly
bound together in a single particle known as alpha particle. A stream of
alpha particle is called alpha rays.
If the nucleus of a radioactive element X of mass number A and atomic
number Z emits an particle, a new element Y (daughter nucleus) is
formed which has mass number equal to (A-4) and atomic number (Z-
2)
A A−4 4
Z X Z−2 Y + 2He
(parent nucleus) (daughter nucleus) ( particle)
Example
238 234 4
92 U 90 Th + 2He
(92 proton and (90 proton and (2 proton and 2 neutrons)
146 neutrons) 144 neutrons)
BETA EMISSION
If an unstable nucleus contains more neutrons than the protons, a
neutron may change into a proton by emitting an electron. (for change
conservation). The electron emitted by the nucleus at a high speed is
called beta particle
The change can be expressed as
1 1 0
0 n 1 p + −1e
(neutron) (proton) ( particle)
Example
14 14 0
6 C 7 N + −1e
(14 nucleons (14 nucleons (beta particle)
6 p+ & 8 n) 7 p+ & 7 n)
(Radioactive carbon) (Nitrogen)
GAMMA EMISSIONS
It Occurs when the daughter nuclei or the parent atom is in a state of
excitation (i. e. has an excess of energy) This extra energy is released in
the form of electromagnetic radiations know as  radiations
There is no change in the mass number A and atomic number Z of the
nucleus in gamma emission
The change can be expressed as
A
ZX*  A
ZX + 
(Parent nucleus ) (Daughter nucleus) (gamma radiation)
Here * indicates the excited state of the nucleus. Thus in gamma emission,
the excited nucleus comes to the ground state.
USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
Medical Use:
To cure many diseases such as leukemia, cancer by radiation therapy.
Radio cardiology.
Scientific use:
Projectiles for nuclear reactions
Study growth of plant
To determine the age of rocks and buried plants (Carbon dating)
Industrial use:
To avoid accumulation of charge
Control the thickness of paper, plastic and metal sheet
HARMFUL EFFECTS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Due to their penetrating power they are very harmful. (Gamma the most)
Falling on human body can kill the living tissue.
Radioactive fall out from nuclear plants and other sources
Disposal of nuclear waste
Biological effects includes short term recoverable effects (diarrhea, sore
throat), long term irrecoverable effects (leukemia and cancer), genetic
effects.
SAFETY RULES
People working in such environments should put special lead lined aprons
and lead gloves. They must not be exposed to radiation for longer time
The nuclear waste must be buried in useless mines and sealed after
storing the casks.
BACKGROUND RADIATIONS
Background radiations are the radioactive radiations to which we all are
exposed even in the absence of an actual visible radioactive source
Two source (i) internal source (ii) external source
The radioactive substance like potassium (K-40) and carbon (C-14) present
inside our body called as internal source
Cosmic rays and solar radiations are called external source
It is not possible to keep ourselves away from the background radiations.
But the total radiations from both the internal and external source
forming the background radiations do not exceed the maximum
permissible dose for human safety, so we need not to worry.
NUCLEAR FISSION AND
FUSION
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• In a nuclear change due to a radioactive phenomena (such as decay,
fission or fusion), the TOTAL sum of masses of product nuclei is always
less than the total sum of the masses of reactant nuclei.
• THERE IS A LOSS OF MASS
• According to Einstein’s theory of RELATIVITY; MASS & ENERGY are
Interchangeable.
• Proof: E=mc2
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Due to the loss is mass m, the energy released is E where; E=(m)c2
• If m the loss in mass is 1 kg & c is the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
and E is the energy in J; When 1kg mass is lost, the amount of energy
released is
• E= (m)c2 = 1 x(3 x108)2 = 9 x 1016 J
Since 1kWh= 3.6 x 106 J
9 x 1016
Therefore E= 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 2.5 x 1010𝑘𝑊ℎ
3.6 x 106
Thus 1 kg mass is equivalent to 9 x 1016 J or 2.5 x 1010kWh
The energy so obtained is called the nuclear energy.
NUCLEAR ENERGY
• The mass of atomic particle is expressed in atomic mass unit
(a.m.u.)where 1 a.m.u. = 1/12 x mass of one atom of carbon-12
• 1 a.m.u. = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
• Due to loss in mass (m) = 1 a.m.u. the energy released is
• E=(1.66 x 10-27) x (3 x 108)2
• E=1.49 x 10-10 J
• But 1 MeV=1.6 x 10-13 J (As 1 eV= 1.6 x 10-19J)
1.49 𝑥 10_10
• E= MeV = 931MeV
1.6 𝑥 10_13
• 1 a.m.u = 931 MeV ; Thus 1 a.m.u.is equivalent to 931 MeV
NUCLEAR FISSION
• Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus is splitted into
two light nuclei nearly of same size by bombarding it with slow
neutrons. In each fission reaction, a tremendous amount of energy is
released (Approx. 190 MeV)
• The reason for the release of energy is that the sum of masses of the
product nuclei is less than the sum of mass of the parent nucleus and
neutron, i.e., there is a loss of mass in this reaction. This loss is mass
is converted into energy by the Einsten’s mass-energy relation
E=(m)c2
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• It is found that when a slow neutron strikes the 235 92𝑈 it gets absorbed
in it and a most unstable isotope 236 92𝑈 is formed which splits into two
nuclei (i) barium ( 144
56 𝐵) and (ii) krypton ( 89
36𝐾 ) with the release of
three neutrons and tremendous amount of energy.
• The fission reaction is as follows
144
• 235
92 𝑈 + 1
0 𝑛 ( 236
92 𝑈) 56 𝐵𝑎 + 89
36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 1
0𝑛 + energy
(uranium) (neutron) (barium) (krypton) (neutrons)
 NUCLEAR FISSION
• Nuclear energy obtained in one fission reaction of 235
92𝑈 nucleus
• Due to fission of one uranium nucleus, nearly 190 MeV is released.
The cause of emission of this energy is the loss of mass i.e., the sum
of masses of product nuclei is less than the sum of mass of the parent
nucleus and neutron
144
• 235
92 𝑈 + 1
0 𝑛 ( 236
92 𝑈) 56 𝐵𝑎 + 89
36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 1
0𝑛 + energy
(uranium) (neutron) (barium) (krypton) (neutrons)
If we take the mass of neutron =1.01 a.m.u., mass of uranium - 235
nucleus = 234.99 a.m.u., mass of barium - 144 nucleus = 143.87 a.m.u.,
mass of krypton - 89 nucleus = 88.90 a.m.u., then loss in mass in fission
reaction of one nucleus
NUCLEAR FISSION
• m = (mass of 23592𝑈 nucleus + mass of 1 neutron) – (mass of
144 89
56 𝐵𝑎nucleus + mass of 36𝐾𝑟nucleus + mass of 3 neutrons
• =[(234.99 + 1.01) – (143.87 + 88.90 + 3 x 1.01)] a.m.u
• =(236.00 – 235.80) a.m.u
• = 0.20 a.m.u.
• But the mass energy equivalence E=(m)c2
• 1 a.m.u.= 931 MeV
• Energy released E= 0.20 x 931 MeV
• =190 MeV
Uncontrolled Chain Reaction
When slow neutron are bombarded on uranium – 235 ( 235 92𝑈), each
uranium nucleus splits into two nearly equal fragments 14456𝐵𝑎 and
89
36𝐾𝑟, with a release of three new neutrons and tremendous amount of
energy (nearly 190MeV). These new neutrons can fission the other
uranium nuclei under the suitable conditions.
Thus a chain of fission of nuclei is formed which once started,
continues till the entire uranium is consumed.
Hence the energy obtained from the nuclear fission continuously
increases. Due to such a chain reactions, a strong explosion of entire
uranium occurs in a very short interval of time and tremendously high
energy is released which can be very harmful.
This is uncontrolled chain reaction. (A nuclear bomb is based on it)
Controlled Chain Reaction
If the chain reaction is controlled by absorbing some of the neutrons
emitted in the fission process by means of moderators (such as
graphite, heavy water etc.) the energy obtained in fission can be
utilized for the constructive purpose. This is controlled chain reaction
(This principle is used nuclear reactors)
USE OF FISSION
DESTRUCTIVE USE : The fission process is used in a nuclear bomb
where the energy released is fast and uncontrolled
CONSTRUCTIVE USE: The fission process is used in nuclear reactor
where the rate of release of energy is slow and controlled. This energy
is used to generate the electric power.
NUCLEAR FUSION
• Nuclear fusion is the process in which two light nuclei combine to
form a heavy nucleus. In this process also, huge amount of energy is
released.
• The reason for the release of energy is that the mass of the product
nucleus is less than the sum of masses of the two combining nuclei.
This loss in mass is converted into energy by the Einsten’s mass-
energy relation E=(m)c2
NUCLEAR FUSION
• When two deuterium nuclei ( 21𝐻) fuse, 3.3 MeV energy is released
and the nucleus of helium isotope ( 32𝐻𝑒) is formed. This helium
isotope again gets fused with one deuterium nucleus to forma helium
nucleus ( 42𝐻𝑒) and 18.3 MeV energy is released in this process. The
nuclear reaction are
• ( 21𝐻) + ( 21𝐻)  ( 32𝐻𝑒) + 0
1𝑛 + 3.3MeV
(deuterium) (deuterium) (helium isotope) (neutron)
3 2 4 1
2 𝐻𝑒 + 1 𝐻 2 𝐻𝑒 + 1𝐻 + 18.3 MeV
(helium isotope) (deuterium) (helium) (proton)
Thus in all, three deuterium nuclei fuse to form a helium nucleus with a
release of 21.6MeV energy.
NUCLEAR FUSION
• Nuclear fusion is not possible at ordinary temperature and ordinary
pressure.
• Because when two nuclei approach each other, due to their positive
charge, the electrostatic force of repulsion between them becomes
too strong that they do not fuse. Hence to make the fusion possible, a
high temperature (approx. 107 K) and high pressure is required. At
such high temperature, both nuclei due to thermal agitation acquire
sufficient kinetic energy so as to overcome the force of repulsion
between them when they approach each other, and so they get
fused. This is why fusion reaction is also called the thermo-nuclear
reaction.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION
AND NUCLEAR FUSION
• In fission when neutrons are • In fusion, two light nuclei
bombarded on a heavy nucleus, combine to form a heavy
it splits in two nearly equal light nucleus.
fragments. • This is possible at a very high
• This reaction is possible at temperature (107 K) and very
ordinary temperature and high pressure
pressure • In one fusion reaction nearly
• In one fission reaction nearly 24.7 MeV energy is released.
190 MeV energy is released
DISTINCTION BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION
AND NUCLEAR FUSION
• For the same mass, the energy • For the same mass, the energy
released in the fission process is released in fusion process is
less than that in the fusion much more that that in fission
process. process
• The fissionable substance is • The fusionable substance is not
radioactive, so it gives out radioactive, so it does not give
harmful radiations and it creates harmful radiations and disposal
problem is disposal of waste. of waste is not difficult
• Fissionable substance is found • The Fusionable substance is
within limit found in abundance.