WENSLEY KIM SANTOS, Future RRT

RADPHYSICS

Gravity on Earth: 9.8 m/s2 Radiation – Process of transferring energy

Gravity on Moon: 1.6 m/s2 through space
Ionization – Process of Adding/Removing electron
Gravity is a type of force and a vector quantity. Any in atom
matter is always pulled downward towards large mass.
2 Types of Radiation
Mass: Amount of matter in an object, measured in (Based on its Atomic influence/interaction)
(kg) 1. Ionizing – Ability to ionize atom
• Cation – Attracted to positive
Weight: Force exerted by the gravity • Anion – Attracted to negative
Formula: Mass x Gravity = Newton or lbs 2. Non-ionizing – Ability to vibrate/excite atom

Energy – Ability to do work Sources of Ionizing Radiation

1. Natural/Environmental - 295 total mRem (55%)
• Potential Energy Formula: • Cosmic Rays (29 mRem)
Formula: Mass x Gravity x Height = Joules • Terrestrial Radiation (29 mRem)
• Internally deposited Radionuclides (39 mRem)
• Kinetic Energy Formula: • Radon (198 mRem)
Formula: (0.5 x Mass) x Velocity2 = Joules 2. Manmade – 60-65 approximate mRem (19%)
• Medical/Diagnostic X-rays (39 mRem)
Types of Energy (Based on Motion) • Nuclear Medicine (14 mRem)
1. Kinetic Energy = Energy at motion • Consumer Product (10 mRem)
2. Potential Energy = Energy at rest
• E.g.: Watch dials, exit signs, smoke
detector, camping lantern mantles, and
Other Types of Energy
airport surveillance
1. Chemical Energy – Energy released through
• Industrial Source/Powerplant (2 mRem)
chemical reactions
2. Electrical Energy – Energy released by movement
Natural Radiations inside the Human Body
of electrons through application and induction of
1. Strontium 90 (Sr90)
potential difference/voltage
2. Potassium 40 (K40)
3. Thermal Energy – Energy or Heat released at
3. Hydrogen 3/Tritium (H3)
molecular level
4. Carbon 14 (C14)
4. Nuclear Energy – Energy contained within
nucleus of an atom
Basic and Standard Units of Measurement
5. Electromagnetic/EM Energy – Energy that is used
1. Length (m) – point A to B
for Diagnostic Imaging
2. Mass (kg) – amount of matter
3. Time (s) – transition of an object
Electromagnetic/EM
Ray/Spectrum/Quantum/Continuum
Derived Quantities
- Bundles of Energy
1. Force (Newton)
Formula: Mass x Acceleration
Types of EMR According to Energy
2. Work (kgm2/s2 or Joules)
(Strongest to Weakest)
Formula: Force x Distance
1. Gamma Ray
3. Power (kgm2/s2 or J/s2 or Watts or HP)
2. X-ray
Formula: Work
3. Ultraviolet
Time
4. Visible Light
4. Velocity (m/s) (Vector Quantity; involves
• Violet (400 nm)
Direction)
• Indigo (450 nm) Formula: Distance
• Blue (500 nm) Time
• Green (550 nm) 5. Acceleration (m/s2)
• Yellow (600 nm) Formula: (Final Velocity – Initial Velocity)
• Orange (650 nm) Time
• Red (700 nm) 6. Speed (Scalar Quantity; does not involve
5. Infrared Direction)
6. Microwave 7. Momentum (kgm/s)
7. Radiowave Formula: Mass x Force
 Newton’s Law of Motion Sub-atomic Particles
1. Inertia – Object in Motion or Rest, will always 1. Proton
remain in Motion or Rest unless force is applied • Positively Charged
2. Force – Newton simply stated that in order to • Discovered by Goldstein in 1886
measure force, it must be: • Most important because it dictates the name
Mass x Acceleration = Newton of an element
3. Action/Reaction – Every action has an equal • 1.673x10-27 kg mass
opposite reaction • 1.00628 amu
• Made up of 2 Up quarks, and 1 Down quark,
4 Physical Forces in the Universe bounded by Gluons
1. Gravitational Force – Force that pulls down an
object towards large mass 2/3 + 2/3 – 1/3 = 3/3 or 1 = Positive
2. Electromagnetic Force – Force that binds the
atom 2. Neutron
3. Strong Nuclear Force – Force that binds the • No charge
Nucleons in the Nucleus of an atom.
• Most unstable sub-atomic particle
4. Weak Nuclear Force – Decaying force, responsible
• Discovered by James Chadwick in 1923
for radioactive decay
• Dictates atomic mass of an element
Units of Radiation • 1.675x10-27 kg mass
1. Exposure – Amount of radiation in air • 1.00865 amu
• Old SI Unit: 1 Roentgen • Made up of 1 up quark and 2 down quarks,
• New SI Unit: 2.58 x 10 Coulombs/kg or Air
-4 bounded by Gluons
KERMA or Gya (Gray in Air)
2. Absorbed Dose – Amount of radiation deposited in 2/3 – 1/3 – 1/3 = 0 = Neutral
tissue. Determined by obtaining tissue weighing 3. Electron
factor. • Negatively charged
• Old SI Unit: 1 Rad • Also known as “Amber”
• New SI Unit: 0.01 Gray/Gy/Gyt (Gray in • Discovered by J.J. Thompson in 1897
Tissue) • 9.1x10-31 kg mass
• 0.0000549 amu

Atomic Model Theorists

1. Democritus
• Coined the term “Atomos”, meaning
indivisible
• Greek Atomic Model
2. John Dalton (1808)
• First Scientist to describe the atom
• Hook and Eye Atomic Model
3. J.J. Thompson (1897)
• Discovered Electron
• Plum Pudding Atomic Model
4. Ernest Rutherford (1911)
• Disproved J.J. Thompson’s
3. Effective Dose – Total radiation received, which is • Atomic Model
determined by multiplying absorbed dose to radiation • Introduced Nuclear Atomic Model
weighting factor, and to tissue weighing factor • Awarded with Noble Prize for his atomic
• Old SI Unit: 1 Rem model
• New SI Unit: 0.01 Sievert/Sv • Most accurate Atomic Model
5. Niels Bohr (1913)
• Improved Ernest Rutherford’s Atomic
Model
• Introduced Miniature Solar System

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

• Introduced by Wolfgang Pauli
• Stated that
1. No 2 electrons in an atom can have the
4. Radioactivity – Emission of radioactive particles in a exactly same quantum numbers.
form of decay. 2. Only 2 electrons can occupy a given
orbital
• Old SI Unit: 1 Curie/Ci
3. The 2 electrons have opposite
• New SI Unit: 3.7x1010 Becquerel/Bq
antiparallel spin
Matter - Anything that occupies space, and has mass
Atom - Smallest unit or form of matter

Parts of Atom
1. Nucleus – Central core, contains Nucleons
2. Orbital Shell – Contains Electrons
 Principal Quantum Number Forms of Radiation
• Determines the maximum number of electrons per 1. EMR
orbital shell • No charge
• No mass

2n2
• Only goes in one particular direction,
travelling with the constant speed
(speed of light; 3x108 m/s or 186,000
N = Quantum/Shell Number miles per second)
• Smallest unit is Photon
Shells and Maximum Electron Count
K = 1; 2 Electrons 2. Particulate
L = 2; 8 Electrons • Also known as Corpuscle or
M = 3; 18 Electrons Corpuscular Radiation
N = 4; 32 Electrons • Has charge
O = 5; 50 Electrons • Has mass
P = 6; 72 Electrons • Travels with the speed of light in any
Q = 7; 98 Electrons direction
• Smallest unit is atom
Period Number: Number of Shells Used
Group Number: Number of Valence Electrons Physical Characteristics of Radioactive Atom
1. Decay Disintegration/Transformation
Octet Rule - 8 Maximum number of Valence Constant/Decay Constant – Amount of EMR
Electrons or Particle being ejected in a given period of
time
Electron Binding Energy – Attachment of an
Electron to the Atom OR

Atomic Nomenclature λ = Symbol for Decay Constant

ln = 0.693 (Constant Value)
T½ = Half-life

2. Half-life – Time required to reduce

radioactivity in half.

E = Atomic Symbol of an Element

A = Atomic Mass (# of Protons + # of Neutrons)
Z = Atomic Number (# of Electrons = # of Protons)
n = Number of Neutrons 3. Activity or Radioactivity – The amount of
energy carried by an unstable atom.
Formula:
Can be solved in 3 Different Formulas:

Formula 1: If the Remaining Activity is Missing

A=Z+n
Z=A-n N(t) = Remaining Activity
n=A–Z N(0) = Initial Activity
t = Elapsed Time
Atomic Instabilities T½ = Half-life
Type Atomic Atomic # of # of
# (Z) Mass (A) Neurons Protons Formula 2: If the Decay Constant is Given
Isotope SAME DIFF DIFF SAME
Isobar DIFF SAME DIFF DIFF
Isotone DIFF DIFF SAME DIFF
N(t) = Remaining Activity
Isomer SAME SAME SAME SAME
N(0) = Initial Activity
e = 2.718 (Mathematical Value)
Radioactivity
λ = Decay Constant
• Word coined and discovered by Antoine Henri t = Elapsed Time
Becquerel in 1886
• Emission of an unstable atom by releasing Formula 3: If the Initial Activity is Missing
wave or particle to achieve stability.

1 Becquerel = 1 Disintegration per Second

Marie Curie N(t) = Remaining Activity

• Discovered Radium and Polonium in 1898 N(0) = Initial Activity
• Died from Aplastic Anemia e = 2.718 (Mathematical Value)
λ = Decay Constant
Clarence Madison Dally t = Elapsed Time
• First Casualty from Radiation
• Assistant of Thomas Edison in Fluoroscopy
 Types of Half-life Biproducts:
1. Biological Half-life (Tb) – Half-life inside the body • Positron or also known as Positive electron
2. Physical Half-life (Tp) – Half-life outside the or Anti-matter
body • 511 keV or .51MeV Annihilation Radiation
3. Effective Half-life:
3. K-Capture
• Also known as Electron Capture
Nuclear Conditions:
• Too many protons
• Too few neutrons
Modes of Radioactive Decay
1. Beta Minus Process:
• Also known as Negatron Emission • The nucleus captures K-shell electron
Nuclear Conditions:
• Too many neutrons
• Too few protons

Process:
• Neutron becomes proton, which then the
nucleus releases Negatron and Anti-
Neutrino

n0 p+ = e- and v-
• The atom is ionized and the remaining
Biproducts: electrons will move from initial state to final
• Negatron or also known as Electron-like state. This process is called Transposition.
particle • Characteristic X-rays are also released
• Anti-neutrino particle during Transposition
• If a Characteristic X-ray ejects another orbital
2. Beta Plus electron, that electron will be called Auger
• Also known as Positron Emission Electron
• A decay used in Positron Emission
Tomography (PET) Scan Biproducts:
Nuclear Conditions: • Characteristic X-rays and Auger Electrons
• Too many protons
4. Alpha Decay
• Too few neutrons
• Also known as Alpha Particle Emission
• Parent and daughter nuclides must have a
1.02 MeV energy difference • Most dangerous and hazardous type of
decay
Process: Nuclear Conditions:
• Proton becomes neutron, which then the • Too many protons and neutrons or also
nucleus releases Positron and Neutrino known as Heavy Nucleus
• Atomic number must be >82
• Atomic mass must be >150
p+ n0 = e+ and v
Characteristics of an Alpha Particle
• If positron meets an electron, both will 1. Has an approximate energy of 4-7 MeV
collide due to opposite charges and will 2. Can create 40000 Ion pairs per cm
undergo Annihilation 3. Also known as Helium Nuclei, which has 2
protons and 2 neutrons

e+ 💥 e- Process:
• Due to instability, the nucleus of an atom
• Annihilation releases 2 annihilation releases 2 excess protons and 2 excess
radiation in opposite directions which have neutrons, which is equivalent to Helium
an energy of 511 keV each Nuclei

Biproducts:
• Alpha particle
• 40000 Ion pairs per cm**
 5. Gamma Decay Electricity
• Also known as Gamma Emission, Isomeric • Flow of the electrons
Transition, or Reverse Photoelectric Effect • Refers to Electric Current
Nuclear Conditions:
• Extra or Excess energy Electrification
• Refers to the process of transferring energy of
Process: electrons
• The isomeric atom releases excess energy
from nucleus, this energy is called Gamma Methods of Electrification or Inducing Electrical energy
Ray, as result from Atomic Excitation. 1. Friction – Rubbing an object onto another
• If an electron gets ejected from Gamma object
Rays, that electron will be called Conversion ➢ Example is combing of hair
Electron 2. Contact – Where electrons can transfer into
• The atom can ionize itself from the process. another material by touching each other
If there is ionization, there is Transposition 3. Induction – Application of Voltage
• Characteristic X-rays are also released
during Transposition Electrostatic – Stationary
• If a Characteristic X-ray ejects another orbital Electrodynamic – At motion
electron, that electron will be called Auger
Electron Conversion of Electron into Coulomb
1 Electron = 1.6x10-19 Coulomb or C
Biproducts: 1 Coulomb = 6.25x1018 Electron or E
• 140 keV Gamma Rays, Characteristic X-
rays Electric Charge
• Conversion Electron, and Auger Electron • Smallest units of electric charge are Proton and
Electron
Electromagnetic Energy/Radiation • Electric Charge is measured as mAs
• Oscillating waves that travel in the speed or
velocity of light Wave Equations
• Smallest unit of EMR: Photons 1. If it pertains to Vibration or Sound

Properties* and Parameters of EMR

1. Frequency – Rate of rise and fall V=fxλ
Unit: Cycles/sec or C/s or Hertz (Hz)
2. Wavelength – Distance of crest and trough/valley Where:
to another crest and trough/valley V = Velocity or Speed (Given)
Unit: Meters or m f = Frequency
3. Velocity – Rate of movement or motion λ = Wavelength
Unit: Meters per sec or m/s
4. Amplitude* – Halfway measurement from crest-to- 2. If it pertains to EMR
valley/trough

Wave-Particle Duality
c=fxλ
• States that photons interact with matter almost Where:
easily when matter is approximately the same C = Velocity or Speed of Light (Constant)
size as the photon’s wavelength f = Frequency
λ = Wavelength
EMR Interaction to Matter
EM Spectrum Interacts on Behave as Max Planck
1. Gamma Ray Atomic Level: Particle • X-rays are created with the speed of light,
Nucleus or nothing at all.
2. X-ray Atomic Level: Particle • Energy can be related to the parameters of
Orbital Electron EMR as follows:
3. Ultraviolet Molecular Level Particle or 1. Wave, Energy and Frequency
Wave
• Inversely Proportional
4. Visible Light Cellular Level Wave
5. Infrared Tissue Level Wave
6. Microwave Cm in Size Wave
↑ Wave, ↓ Energy and ↓Frequency
7. Radiowave M in Size Wave
2. Energy, and Frequency
EMR Parameter Formula Triangle • Directly Proportional

↑ Energy, ↑ Frequency
 • In order to obtain the energy from a Photon, Max Electric State of Matter
Planck introduced Planck’s Constant 1. Conductor – Requires induction of Voltage, and
obeys Ohm’s Law
Examples:
• Copper (Cu)
or • Aluminum (Al)
2. Insulator – Inhibits or prevents electron flow
Examples:
Where: • Rubber
E = Energy • Glass
h = Planck’s Constant, which can be • Oil
expressed as; 3. Semi-conductor – Depends on state.
➢ 4.15x10-15 eV/s Sometimes conducts, sometimes insulates.
➢ 4.15x10-18 keV/s Generally used in technologies
➢ 6.63x10-34 J/s Examples:
f = Frequency • Silicon (Si)
λ = Wavelength • Germanium (Ge)
c = Speed of Light • Switches
4. Superconductor – No resistance. Does not
Inverse Square Law require induction of voltage, and does not
• The intensity is reduced by half if the distance obey Ohm’s Law. Conducts electricity in cold
has been increased by a square temperatures.
Examples:
• Niobium (Nb)
• Titanium (Ti)

Ohm’s Law
• Doubling the intensity means decreasing the
distance by a multiple of 4

• Squaring the distance means decreasing the

intensity by a multiple of 2

• Intensity and Distance are both Inversely

Proportional
↑ Intensity, ↓ Distance2
Where:
Direct Square Law V = Voltage or A.K.A Potential
• The first quantity is doubled if the second Difference/Electric
quantity has been increased by a square Potential/Electromotive Force
• Directly Proportional or EMF (Volts)
I or A = Electric Current (Amperes)
Examples are: ꭥ or R = Resistance (Ohms)
1. mAs and Distance
1 Volts = 1 Joule per Coulomb or J/c
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb per sec or C/s

Circuit Element Function

Resistor Inhibits electron
flow
Battery Provides voltage
2. Intensity and kVp Capacitor Momentarily or
temporarily stores
charge
Transformer Increases or
decreases voltage
by fixed amount
Diode/Rectifier Allows electron to
Electrostatic Law flow in one direction
1. Unlike charges attract, like charges repel
Inverter Converts Direct
2. Coulomb’s Law
Current to
Alternating Current

Circuits
1. Series Circuit – connected to the same
3. Electrons are distributed equally on a straight
conductor
line
2. Parallel Circuit – connected to the ends
4. Electrons are concentrated on the sharpest
of conductors
curvature
 Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

V1 = 4V A1 = 8A R1 = 0.5ꭥ V1 = 24V A1 = 3A R1 = 8ꭥ
V2 = 8V A2 = 8A R2 = 1ꭥ V2 = 24V A2 = 8A R2 = 3ꭥ
V3 = 12V A3 = 8A R3 = 1.5ꭥ V3 = 24V A3 = 12A R3 = 2ꭥ
Vt = 24V At = 8A Rt = 3ꭥ Vt = 24V At = 23A Rt = 1.0438ꭥ

Solutions: Solutions:
1. For computing voltages 1. All voltages are equal in parallel circuit
V = A x R or I x R Vt = V1 = V2 = V3
V1 = 8A x 0.5ꭥ = 4V
V2 = 8A x 1ꭥ = 8V 2. For computing amperes
V3 = 8A x 1.5ꭥ = 12V A = V ÷ ꭥ or V ÷ R
For total voltage output A1 = 24V ÷ 3ꭥ = 8A
Vt = V1 + V2 + V3 A2 = 24V ÷ 8ꭥ = 3A
= 4V + 8V + 12V A3 = 24V ÷ 2ꭥ = 12A
= 24V For total ampere output
At = A1 + A2 + A3
2. All amperes or currents are equal in = 8A + 3A + 2A
series circuit = 23A
At = A1 = A2 = A3
3. For computing ohms or resistance
3. For computing ohms or resistance R = V ÷ A or V ÷ I
R = V ÷ A or V ÷ I
R1 = 4A ÷ 8V = 0.5ꭥ 1/R1 = 24V ÷ 3A = 8ꭥ
R2 = 8A ÷ 8V = 1ꭥ 1/R2 = 24V ÷ 8A = 3ꭥ
R3 = 12A ÷ 8V = 1.5ꭥ 1/R3 = 24V ÷ 12A = 2ꭥ
For total resistance output
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 Then make it as a fraction
= 0.5ꭥ + 1ꭥ + 1.5ꭥ 1/R1 = 8
= 3ꭥ 1
1/R2 = 3
1
1/R3 = 2
1

Then reciprocal the fractions

R1 = 1
8
R2 = 1
3
R3 = 1
2

Then divide the reciprocal fractions

R1 = 1 ÷ 8 = 0.125ꭥ
R2 = 1 ÷ 3 = 0.333ꭥ
R3 = 1 ÷ 2 = 0.5ꭥ

For total resistance output

1/Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
= 0.125ꭥ + 0.333ꭥ + 0.5ꭥ
= 0.958ꭥ

Then make it as fraction

1/Rt = 0.958ꭥ
1

Then reciprocal the fraction

Rt = __1__
0.958

Then divide the reciprocal fraction

Rt = 1 ÷ 0.958 = 1.0438ꭥ
 Electric Current 3. Electromagnets
Direct Current/DC • Temporary magnet which requires electron
• Electrons flow to only one direction flow

Alternating Current/AC/60Hz Current

• Electrons oscillate from negative to positive,
back and forth and vice versa

Rectifier
• Changes electron flow specifically from AC to
DC

Inverter
• Changes electron flow specifically, from DC to
AC

Rectification Faraday’s Law of Magnetism

• Process of changing AC to DC 1. Different poles attract, same poles repel
2. Rule of dipoles: smaller pieces = smaller
Electrical Power magnets
• Rate of electrical energy transferred by an electrical 3. 1 Tesla = 10000 Gauss
circuit
• Measured in Watts or W Michael Faraday
• 1 Watt = 1 Joules per sec • Stated that magnets cannot create or induce
energy unless it is moved.
• Utilized dynamo
• Established Law of Electromagnetic Induction
1. First law states that any change in magnetic
flux, will induce electromotive force.
2. Second law states that the magnitude of
Where: electromotive force that is induced in a coil,
P or W = Power rating or Watts is directly proportional to the rate of change
A or I = Ampere or Current of magnetic flux associated with that coil
V = Voltage • Invented generator
• Where voltage is I x R or A x R
Hans Oersted
Magnetism • Discovered that electricity can create magnetism
• Polarization of a metal
• A metal that has north and south poles Motor
• When electrons are in motion, it creates • Converts energy from Electrical to Mechanical
magnetism
Electric Generators
Magnetite • Converts energy from Mechanical to Electrical or
• Magnetic Oxide Electrical to Mechanical
• Most natural
➢ Example: Lodestones
Lenz’s Law
Magnetic Domain • Introduced by Heinrich Lenz
• Magnetic dipoles are aligned • He stated that “The direction of induced current
➢ Example: Nucleus of an Atom opposes the current that induced it”
• Right hand rule;
Magnetic Dipole ➢ Thumb – Direction of Current
• If a magnetic material has North and South ➢ Fingers – Direction of Magnetic Flux
poles

Magnetic Moment
• When atoms are aligned, it creates nuclear
magnetic dipoles

Magnetic Permeability
• Ability to attract

Magnetic Susceptibility
• Ability to be attracted

Classification of Magnets
1. Natural magnets
• Naturally occurring magnets
➢ Lodestones
2. Artificial or Manmade magnets
• Created by man
➢ Neodymium Magnets
 Magnetic States of Matter Turns Ratio
1. Non-magnetic – Does not attract to a magnet
• Wood, Glass
2. Ferromagnetic – Possible or high chance of
attraction to a magnet
• Iron, AlNiCo Alloy
Ns
3. Paramagnetic – Weakly attracted to a magnet
• Gadolinium
4. Diamagnetic – Weakly repels from a magnet
Np
• Water, Plastic Determines if the transformer is step-up or step-down
by the following values;
Transformer Law • If the Turns Ratio is Greater than 1, the
transformer is Step-Up type
• If the Turns Ratio is Less than 1, the
transformer is Step-Down type

Types of Energy Power or Transformer Losses

1. Copper Loss – Results from high resistance
Where: 2. Hysteresis Loss – Lagging of AC
Np = Primary Coil or Turn Magnetization due to long usage (most
Ns = Secondary Coil or Turn common type of transformer loss)
Vp = Primary Voltage 3. Eddy-current Loss – Caused by opposing
Vs = Secondary Voltage currents
The relationship between number of coils or turns is Variation and Constructions of Transformer
Directly Proportional with the voltage 1. Air-core Transformer – consists of 2 solenoids
And

Where:
2. Open-core Transformer – consists of 2
Np = Primary Coil or Turn electromagnets
Ns = Secondary Coil or Turn
I1 = Primary Current or Ampere
I2 = Secondary Current or Ampere

The relationship between the number of coils or

turns is Inversely Proportional with the current or
ampere.

Types of Transformers
1. Step-up Transformer – Secondary Coils or Turns 3. Closed-core Transformer – Doughnut-shaped
are greater than Primary Coils or Turns

Np < Ns = High Voltage

2. Step-down transformer – Primary Coils or Turns
are greater than Secondary Coils or Turns

Np > Ns = Low Voltage

4. Shell-type transformer – Most commonly
used
 5. Autotransformer – A type of transformer that is ➢ Cathode – Negative Side
used in X-ray Machines, which has different • Focusing Cup – Stainless Steel Material
taps, with specific amount of kVp • Filaments – Made up of Thoriated
Tungsten; 1-2% Thorium, 99% Tungsten
✓ Long Filament
✓ Short Filament
✓ 0.3mm Length for Magnification
✓ 0.5 – 1.00mm for Bony Structures
✓ 1.00mm – 2.00mm Usual length

2. Operating Console – used to control Voltage

(kVp), Current (mAs), and Exposure time (s)

• Transformers only operate in Alternating Current,

not in Direct Current

Capacitor
• Stores charge temporarily/momentarily
• Acts like a battery, but does not conduct electricity

3. High Voltage Generator – Consist of kVp

Selector, and Auto-transformer

X-ray Machine Diagram

Components of X-ray Imaging

1. X-ray Tube

➢ Anode – Positive Side

• Tungsten-Rhenium Alloy – Target Material
✓ Tungsten – 3410oC Melting Point,
Atomic Number 74, good for
producing Characteristic X-rays
• Anode Angle – 12o Most commonly used
angle
✓ Greater Angle – More space to
dissipate/distribute heat in the anode Kilovoltage Peak
✓ Lesser Angle – Higher anode heel • Kilovoltage ranges from 30-150 kVp
effect • Characteristic X-rays require 70 kVp to produce
• Rotating Motor/Rotor – Copper Material 69 keV X-rays in K-Shell, 12 keV X-rays in L-
• Stator Shell
• If the initial kVp is greater than 100 kVp, it will
result into 15% Characteristic X-ray, and 120%
Bremsstrahlung X-rays
• Most of Diagnostic X-rays result from
Bremsstrahlung X-rays, however, contrast and
density are produced by Characteristic X-rays
 To obtain or get the kVp: 4. mAs Timer/Automatic Exposure Control/Phototimer
• An electronic timer that terminates the
kVp = Patient Thickness (in cm) x2 + mc exposure when the desired mAs
threshold is attained.
• Provides highest safe mAs and the
Where: shortest exposure time
• Patient Thickness - A device called caliper
is used to obtain the thickness of the
patient, measured in centimeters (cm)
• mc = Machine Constant, can be 10, 20, 30,
40, or 50

Exposure Timer
• Used to control the amount of exposure of radiation
Location(s) can be;
➢ Between Auto-transformer and Step-up
Transformer
➢ On the primary circuit or the primary side of
High Voltage Transformer
➢ Between Auto-Transformer and High Spinning Top Test
Voltage Transformer • To test and QA the accuracy of exposure
timers, a spinning top device is placed, spun,
Types of Exposure Timer and exposed.
1. Mechanical Timer
• Least efficient type that is only used in few
portable and dental X-ray Units.
• Has spring action and works like oven timer.
• Inexpensive and Inaccurate
• ¼ or 0.25s Shortest Exposure Time
➢ Self-rectified or Half-wave
➢ 60 Pulse per sec
➢ Full wave
➢ 120 Pulse per sec

Spinning Top Formula

ms x 60 or 120
2. Synchronous Timer
• Second most inefficient type of timer Where:
• 1/60 or 0.17s Shortest Exposure Time • ms - timer count in milliseconds
• 60 or 20 - Pulse constant

Voltage Waveforms
1. Single phase – Worse quality, cannot be used
for series imaging. Has a voltage ripple of
100%. Which means, an induced 100 kVp,
from 1-100 kVp Xrays will be released.

3. Electronic Timer
• Most Efficient, most sophisticated, most 2. 3 Phase 6 Pulse – Has a voltage ripple of
accurate/reliable and mostly used type of 14%. Which means, an induced 100 kVp, from
exposure timer 86-100 kvP Xrays will be released
• 1/1000 or 0.001s Shortest Exposure Time
3. 3 Phase 12 Pulse – Has a voltage ripple of 4%. Saturation Current
Which means, an induced 100 kVp, from 96-100 • Also known as Maximum tube current where the
kVp Xrays will be released filament current reaches its maximum state

Tungsten Evaporation
• Most common cause of tube failure

Anode Pitting
4. High Frequency – Most efficient, DC-like. Has a • Happens when an exposure has been made from
voltage ripple of <1%. Which means, an induced maximum factors such max kVp and max mAs
100 kVp, 99-100 kVp Xrays will be released.
Molybdenum
• Has a melting point of 2,600o C

Glass Envelope
• Made up of Pyrex or Borosillicate Glass – in
conventional radiography
Power Rating of Xray Machine • Metallic Beryllium - in Mammography
• Measured in kW

For Single Phase: Line Focus Principle

0.7 x mA x kVp or 0.7 x Watts

1000 1000

For Three Phase:

mA x kVp or Watts
1000 1000
X-ray Tube Housing
• It is said that X-ray emissions are isotropic or in
180o or emits in any direction, which, the X-ray
Tube Housing is to prevent leakage radiation • Both aspects of actual and effective focal
• Made up of Stainless Steel spots are met such as large effective focal
spot and small effective focal spot
• The cylinder in which the X-ray Tube is submerged
in oil called Diala Oil or Dielectric Oil, which
absorbs the heat emitted by the X-ray Tube. • Smallest effective focal spot is safer for the
tube and much better in giving the best
X-ray Leakage Radiation resolution for small details but adds to the
patient dose
• X-ray Leakage must not exceed
➢ 1 mGy per hour at 1 meter
➢ 100 mR per hour at 1 meter Heat Units
Filtration
• Primary function is to Reduce Patient Dose by HU = kVp x mA x S
absorbing Low Energy X-rays, making the beam
harder.
1. Inherent Filtration – Built-in. Consists of Glass or
window and envelope
• 0.5mm Aluminum Equivalent
2. Added Filtration – Protective Housing, HU = kVp x mAs
Collimator, Compensating Filters
3. Total Filtration – Inherent + Added
Added: For Single Phase:
• If less than 50 kVp, use 0.5mm
Aluminum Equivalent HU = 1.00 x kVp x mAs
• If around 50-70 kVp, use 1.5mm
Aluminum Equvalent For 3 Phase 6 Pulse:
• If greater than 70 kVp, use 2.5mm
Aluminum Equivalent HU = 1.35 x kVp x mAs
Thermionic Emission For 3 Phase 12 Pulse:
• Process of emission of electrons in the focusing
cup due to accumulation of high electric
potential HU = 1.41 x kVp x mAs
Space Charge Effect For High Frequency:
• A phenomenon of space charge that prevents
more electrons from being emitted away from HU = 1.45 x kVp x mAs
filament due to electrostatic law of repulsion
 Types of Radiation Production To calculate the energy released by Compton
1. Coherent Scattering – Radiation interaction to Scattering:
atom without changing the atom.

Also known as:

Ei = Es(EB + Eke)
• Classical – Because of excitation
• Unmodified – No change to the atom Where:
• Elastic – Incident ray energy is still Ei - Intensity of Energy
the same Es - Energy of the Scatter Xray
EB – Electron Binding Energy
Energy Required: <10 keV or less than 10 kEv Eke – Kinetic Energy of Electron

Types of Coherent Scattering:

A. Thompson – Electron Excitation 3. Photoelectric Effect – Radiation interaction,
where Characteristic X-rays are formed

Also known as:

• Total Absorption – the incident ray energy is
fully absorbed
• All-or-nothing effect – if the incident ray
energy is not absorbed, there is no
ionization
• The incident ray strikes and excites the
orbital electron, where the incident ray Energy Required: 30-150 keV
changes direction

B. Rayleigh – Atomic Excitation

• The incident ray strikes and excites the

whole atom, where the incident ray changes
direction

2. Compton Scattering – Radiation interaction • The incident ray strikes and ejects the inner
where there is ionization of atom and orbital or K-shell electron, which is now
scattering of photon and electron called Photoelectron.
• The ejection of photoelectron will cause
Also known as: other orbital electrons to fill the gaps, or to
• Unclassical – there is no excitation move from initial state to final state. This
• Modified – The atom is ionized process is called Transposition
• Inelastic – The incident photon energy is • Characteristic X-rays are produced during
changed Transposition
• Partial Absorption – the incident photon is • If another orbital electron is ejected from
absorbed, then ejects an electron and Characteristic X-rays, the electron is now
photon called Auger Electron

Energy Required: 30-150 keV To calculate the energy released by Photoelectric

Effect:

Ei = EB + Eke
Where:
Ei - Intensity of Energy
EB – Electron Binding Energy
Eke – Kinetic Energy of Electron
• The incident ray strikes the outer orbital
electron, which is now called Compton or 4. Pair Production – Radiation interaction where there
Recoil or Secondary or Inelastic Electron is production of 2 contradicting particles.
Opposite of the Annihilation. This is also proved
• Scattered X-ray retains the most energy Einstein’s theory of General Relativity (E = mc2)

By products: According to Albert Einstein: “Matter and energy

• Scattered photon cannot be created nor destroyed. But matter can
• Compton/Recoil/Secondary/Inelastic be converted into energy and energy can be
Electron converted into matter.”

Energy required: 1.02 MeV

 • The incident photon with an energy of 1.02
MeV intercepts Nuclear Field, then gets
absorbed by the Nucleus. This will convert
the Nucleus into Heavy State. • The accelerating projectile electron with an
• The Heavy Nucleus releases 2 contradicting energy, high and sufficient enough to
particles: penetrate into the nuclear field suddenly
➢ Negatron or Electron-like particle brakes or stops then changes direction.
➢ Positron or Positive Electron or
Antimatter • During the stoppage and the changing of
• Due to difference in charge, Positron can direction, the projectile electron gives off 2
collide with other freely floating electrons photons with different energies in opposing
and this will result into destruction of 2 directions:
particles. This process is called Annihilation ➢ High-energy bremsstrahlung radiation
• Annihilation will produce two annihilation ➢ Low-energy bremsstrahlung radiation
radiations in opposing directions, each with an
energy of 511 keV or 0.51 MeV X-ray Beam Intensities
• Going back to Einstein’s statements “the matter Useful X-ray Beam intensity - 45%
can be converted into energy” in the process Central X-ray Beam intensity - 100%
of annihilation, and “energy can be converted
into matter” in the process of interception of Anode Heel Effect
radiation to Nuclear Field of an atom • The intensity of X-ray beam is greater in the
Cathode Side than to the Anode Side because of
4. Photodisintegration – A radiation interaction the Anode Angle.
where there is destruction of the Nucleus of an
atom. Cathode side X-ray Beam Intensity: 120%
Anode Side X-ray Beam Intensity: 75%
Also known as: X-ray Beam difference: 45%
• Total Absorption – The energy is fully
absorbed by the nucleus Half-Value Layer
• Amount of thickness of the target to reduce the
Energy required: >10 MeV or Greater than 10 MeV beam intensity into half.

Tenth-Value Layer
• Amount of thickness of the target to reduce the
beam intensity into 1/10
• Tenth-Value Layer is equivalent to 3.3 Half-Value
Layer

X-ray Emission in Radiography

• In 100% of X-ray Exposure, 99% of it is converted
into Heat, and 1% is Converted into X-rays
• The Incident radiation with an energy
greater than 10 MeV strikes the nucleus, 1% of X-rays
then absorbs it, then the nucleus releases • 10-30% are Characteristic X-rays, which
Nuclear Fragments as result of instability have specific energy of 69 keV in K-Shell,
and energy of 12 keV in L-Shell
• This is the type of radiation interaction that • 70-90% are Bremsstrahlung X-rays, which
is happening in LINAC in Radiation has an energy ranging from 0-50 keV
Therapy

5. Bremsstrahlung Scattering – A special type of

radiation interaction. The term Bremsstrahlung
came from 2 German words Brems which
means “to brake” and Strahlung which means
“radiation”

Energy required: 30-150 keV